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Final - Training Notes
Final - Training Notes
STUDIES
KeNHA TRAINING SUMMARY REPORT
Abstract
Prepared by APEC CONSORTIUM AND RUNJI
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology......................................................2
2. Data Collection and Review...............................................................................2
2.1. Desktop study:...................................................................................................................3
2.2. Key highlights in desktop study...................................................................................3
2.3. Field study......................................................................................................................5
3. Precipitation........................................................................................................5
3.1. Rainfall characteristics.................................................................................................6
3.1.1. Volume-Duration-Frequency..................................................................................................7
3.1.2. Frequency...................................................................................................................................7
3.1.3. Intensity-Duration-Frequency................................................................................................8
3.2. Hydrograph.....................................................................................................................8
3.2.1. Rainfall manifestation............................................................................................................10
Y
Table 3-1:Correlation of intensity duration and depth................................................................8
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
Table 3-2:Exceedance probability against Return period............................................................8
DTM/DEM software for filling gaps in the topographical characteristic of the catchment
areas and analysis of the sub-watershed based on terrain modelling.
Mean monthly rainfall. This is used to determine the longest and driest period and is
used to estimate storage requirements and to select the best time to schedule
construction activities. Median monthly rainfall, being less influenced by extremes,
can also be used.
24-hr rainfall data (monthly extreme) from meteorological stations in the proximity of
established watersheds
Daily river gauge data from the Water Resources Authority (WRA) stations on rivers in
the study area.
Soil characteristics and catchment properties are additionally assessed from published
data (Ref. National Atlas of Kenya 1991), SoK topographical maps, geological maps
from the Mines and Geology Department, farm management handbooks of Kenya,
publication from Ministry of Agriculture and County Integrated Development Plan
(CIDP).
The Rainfall Frequency Atlas of Kenya (Ministry of Water Development, 1978) provides
rainfall duration-frequency (RDF) maps for the whole of Kenya for different
combinations of storm duration and return periods. These maps are essential where
the time of concentration is significantly less than 24 hours, which is the case for small
catchments.
o Area in km2.
o Length of longest water course in km;
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
o Catchment slopes - A simple classification follows - flat (0 -1%), undulating (1-4%),
rolling (4-10%), hilly (10-20%) and mountainous > 20% will generally suffice;
o Slope of longest watercourse.
o Land Use zoning
– Urban development
– Bare uncultivated soil
– Intensive cultivation
– Grassland
– Forest
Particular attention is given to the land use in the valley bottoms if it differs from the
surrounding areas, principally if it is dense vegetation or swampy it indicates that an
increased roughness coefficient is to be used in analysis.
Flood models are then selected and flood computations carried out based on the observed
catchments characteristics. From the results, proposed sizes for the new structures are
made based on the hydraulic performance and geological condition.
Site condition surveys are carried out to ascertain land uses, soils types, and to
appreciate and compare the site conditions to the desk study. In addition, assessment
of the possible magnitude of the flood marks along the alignment under study and the
positioning of proposed structures is also identified at an early stage.
The runoff potential of the catchment can change dramatically during the life of a
drainage structure. It is important to make enquiries regarding any future plans to
develop urban areas, drain swamps clear forested areas or any other changes.
Questionnaires on the river regime assist the designer to get more insight when
proposing a suitable hydraulic structure.
3. Precipitation
Rainfall is the driving force of most hydrological events. Design needs arise when and
where rainfall occurs at extreme volumes or rates. High rates of rainfall on small urban
watersheds often cause flooding of streets and parking lots because drainage facilities are
not usually designed to drain all of the water generated by high rainfall intensities. High
rainfall rates can also damage crops.
The absence of rain over long periods of time reduces the rate of flow in streams and
rivers, as well as causing lake levels to decline sharply. Low streamflow rates due to the
lack of rain can damage stream habitat as well as reduce the capacity of the stream to
assimilate wastes discharged into the stream.
The decline of lake levels can reduce the recreational capacity of a lake, as well as reduce
the water available for power generation and irrigation. Excessive moisture from low-
intensity, long-duration storms can create plant stress, thus limiting the growth of crops.
It should be evident that problems can occur from extremes in rainfall, with the extremes
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
in either the rate, the duration, or the time interval between storms. Some hydrologic
planning and design problems only require a volume of rainfall.
However, for purposes of hydrologic analysis and design, the distribution of rain with
respect to time is usually required; the time distribution of rainfall is called a hyetograph.
A hyetograph is a graph of the rainfall intensity or volume as a function of time.
3.1.1. Volume-Duration-Frequency.
The characteristics must be identified in either assessing an actual storm or developing a
design storm. The following three characteristics are very important in hydrologic analysis
and design:
3.1.2. Frequency.
Just as intensity, duration, and volume are interdependent, the fourth concept,
frequency, is also a necessary determinant. Frequency can be discussed in terms of either
the exceedance probability or the return period, which are defined as follows:
Exceedance probability: probability that an event having a specified depth and duration
will be exceeded in one time period, which is most often assumed to be one year.
Return period: the average length of time between events having the same depth and
duration.
The exceedance probability (p) and return period (T) are related by the formulae below:
P=1/T
Example:
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
Table 3-:Exceedance probability against Return period
T(yrs) P
5 0.2
10 0.1
25 0.04
50 0.02
75 0.0133
100 0.01
If a storm of a specified duration and depth has a 1% chance of occurring in any one year,
it has an exceedance probability of 0.01 and a return period of 100 years. This implies that
storm events occur deterministically rather than randomly, because storm events occur
randomly, there is a finite probability that the 100-yr event could occur in two
consecutive years, or not at all in a period of 500 years. Thus the exceedance probability
concept is preferred by many. However, engineers commonly use the term return period,
and its meaning should be properly understood.
3.1.3. Intensity-Duration-Frequency
An intensity-duration-frequency curve (IDF curve) is a mathematical function that relates
the rainfall intensity with its duration and frequency of occurrence. These curves are
commonly used flood forecasting in hydrology.
3.2. Hydrograph
It is a graph showing the rate of flow (Discharge) against time past a specific point in a
river or channel carrying flow. It can also be referred to as a graph showing volume of
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
water reaching a particular outfall
Descriptions:
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
o Rising Limb: also known as concentration curve, reflects a prolonged
increase in discharge from a catchment area, typically in response to a
rainfall event.
o Falling limb- it is the recession limb that extends from the peak flow rate
onwards to the end of storm flow and the return to ground water. This
phase represents the withdrawal of storage built up in the basin.
o Lag time – The time interval from the centre of mass rainfall excess to the
peak of the resulting hydrograph.
The hydrograph analysis measures rainfall and runoff data to obtain an estimate of the
transfer function. Once the transfer function has been developed it can be used with
design storm and measured rainfall to compute the runoff that would be expected. The
resulting runoff hydrograph could then be used for design purposes.
The rainfall manifestation is separated into three time-dependent functions:
Station-average method -is the simplest to apply; however, when the rain gauges
are not uniformly dispersed throughout the watershed, the station-average method
may not yield to areal average rainfall that reflects the actual spatial distribution
of rainfall. For such cases, a method that can account for the non-homogeneity of
the rain gage locations would provide a more accurate estimate of the actual
rainfall depth.
Theissen Polygon Method – this assigns weights to the rain gauges according to the
proportions of the total watershed area that are geographically closest to each of
the rain gages.
The isohyetal method – This is the most accurate than the other methods. This
weights the catch at each of the rain gauges according to the watershed area that
is physically associated with the catch of the rain gauge.
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
Standard deviation:
σlogx = √ {∑ (log X – log Xav)2}/n-1
A flood of magnitude X with probability r is then computed as:
Log Xr = (log X) av + K σlogx
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
where K is the Frequency Factor for the Pearson Type III.
The value of a flood of magnitude X with a return period of T years is given by:
X = Xav + σ yT,
where: Xav is the mean of the series being considered
σ– is the standard deviation of the data series
yT = -ln { -ln (1 – 1/T)} = value of return period T in standardized,
parameter free EV1 distribution {YT = ln (T – ½) for T > 5
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
Statistical analysis
This method requires daily peak river gauge measurements over a number of years.
Empirical Methods
These methods use envelope curves to express floods as a function of catchment area. The
methods include the Creager method and Francou-Rodier method. These methods are
often applied to larger catchments where other methods fail.
Deterministic methods
These methods derive floods from catchment rainfall and include the following:
o Rational method: This is the oldest method in existence, and despite criticism it is still
widely applied due to its simplicity.
The following variations have been utilized over the recent years:
The TRRL East African Flood Model was developed by the UK Transport and Road Research
Laboratory on the basis of rainfall / runoff studies for a range of selected East African
catchments. The method is commonly applied to catchments of up to 200km 2. The model
is made up of two parts, a linear reservoir model and a flood model, as follows:
The linear reservoir part of the model describes the land phase of the flood cycle.
This is the time between the rainfall reaching the ground and the water entering
the stream system.
The flood routing part of the model routes the flood down the watercourse to the
catchment outfall. The model assumes that a storm rainfall of a given return
period results in a peak flood of equal return period.
The application of the model requires the selection of a range of parameters for each
catchment which include:
Standard contributing area coefficient, Cs - the standard runoff factor for a wet zone
grassed catchment. The coefficient varies with soil type and average catchment slope.
The land use factor, CL - this factor adjusts the runoff factor according to land usage
relative to a catchment with short grass cover.
The catchment wetness factor, Cw - a measure of the antecedent wetness of the
catchment.
Lag time, k - the time for the recession curve of outflow from a linear reservoir to fall
to one third of its initial value. This parameter is strongly dependent on the vegetation
cover.
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
Details of standard coefficients and formulae used in this flood model are detailed in the
TRRL publications.
Intensity of rainfall
Short duration rainfall data is not readily available and a model has been developed to
calculate the intensity of rainfall. The intensity of rainfall, for use in flood prediction is
calculated using the TRRL Laboratory Report 623 “The Prediction of Storm Rainfall in East
Africa”. The equation used for calculation of the rainfall intensity ‘I’ is given below:
The areal reduction factor for each catchment is calculated using the following equation:
The run-off coefficient ‘C’ is estimated on the basis of three factors, namely; slope of
catchment, permeability of soil and vegetation. With this input data and the design storm
rainfall, the run-off volume is calculated by the standard formula relating flow with run-
off coefficient, peak rainfall intensity and the contributing catchment area.
The widely adopted Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Method is outlined below:
a) The time of concentration of the unit hydrograph is determined using Kirpich
formula.
D = 2(TC)0.5
Where: D = Storm duration in hrs.
c) Determine the excess rainfall which results in runoff:
NRCS (SCS) runoff equation is used to estimate direct runoff from a 24-hour storm
event. The equation is:
Q = (P – 0.2S) 2 / (P + 0.8S) (2-11)
Where:
Q = total runoff volume for the specified storm event, in inches
P = rainfall volume for the specified storm event, in inches from Table 2-2.
S = potential maximum retention after runoff begins, in inches and is
defined by the following equation:
S = (1000/CN) – 10 (2-12)
Where:
Initial Abstractions (Ia) are all losses in the watershed before runoff begins. These
abstractions include water retained in surface depressions, water intercepted by
vegetation, evaporation and infiltration. Ia is highly variable but is generally
correlated with soil and cover parameters. Through the study of many small
agricultural watersheds, Ia is approximated by the following empirical equation:
Ia =0.2S
The CN number is selected according to the soil, moisture and land cover of the drainage
area.
Based on the US SCS dimensionless hydrograph, the unit peak discharge for the basin area
is then obtained from established model curve/graphs and the flood discharge for a
particular return period is computed an expression that relates the flood flow with peak
discharge, basin catchment area and flood growth rate factor for various return periods.
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
Runoff can be described as that portion of precipitation that makes its way toward stream
channels, lakes, or oceans as surface flow. Surface runoff is the primary cause of soil
erosion and also causes flooding. Flood runoff amounts and peak discharges are required
for the design of most conservation structural measures.
There are three major types of runoff' depending on the source: surface flow, interflow,
and base flow.
5.2. Interflow
Interflow is water that has entered the upper soil profile and then moves laterally
through the soil profile and reappears as surface flow at a downstream point. The
lateral flow is caused by a relatively impervious zone that prevents further downward
movement. Interflow may be a significant part of total direct runoff under certain soil,
geological and land use conditions. It is common in forested areas on moderate or
steep slopes with permeable soils of moderate depth over bedrock. The forest and
ground litter provide high infiltration for water to enter the soil, and the slope
provides the energy for lateral flow.
Significant amounts of interflow are not common in cultivated soils on small
watersheds and are usually not considered in SCS methods of estimating runoff.
Interflow may return to the surface so quickly that it is not possible to separate
surface flow and interflow.
For open channels, the geomorphology of natural channels concerns their shape and
structure. Natural channels are of irregular shape, varying from approximately parabolic
to approximately trapezoidal (Chow, 1959).
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
Depth, y
Area, A
Wetted perimeter, P
Top width, T
Hydraulic Radius, Rh = Area / Wetted perimeter
Hydraulic Depth, Dh = Area / Top width
Manning’s equation is used to relate the average channel (conduit) velocity to energy loss,
Sf = hf/L.
Manning’s equation with metric units, i.e. m, s, is as follows:
For purposes of ensuring that the hydraulic opening of the existing or proposed structure is
sufficient, flood flow velocities are computed and the respective Froude Number
established.
The Froude number, Fr, is a dimensionless value that describes different flow regimes of
open channel flow. The Froude number is a ratio of inertial and gravitational forces, which
is dependent on both the flow velocity and hydraulic opening. It can be simplified as
follows:
Giving,
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
Where:
V = Water velocity
D = Hydraulic depth (cross sectional area of flow / top width)
g = Gravity
When:
Fr = 1, critical flow,
Fr > 1, supercritical flow (fast rapid flow), possessing excess flow energy which
may be abrasive, causing damage by scouring
Fr < 1, subcritical flow (slow/tranquil flow)
The proposed hydraulic structures comprising bridges, boxes or pipe culverts are normally
standardized for ease of development. These also consider some minimal channel
realignment works where recommended, because efforts towards interference to natural
courses are usually not sustainable and also require substantial effort/cost. However,
appropriate considerations are made for protection of the proposed structures both
upstream and downstream.
With regard to free-board, a 0.5m allowance is normally incorporated for all new box
culverts, and 1.0m for all bridges at the main crossings.
For locations with notable high flood flow velocities with erosive capabilities, flow energy
dissipation structural provision such as rip-rap stone pitching, stilling basins incorporating
stilling blocks and other flood flow attenuation devices are usually
considered/recommended.
Where low-lying sections of the proposed study alignment coincides with drainage
crossings, it may be deemed necessary to elevate/raise the road surface/vertical
alignment in order to accommodate the new proposed hydraulic structures in a functional
purpose as intended. The proposed elevation height depends on the proposed opening of
hydraulic structures, minimum cover above structures requirements and also maintaining
adequate allowance of maximum water level below road surface level during floods.