HYDROLOGY & HYDRAULIC

STUDIES
KeNHA TRAINING SUMMARY REPORT

Abstract
Prepared by APEC CONSORTIUM AND RUNJI
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building

Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology......................................................2
2. Data Collection and Review...............................................................................2
2.1. Desktop study:...................................................................................................................3
2.2. Key highlights in desktop study...................................................................................3
2.3. Field study......................................................................................................................5
3. Precipitation........................................................................................................5
3.1. Rainfall characteristics.................................................................................................6
3.1.1. Volume-Duration-Frequency..................................................................................................7
3.1.2. Frequency...................................................................................................................................7
3.1.3. Intensity-Duration-Frequency................................................................................................8

3.2. Hydrograph.....................................................................................................................8
3.2.1. Rainfall manifestation............................................................................................................10

3.3. Rainfall distribution....................................................................................................10

3.4. Precipitation frequency analysis...............................................................................11
3.4.1. Log-Pearson Type III Distribution........................................................................................11
3.4.2. Extreme Value Type 1 (Gumbel Type 1 Distribution)....................................................12

4. Methods of Flood Estimation...........................................................................13

4.1. East African Flood Model (TRRL)...............................................................................13
4.2. Modified Rational Formula (Richard’s).....................................................................14
4.3. The SCS Curve Number Method.................................................................................16
4.3.1. In Summary...............................................................................................................................19

5. Run-off Concepts, Curve and Computation...................................................20

5.1. Surface flow..................................................................................................................20
5.2. Interflow........................................................................................................................20
5.3. Base flow.......................................................................................................................20
6. Determination of Hydraulic Opening using Manning’s Formula.................21

Figure 2-1:Delineation of watershed.................................................................................................................4

Figure 2-2:Sub-catchments amalgamation.......................................................................................................5
Figure 3-1:2-year 24-hour storm rainfall (mm) - hyetograph........................................................................7
Figure 3-2: IDF curve............................................................................................................................................9
Figure 3-3: Unit Hydrograph..............................................................................................................................10
Figure 3-4:Hypothetical watershed for calculating weighted average rainfall.......................................12
Figure 4-1: Run-off coefficient frequency factors........................................................................................16
Figure 4-2: Coefficient for run off...................................................................................................................16
Figure 4-3: Curve Number coefficients...........................................................................................................19

Y
Table 3-1:Correlation of intensity duration and depth................................................................8
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
Table 3-2:Exceedance probability against Return period............................................................8

1. Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology

Hydrology can be described as the study of water on the Earth’s surface and beneath the
surface of the Earth, the occurrence and movement of water, the physical and chemical
properties of water, and its relationship with the living and material components of the
environment.
It is not an exact science per se, but utilises a statistical assessment (empirical method,
deterministic methods) approach based on probabilities of occurrences, with incidences of
drought and floods varying in response to rainfall and catchment conditions, as well as
being subject to several known climatic cycles and the uncertain impact of long-term
climatic change.
Whereas long term records assist in the estimation of the magnitude of floods,
conventional statistical methods do not accommodate the changes affecting run-off,
significant changes in land use and long-term climatic changes.
In contrast, hydraulics is an exact science because water follows the path of least
resistance, with the only challenge being to ensure that this path and the boundary
conditions are identified so that the factors and coefficients used for calculation can be
validated. The challenge in river hydraulics arises during peak flows when the storm
overruns the existing channel topping the river banks (River Gauging stations).
Therefore, the purpose of a hydrological study is to establish the hydrological
characteristics and flood flows at determined crossings, which in turn guide in sizing
appropriate drainage structures that offer adequate hydraulic capacity with controlled
outfall to limit further scour and destruction of property during peak flows.
In hydrology, the design flood is of interest in coming up with a predictive model. Any flow
which is relatively high and which overtops the natural or artificial banks in any reach of a
river may be called a flood.
Floods are produced when the capacity of the river channel is inadequate to carry off the
high quantity of water arising from heavy rainfall causing the river to overflow its banks
and inundate the surrounding low-lying areas (the flood plain).
Since the flood plain is a desirable location for man and his activities, it is important that
the floods be controlled from upstream so that the damage does not exceed acceptable
limits. Reservoirs, attenuation dams, levees or guide banks, channel improvements, etc.
are some of the flood control measures.
Despite the progresses in engineering practice and management approach, flood
mitigation continues to constitute a major challenge in both advanced and developing
countries. In particular, current climate change predictions and increasing exploitation of
floodplains suggest that extended areas in the future will experience a greater frequency
of flooding.
For an economic and efficient design of these measures, floods are to be estimated with
reasonable accuracy. Design of culverts, road and rail bridges, drainage works and
irrigation diversion works, also require reliable estimates of the floods at the site of
interest
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building

2. Data Collection and Review

In undertaking a hydrological study of an area, various data are sourced in the following
manner:

2.1. Desktop study:

The data is gathered (where available) and reviewed:

 Catchment delineation is generally defined on contoured topographic maps.

Catchment shape is also noted. A simple shape index is to divide the area by the length
of the main channel. 1:50,000 topographical contour maps are sourced from the Survey
of Kenya (SoK).

 Latest aerial satellite imagery of the catchment area(s) – to establish settlement

proportion for land use factor.

 DTM/DEM software for filling gaps in the topographical characteristic of the catchment
areas and analysis of the sub-watershed based on terrain modelling.

 Mean monthly rainfall. This is used to determine the longest and driest period and is
used to estimate storage requirements and to select the best time to schedule
construction activities. Median monthly rainfall, being less influenced by extremes,
can also be used.

 24-hr rainfall data (monthly extreme) from meteorological stations in the proximity of
established watersheds

 Daily river gauge data from the Water Resources Authority (WRA) stations on rivers in
the study area.

 Soil characteristics and catchment properties are additionally assessed from published
data (Ref. National Atlas of Kenya 1991), SoK topographical maps, geological maps
from the Mines and Geology Department, farm management handbooks of Kenya,
publication from Ministry of Agriculture and County Integrated Development Plan
(CIDP).

 The Rainfall Frequency Atlas of Kenya (Ministry of Water Development, 1978) provides
rainfall duration-frequency (RDF) maps for the whole of Kenya for different
combinations of storm duration and return periods. These maps are essential where
the time of concentration is significantly less than 24 hours, which is the case for small
catchments.

2.2. Key highlights in desktop study

Catchments are delineated for the study alignments, with their characteristics determined
from the mapping, as follows and as shown in the figure below:
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Figure 2-:Delineation of watershed.

Figure 2-:Sub-catchments amalgamation

o Area in km2.
o Length of longest water course in km;
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o Catchment slopes - A simple classification follows - flat (0 -1%), undulating (1-4%),
rolling (4-10%), hilly (10-20%) and mountainous > 20% will generally suffice;
o Slope of longest watercourse.
o Land Use zoning

– Urban development
– Bare uncultivated soil
– Intensive cultivation
– Grassland
– Forest
Particular attention is given to the land use in the valley bottoms if it differs from the
surrounding areas, principally if it is dense vegetation or swampy it indicates that an
increased roughness coefficient is to be used in analysis.
Flood models are then selected and flood computations carried out based on the observed
catchments characteristics. From the results, proposed sizes for the new structures are
made based on the hydraulic performance and geological condition.

2.3. Field study

Any field investigations should focus on the river geo-morphology and catchment
characteristic.

 Site condition surveys are carried out to ascertain land uses, soils types, and to
appreciate and compare the site conditions to the desk study. In addition, assessment
of the possible magnitude of the flood marks along the alignment under study and the
positioning of proposed structures is also identified at an early stage.

 The runoff potential of the catchment can change dramatically during the life of a
drainage structure. It is important to make enquiries regarding any future plans to
develop urban areas, drain swamps clear forested areas or any other changes.
Questionnaires on the river regime assist the designer to get more insight when
proposing a suitable hydraulic structure.

3. Precipitation
Rainfall is the driving force of most hydrological events. Design needs arise when and
where rainfall occurs at extreme volumes or rates. High rates of rainfall on small urban
watersheds often cause flooding of streets and parking lots because drainage facilities are
not usually designed to drain all of the water generated by high rainfall intensities. High
rainfall rates can also damage crops.
The absence of rain over long periods of time reduces the rate of flow in streams and
rivers, as well as causing lake levels to decline sharply. Low streamflow rates due to the
lack of rain can damage stream habitat as well as reduce the capacity of the stream to
assimilate wastes discharged into the stream. The decline of lake levels can reduce the
recreational capacity of a lake, as well as reduce the water available for power generation
and irrigation. Excessive moisture from low-intensity, long-duration storms can create
plant stress, thus limiting the growth of crops. It should be evident that problems can
occur from extremes in rainfall, with the extremes in either the rate, the duration, or the
time interval between storms. Some hydrologic planning and design problems only require
a volume of rainfall.
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
However, for purposes of hydrologic analysis and design, the distribution of rain with
respect to time is usually required; the time distribution of rainfall is called a hyetograph.
A hyetograph is a graph of the rainfall intensity or volume as a function of time.

Figure 3-:2-year 24-hour storm rainfall (mm) - hyetograph

3.1. Rainfall characteristics.

Storms differ in a number of characteristics, and the characteristics have a significant
effect on hydrologic design.
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
3.1.1. Volume-Duration-Frequency.
The characteristics must be identified in either assessing an actual storm or developing a
design storm. The following three characteristics are very important in hydrologic analysis
and design:

 Duration: the length of time over which a precipitation event occurs.

 Volume: the amount of precipitation occurring over the storm duration.
 Frequency: the frequency of occurrence of events having the same volume and
duration.
The volume of a storm is most often reported as a depth, with units of length in
millimetres; in such cases, the depth is assumed to occur uniformly over the watershed.
Thus the volume equals the depth times the watershed area.
A specified depth of rainfall may occur from many different combinations of intensities
and durations, and these different combinations of intensities and durations will have a
significant effect on both runoff volumes and rates, as well as on engineering designs that
require rainfall characteristics as input. For example, 50mm of precipitation may result
from any of the following combinations of intensity and duration:

Table 3-:Correlation of intensity duration and depth

Intensity (mm/hr) Duration (hr) Depth (mm)

200 0.25 50
100 0.5 50
50 1 50
25 2 50

Because the rainfall intensity is an important determinant of the hydrologic response, it is

important to specify both the depth and duration (or intensity and duration) and not just
the total volume (i.e., depth).

3.1.2. Frequency.
Just as intensity, duration, and volume are interdependent, the fourth concept,
frequency, is also a necessary determinant. Frequency can be discussed in terms of either
the exceedance probability or the return period, which are defined as follows:
Exceedance probability: probability that an event having a specified depth and duration
will be exceeded in one time period, which is most often assumed to be one year.

Return period: the average length of time between events having the same depth and
duration.

The exceedance probability (p) and return period (T) are related by the formulae below:

P=1/T

Example:
Table 3-:Exceedance probability against Return period

T(yrs) P
5 0.2
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
10 0.1
25 0.04
50 0.02
75 0.0133
100 0.01

If a storm of a specified duration and depth has a 1% chance of occurring in any one year,
it has an exceedance probability of 0.01 and a return period of 100 years. This implies that
storm events occur deterministically rather than randomly, because storm events occur
randomly, there is a finite probability that the 100-yr event could occur in two
consecutive years, or not at all in a period of 500 years. Thus the exceedance probability
concept is preferred by many. However, engineers commonly use the term return period,
and its meaning should be properly understood.

3.1.3. Intensity-Duration-Frequency
An intensity-duration-frequency curve (IDF curve) is a mathematical function that relates
the rainfall intensity with its duration and frequency of occurrence. These curves are
commonly used flood forecasting in hydrology.

Figure 3-: IDF curve

3.2. Hydrograph
It is a graph showing the rate of flow (Discharge) against time past a specific point in a
river or channel carrying flow. It can also be referred to as a graph showing volume of
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
water reaching a particular outfall

Figure 3-: Unit Hydrograph

Descriptions:
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
o Rising Limb: also known as concentration curve, reflects a prolonged
increase in discharge from a catchment area, typically in response to a
rainfall event.
o Falling limb- it is the recession limb that extends from the peak flow rate
onwards to the end of storm flow and the return to ground water. This
phase represents the withdrawal of storage built up in the basin.
o Lag time – The time interval from the centre of mass rainfall excess to the
peak of the resulting hydrograph.
The hydrograph analysis measures rainfall and runoff data to obtain an estimate of the
transfer function. Once the transfer function has been developed it can be used with
design storm and measured rainfall to compute the runoff that would be expected. The
resulting runoff hydrograph could then be used for design purposes.
The rainfall manifestation is separated into three time-dependent functions:

 The initial abstraction,

 The loss function.
 Rainfall excess;

3.2.1. Rainfall manifestation.

 The initial abstraction (Rainfall losses) is part of the rainfall that occurs prior to
the start of direct runoff.
 The rainfall excess is that part of the rainfall that appears as direct runoff.
 The loss function is that part of the rainfall that occurs after the start of direct
runoff but does not appear as direct runoff.

3.3. Rainfall distribution.

For analyses involving large catchments, it may be necessary to make estimates of average
rainfall depths over sub-watershed areas. These is dependent on the available rainfall
gauging stations.
Three methods of analysing to areal averages are as follows:

 Station-average method -is the simplest to apply; however, when the rain gauges
are not uniformly dispersed throughout the watershed, the station-average method
may not yield to areal average rainfall that reflects the actual spatial distribution
of rainfall. For such cases, a method that can account for the non-homogeneity of
the rain gage locations would provide a more accurate estimate of the actual
rainfall depth.

 Theissen Polygon Method – this assigns weights to the rain gauges according to the
proportions of the total watershed area that are geographically closest to each of
the rain gages.

 The isohyetal method – This is the most accurate than the other methods. This
weights the catch at each of the rain gauges according to the watershed area that
is physically associated with the catch of the rain gauge.
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building

Figure 3-:Hypothetical watershed for calculating weighted average rainfall.

3.4. Precipitation frequency analysis

Frequency analysis is a common task in hydrological studies. A frequency analysis usually
produces a graph of the value of a single hydrologic variable versus the probability of its
occurrence. The computed graph represents the best estimate of the statistical population
from which the sample of data are drawn.
From the collected rainfall data, a frequency analysis is undertaken and various rainfall
intensities for respective return periods are calculated using statistical methods such as
the Log Normal, Log Pearson Type 3 and the Extreme Value I (Gumbel) Distribution.
The two widely used distributions include:

 Log-Pearson Type III Distribution

 Extreme Value Type 1 (Gumbel Type 1 Distribution)

3.4.1. Log-Pearson Type III Distribution

The Pearson Type III distribution is one of a family of distributions suggested by Pearson. It
is a skew distribution bounded on the left and therefore of the general shape of most
hydrological distributions.
Procedure for use of the log-Pearson distribution is to convert the data series to
logarithms and compute:

 Mean: (log X) av = (∑ log X)/n

where n is the number of years of record

 Standard deviation:
σlogx = √ {∑ (log X – log Xav)2}/n-1
A flood of magnitude X with probability r is then computed as:
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
Log Xr = (log X) av + K σlogx
where K is the Frequency Factor for the Pearson Type III.

3.4.2. Extreme Value Type 1 (Gumbel Type 1 Distribution).

The Extreme Value Type 1, also referred to as double exponential and/or Gumbel
distribution is a two-parameter distribution and arises from consideration of the statistical
properties of sample extreme values and was first introduced into hydrology by E.J.
Gumbel.
In studies, it has been applied for flood frequency analysis where:
a) Peak flow data is homogeneous and independent hence lack long-term trends;
b) the river is less regulated, hence is not significantly affected by reservoir operations,
diversions or urbanization;
c) Flow data cover a relatively long record (more than 10 years) and is of good quality
(Mujere, 2006).

 The value of a flood of magnitude X with a return period of T years is given by:
X = Xav + σ yT,
where: Xav is the mean of the series being considered
σ– is the standard deviation of the data series
yT = -ln { -ln (1 – 1/T)} = value of return period T in standardized,
parameter free EV1 distribution {YT = ln (T – ½) for T > 5
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building

4. Methods of Flood Estimation

The methods frequently used for flood analysis are briefly summarized below:

 Statistical analysis
This method requires daily peak river gauge measurements over a number of years.

 Empirical Methods
These methods use envelope curves to express floods as a function of catchment area. The
methods include the Creager method and Francou-Rodier method. These methods are
often applied to larger catchments where other methods fail.

 Deterministic methods
These methods derive floods from catchment rainfall and include the following:
o Rational method: This is the oldest method in existence, and despite criticism it is still
widely applied due to its simplicity.
The following variations have been utilized over the recent years:

 Richard’s or Modified Rational Method;

 TRRL - East African Flood Model (EAFM).
The TRRL East African Flood Model is limited in application to catchments of up to
200km², with comparison methods in establishing flood discharge curves adopted for the
basins under study. Two popular comparison methods utilised alongside the TRRL method
are the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) and Modified Rational methods.

4.1. East African Flood Model (TRRL)

The TRRL East African Flood Model was developed by the UK Transport and Road Research
Laboratory on the basis of rainfall / runoff studies for a range of selected East African
catchments. The method is commonly applied to catchments of up to 200km 2. The model
is made up of two parts, a linear reservoir model and a flood model, as follows:

 The linear reservoir part of the model describes the land phase of the flood cycle.
This is the time between the rainfall reaching the ground and the water entering
the stream system.
 The flood routing part of the model routes the flood down the watercourse to the
catchment outfall. The model assumes that a storm rainfall of a given return
period results in a peak flood of equal return period.

The application of the model requires the selection of a range of parameters for each
catchment which include:

 Standard contributing area coefficient, Cs - the standard runoff factor for a wet zone
grassed catchment. The coefficient varies with soil type and average catchment slope.
 The land use factor, CL - this factor adjusts the runoff factor according to land usage
relative to a catchment with short grass cover.
 The catchment wetness factor, Cw - a measure of the antecedent wetness of the
catchment.
 Lag time, k - the time for the recession curve of outflow from a linear reservoir to fall
to one third of its initial value. This parameter is strongly dependent on the vegetation
cover.
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building

Details of standard coefficients and formulae used in this flood model are detailed in the
TRRL publications.
Intensity of rainfall
Short duration rainfall data is not readily available and a model has been developed to
calculate the intensity of rainfall. The intensity of rainfall, for use in flood prediction is
calculated using the TRRL Laboratory Report 623 “The Prediction of Storm Rainfall in East
Africa”. The equation used for calculation of the rainfall intensity ‘I’ is given below:

The areal reduction factor for each catchment is calculated using the following equation:

4.2. Modified Rational Formula (Richard’s)

This method is one of the most commonly used deterministic methods due to its
simplicity. It is reported to give consistently good results for a wide range of river
catchment sizes in most parts of Africa (and elsewhere) and, hence, is commonly used in
flood studies (ref. Flood Hydrology for Southern Africa 1990, Flood Studies Report UK
1975, Australian Rainfall & Runoff 1987, Hydrology India 1997).
The method has been modified to take account of the local data thus expanding its
effectiveness in larger catchments. The method considers the rainfall pattern and
intensity, the size, shape and slope of the catchment and run-off characteristics in the
form of a run-off coefficient, C.
The catchment characteristics comprising drainage areas, land slopes and catchment
lengths are obtained from both physical inspection and information from topographical
mapping for the respective areas.
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building

Figure 4-: Run-off coefficient frequency factors

The run-off coefficient ‘C’ is estimated on the basis of three factors, namely; slope of
catchment, permeability of soil and vegetation. With this input data and the design storm
rainfall, the run-off volume is calculated by the standard formula relating flow with run-
off coefficient, peak rainfall intensity and the contributing catchment area.

Figure 4-: Coefficient for run off

Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
4.3. The SCS Curve Number Method

National Resource Conservation Service (NRCS), formerly known as Soil Conservation

Service (SCS),
The SCS procedure expresses the runoff discharge as the difference between a 24 hours
rainfall and the amount of water retention into the ground. There is an established
relationship between the direct runoff with cumulated rainfall, ground absorption and
retention. These are also related to soil and cover conditions that are expressed by the
Curve Number (CN).
The travel time, or time of concentration, of the watershed is directly related to the
slope, flow path length, depth of flow, and roughness of the flow surfaces due to the type
of ground cover. The time of concentration is used in Rational as well as NRCS (SCS)
Methods for the peak flow determination.
Soil properties influence the relationship between rainfall and runoff with their various
rates of infiltration. Based on the infiltration rates, the NRCS (SCS) has divided the soils
into four hydrologic soil groups (HSG) A, B, C, and D.
The soils in hydrologic group A have the most (7.62mm – 11.43 mm/hr/0.3-0.45in/hr)
infiltration capacity while soils in the hydrologic group D have the least (less than 1.27
mm/hr/0.05in/hr).
Group A Soils having a low runoff potential due to high infiltration rates. These soils
consist primarily of deep, well-drained sands and gravels.
Group B Soils having a moderately low runoff potential due to moderate infiltration rates.
These soils consist primarily of moderately deep to deep and moderately well to well
drained soils with moderately fine to moderately coarse textures.
Group C Soils having a moderately high runoff potential due to slow infiltration rates.
These consist primarily of either soils in which a layer exists near the surface that impedes
the downward movement of water or soils with moderately fine to fine texture.
Group D Soils having a high runoff potential due to very slow infiltration rates. These soils
consist primarily of clays with high swelling potential, soils with permanently high water
tables, soils with a clay layer at or near the surface, and shallow soils over nearly
impervious underlying material.
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building

Figure 4-: Curve Number coefficients

The widely adopted Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Method is outlined below:
a) The time of concentration of the unit hydrograph is determined using Kirpich
formula.

b) The Storm Duration is determined by the equation:

D = 2(TC)0.5
Where: D = Storm duration in hrs.
c) Determine the excess rainfall which results in runoff:

Runoff = (h-0.2S)2 / (h+0.2S)

Where:
S = Potential retention given by the formula: 25400/CN - 254
h/I = 24-hr rainfall for a selected 2.33 return period
CN = Runoff curve number.
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
4.3.1. In Summary.

NRCS (SCS) runoff equation is used to estimate direct runoff from a 24-hour storm
event. The equation is:
Q = (P – 0.2S) 2 / (P + 0.8S) (2-11)
Where:
Q = total runoff volume for the specified storm event, in inches
P = rainfall volume for the specified storm event, in inches from Table 2-2.
S = potential maximum retention after runoff begins, in inches and is
defined by the following equation:

S = (1000/CN) – 10 (2-12)
Where:

CN = NRCS (SCS) curve number

Initial Abstractions (Ia) are all losses in the watershed before runoff begins. These
abstractions include water retained in surface depressions, water intercepted by
vegetation, evaporation and infiltration. Ia is highly variable but is generally
correlated with soil and cover parameters. Through the study of many small
agricultural watersheds, Ia is approximated by the following empirical equation:
Ia =0.2S

The CN number is selected according to the soil, moisture and land cover of the drainage
area.
Based on the US SCS dimensionless hydrograph, the unit peak discharge for the basin area
is then obtained from established model curve/graphs and the flood discharge for a
particular return period is computed an expression that relates the flood flow with peak
discharge, basin catchment area and flood growth rate factor for various return periods.
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building

5. Run-off Concepts, Curve and Computation

Runoff can be described as that portion of precipitation that makes its way toward stream
channels, lakes, or oceans as surface flow. Surface runoff is the primary cause of soil
erosion and also causes flooding. Flood runoff amounts and peak discharges are required
for the design of most conservation structural measures.
There are three major types of runoff' depending on the source: surface flow, interflow,
and base flow.

5.1. Surface flow

Surface flow is water that has remained on the surface and moves as overland or
channel flow.

5.2. Interflow
Interflow is water that has entered the upper soil profile and then moves laterally
through the soil profile and reappears as surface flow at a downstream point. The
lateral flow is caused by a relatively impervious zone that prevents further downward
movement. Interflow may be a significant part of total direct runoff under certain soil,
geological and land use conditions. It is common in forested areas on moderate or
steep slopes with permeable soils of moderate depth over bedrock. The forest and
ground litter provide high infiltration for water to enter the soil, and the slope
provides the energy for lateral flow.
Significant amounts of interflow are not common in cultivated soils on small
watersheds and are usually not considered in SCS methods of estimating runoff.
Interflow may return to the surface so quickly that it is not possible to separate
surface flow and interflow.

5.3. Base flow

Base flow is water from a saturated ground water zone that underlies most land areas.
It usually appears at a downstream location where the channel elevation is lower than
the ground water table. Ground water provides the stream flow during dry periods
having minor or no precipitation. Ground water may enter a channel as seepage along
the lower banks of the channel. This type of flow is not normally a big contributor to
flood runoff.
The combination of hydrologic soil group and cover type information results in a hydrologic
soil cover complex. Each hydrologic soil cover complex has been assigned a runoff curve
number. The CN indicates the runoff potential of a hydrologic soil cover complex. The
higher the CN, the higher the runoff potential.
Runoff curve numbers represent the median condition of the hydrologic soil cover complex
when the largest annual flood occurs. This is the assumed hydrologic soil cover complex
condition when the design flood of a conservation measure occurs.
Runoff curve numbers are to be used with single flood event models and not with
continuous hydrologic models.
Runoff curve numbers should not be used to estimate the impact of frozen ground or
frozen ground with snow cover on the design peak flow estimate.
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building

6. Determination of Hydraulic Opening using Manning’s

Formula
The main rationale for the hydraulic structure opening is to provide sufficient opening, in
both height and width/span, to allow/facilitate drainage with minimal impedance to
natural flow and also prevent creating harmful flow energy from constrictions to cause
undue erosive effects downstream.
The existing and proposed drainage structures hydraulic capacities are computed using
Manning’s formula and these capacities compared with the estimated maximum flood
flows to determine the adequacy (hydraulic effectiveness). The Manning’s coefficient is
assigned based on the nature/characteristics of the watercourse/channel as per the
following table:
Manning's n for Channels (Chow, 1959)
Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum
Natural streams minor streams
1. Main Channels
a. clean, straight, full stage, no rifts or deep pools 0.025 0.030 0.033
b. same as above, but more stones and weeds 0.030 0.035 0.040
c. clean, winding, some pools and shoals 0.033 0.040 0.045
d. same as above, but some weeds and stones 0.035 0.045 0.050
e. same as above, lower stages, more 0.040 0.048 0.055
ineffective slopes and sections
f. same as "d" with more stones 0.045 0.050 0.060
g. sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools 0.050 0.070 0.080
h. very weedy reaches, deep pools, or 0.075 0.100 0.150
floodways with heavy stand of timber and
underbrush
2. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks usually steep, trees and brush
along banks submerged at high stages
a. bottom: gravels, cobbles, and few boulders 0.030 0.040 0.050
b. bottom: cobbles with large boulders 0.040 0.050 0.070
3. Floodplains
a. Pasture, no brush
1.short grass 0.025 0.030 0.035
2. high grass 0.030 0.035 0.050
b. Cultivated areas
1. no crop 0.020 0.030 0.040
2. mature row crops 0.025 0.035 0.045
3. mature field crops 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Brush
1. scattered brush, heavy weeds 0.035 0.050 0.070
2. light brush and trees, in winter 0.035 0.050 0.060
3. light brush and trees, in summer 0.040 0.060 0.080
4. medium to dense brush, in winter 0.045 0.070 0.110
5. medium to dense brush, in summer 0.070 0.100 0.160
d. Trees
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
1. dense willows, summer, straight 0.110 0.150 0.200
2. cleared land with tree stumps, no sprouts 0.030 0.040 0.050
3. same as above, but with heavy
growth of sprouts 0.050 0.060 0.080
4. heavy stand of timber, a few down trees, 0.080 0.100 0.120
little undergrowth, flood stage below
branches
5. same as 4. with flood stage reaching 0.100 0.120 0.160
branches
4. Excavated or Dredged Channels
a. Earth, straight, and uniform
1. clean, recently completed 0.016 0.018 0.020
2. clean, after weathering 0.018 0.022 0.025
3. gravel, uniform section, clean 0.022 0.025 0.030
4. with short grass, few weeds 0.022 0.027 0.033
b. Earth winding and sluggish
1. no vegetation 0.023 0.025 0.030
2. grass, some weeds 0.025 0.030 0.033
3. dense weeds or aquatic plants in deep 0.030 0.035 0.040
channels
4. earth bottom and rubble sides 0.028 0.030 0.035
5. stony bottom and weedy banks 0.025 0.035 0.040
6. cobble bottom and clean sides 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Dragline-excavated or dredged
1. no vegetation 0.025 0.028 0.033
2. light brush on banks 0.035 0.050 0.060
d. Rock cuts
1. smooth and uniform 0.025 0.035 0.040
2. jagged and irregular 0.035 0.040 0.050
e. Channels not maintained, weeds and brush uncut
1. dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.050 0.080 0.120
2. clean bottom, brush on sides 0.040 0.050 0.080
3. same as above, highest stage of flow 0.045 0.070 0.110
4. dense brush, high stage 0.080 0.100 0.140
5. Lined or Constructed Channels
a. Cement
1. neat surface 0.010 0.011 0.013
2. mortar 0.011 0.013 0.015
b. Wood
1. planed, untreated 0.010 0.012 0.014
2. planed, creosoted 0.011 0.012 0.015
3. unplaned 0.011 0.013 0.015
4. plank with battens 0.012 0.015 0.018
5. lined with roofing paper 0.010 0.014 0.017
c. Concrete
1. trowel finish 0.011 0.013 0.015
2. float finish 0.013 0.015 0.016
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building
3. finished, with gravel on bottom 0.015 0.017 0.020
4. unfinished 0.014 0.017 0.020
5. gunite, good section 0.016 0.019 0.023
6. gunite, wavy section 0.018 0.022 0.025
7. on good excavated rock 0.017 0.020
8. on irregular excavated rock 0.022 0.027
d. Concrete bottom float finish with sides of:
1. dressed stone in mortar 0.015 0.017 0.020
2. random stone in mortar 0.017 0.020 0.024
3. cement rubble masonry, plastered 0.016 0.020 0.024
4. cement rubble masonry 0.020 0.025 0.030
5. dry rubble or riprap 0.020 0.030 0.035
e. Gravel bottom with sides of:
1. formed concrete 0.017 0.020 0.025
2. random stone mortar 0.020 0.023 0.026
3. dry rubble or riprap 0.023 0.033 0.036
f. Brick
1. glazed 0.011 0.013 0.015
2. in cement mortar 0.012 0.015 0.018
g. Masonry
1. cemented rubble 0.017 0.025 0.030
2. dry rubble 0.023 0.032 0.035
h. Dressed ashlar/stone paving 0.013 0.015 0.017
i. Asphalt
1. smooth 0.013 0.013
2. rough 0.016 0.016
j. Vegetal lining 0.030 0.500

For open channels, the geomorphology of natural channels concerns their shape and
structure. Natural channels are of irregular shape, varying from approximately parabolic
to approximately trapezoidal (Chow, 1959).
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building

Trapezoidal fit channel

The main channel geometric characteristics considered are:

 Depth, y
 Area, A
 Wetted perimeter, P
 Top width, T
 Hydraulic Radius, Rh = Area / Wetted perimeter
 Hydraulic Depth, Dh = Area / Top width

Trapezoidal channel geometrics

Parabolic channel geometrics

Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building

Manning’s equation is used to relate the average channel (conduit) velocity to energy loss,
Sf = hf/L.
Manning’s equation with metric units, i.e. m, s, is as follows:

For purposes of ensuring that the hydraulic opening of the existing or proposed structure is
sufficient, flood flow velocities are computed and the respective Froude Number
established.
The Froude number, Fr, is a dimensionless value that describes different flow regimes of
open channel flow. The Froude number is a ratio of inertial and gravitational forces, which
is dependent on both the flow velocity and hydraulic opening. It can be simplified as
follows:

 Gravity (numerator) - moves water downhill

 Inertia (denominator) - reflects its willingness to do so.

Giving,
Hydrology and hydraulic study on capacity building

Where:
V = Water velocity
D = Hydraulic depth (cross sectional area of flow / top width)
g = Gravity
When:
Fr = 1, critical flow,
Fr > 1, supercritical flow (fast rapid flow), possessing excess flow energy which
may be abrasive, causing damage by scouring
Fr < 1, subcritical flow (slow/tranquil flow)
The proposed hydraulic structures comprising bridges, boxes or pipe culverts are normally
standardized for ease of development. These also consider some minimal channel
realignment works where recommended, because efforts towards interference to natural
courses are usually not sustainable and also require substantial effort/cost. However,
appropriate considerations are made for protection of the proposed structures both
upstream and downstream.
With regard to free-board, a 0.5m allowance is normally incorporated for all new box
culverts, and 1.0m for all bridges at the main crossings.
For locations with notable high flood flow velocities with erosive capabilities, flow energy
dissipation structural provision such as rip-rap stone pitching, stilling basins incorporating
stilling blocks and other flood flow attenuation devices are usually
considered/recommended.
Where low-lying sections of the proposed study alignment coincides with drainage
crossings, it may be deemed necessary to elevate/raise the road surface/vertical
alignment in order to accommodate the new proposed hydraulic structures in a functional
purpose as intended. The proposed elevation height depends on the proposed opening of
hydraulic structures, minimum cover above structures requirements and also maintaining
adequate allowance of maximum water level below road surface level during floods.