Wollaton Environmental Consultancy: London Office Buildings

WEC
W O L L A T O N
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSULTANCY
L O N D O N O F F I C E B U I L D I N G S
Project Reference: 3279720
17 – May - 2019
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report aims to estimate the peak and annual energy load of each of the building services systems
to calculate the approximate CO2 emissions and running costs, and to undertake sensitivity analysis to
explore changes that could reduce energy consumption.
To maintain good air quality, the ventilation required for the 758 occupants is 10.2m3/s. The peak
heating load is 562kW, assuming an outdoor temperature of -1.7oC which is only expected to be
exceeded 1% of the time. The largest heat loss is due to ventilation (59%). The peak cooling demand
was found to be 424kW, occurring at 11:00 in September. Over 50% of this load was attributed to solar
gains through the glazing. The electrical fan power for the ventilation system is expected to require
32,530kWh per year, to overcome a maximum pressure loss of 551Pa.
The building is expected to use 919,721kWh per year (93 kWh/m2) for building services, costing
£52,518 and 223tCO2.
Sensitivity analysis was completed to determine the most ideal of 5 cases to reduce energy demand,
CO2 emissions and the cost per unit area. It can be estimated that the most energy saving changes were
made when the window glazing was changed to triple-glazed, while the least useful was the addition of
a new floor.
Due to fire safety regulations, refuge areas should be added within each stairwell on every floor. The
lifts’ average waiting time was found to be unsatisfactory at 93s, which could be improved by increasing
the lift size or handling capacity.
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ii
CONTENTS
LIST OF SECTIONS
1. Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Building Information ...................................................................................................................... 2
3. Extreme Conditions: Heating Season ............................................................................................. 6
4. Extreme Conditions: Cooling Season ............................................................................................ 8
5. Boiler Plant Sizing ......................................................................................................................... 12
6. Air Conditioning ............................................................................................................................ 13
7. Ventilation .....................................................................................................................................18
8. Sensitivity Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 22
9. Fire Protection .............................................................................................................................. 26
10. Vertical Transport ........................................................................................................................ 28
11. Conclusions .................................................................................................................................. 30
12. References .................................................................................................................................... 32
Appendix: A ............................................................................................................................................. 34
Appendix B .............................................................................................................................................. 35
Appendix C............................................................................................................................................... 38
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: First Floor Plan........................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 2: Ground Floor Plan ..................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 3 - Casual Heat Gains throughout the day .................................................................................... 5
Figure 4 - Heating Load Breakdown ......................................................................................................... 7
Figure 5 - Sol-air gains through the building fabric over the course of a day, for each month .............. 8
Figure 6 – Sol-air instantaneous heat transfer through the building fabric per hour in July ................ 8
Figure 7 - Percentage of glazing Sunlit ..................................................................................................... 9
Figure 8 - Glazing cooling load for full building .................................................................................... 10
Figure 9 - Total Cooling Load Breakdown ...............................................................................................16
Figure 10 - System Flow Diagram ............................................................................................................13
Figure 11 - CIBSE psychometric chart ..................................................................................................... 15
Figure 12: First floor supply duct and diffusers layout ...........................................................................18
Figure 13: Ground floor extract duct and grilles layout ..........................................................................18
Figure 14: First floor extract duct and grilles layout ...............................................................................18
Figure 15: Ground floor supply duct and diffusers layout ......................................................................18
Figure 16: Annual heating gas energy demand reduction (%) ............................................................... 23
Figure 17: Annual cooling electrical energy demand reduction (%) ...................................................... 23
Figure 18: Annual fan energy demand reduction (%) ............................................................................ 23
Figure 19: Annual building energy demand reduction (%).................................................................... 24
Figure 20: Carbon emissions reduction (%) ........................................................................................... 24
Figure 21: Total cost reduction (%) ......................................................................................................... 24
Figure 22 - Smoke Detector Coverage .................................................................................................... 26
Figure 23 - Heat Detector Coverage ....................................................................................................... 26
Figure 24 - Refuge Area Plan .................................................................................................................. 27
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 - Building Geometry...................................................................................................................... 2
Table 2 - Zone Area and Occupancy ......................................................................................................... 3
Table 3 - Fabric Types and Properties ...................................................................................................... 3
Table 4 – Minimum Ventilation Rates ..................................................................................................... 4
Table 5 - Airflow Rates .............................................................................................................................. 4
Table 6 - Casual Heat Gains .......................................................................................................................5
Table 7 - Thermal Conductance .................................................................................................................5
Table 8 - Fabric Losses Breakdown .......................................................................................................... 6
Table 9 - Heating Load Breakdown ...........................................................................................................7
Table 10 – Peak Cooling Load Breakdown .............................................................................................. 11
Table 11 - Peak Boiler Load ...................................................................................................................... 12
Table 12 - Annual heating energy demands ............................................................................................ 12
Table 13 - Psychometric Chart Readings ................................................................................................. 15
Table 14 – Annual refrigeration energy demand .................................................................................... 16
Table 15 - Advantages and disadvantages of VAV systems ..................................................................... 17
Table 16 - Supply diffuser .........................................................................................................................18
Table 17 - Index run total pressure drop ................................................................................................ 20
Table 18 - Fan energy demand ................................................................................................................. 21
Table 19 - Sensitivity analysis cases description .................................................................................... 22
Table 20 - Baseline values ....................................................................................................................... 22
Table 21 - Annual Energy Demands ....................................................................................................... 23
Table 22 - Environmental and cost parameters ..................................................................................... 24
Table 23 - Case ranking ........................................................................................................................... 25
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LIST OF NOMENCLATURE
g – moisture content of air [kg/kg dry air] AWT – average waiting time (s)
V – Volume [m3]
v – specific volume [m3/kg] P – average number of passengers

x - shaded width [m]
h – enthalpy [kJ/kg] T – performance time (s)

y - shaded height [m]
P – power [W] L – number of lifts

R - side reveal [m]
λ – friction factor of pipe U – building population

M - sill overhang [m]
k – pipe roughness [mm] CC – rated capacity (persons)

n - window-solar azimuth angle [o]
d – diameter [m] tp – average one-way passenger transfer time (s)

a - solar altitude [o]
u – velocity [m/s] tf(1) – single floor flight time (s)

ρ – density [kg/m3]
l – length [m] tsd – start delay time (s)

Cp – specific heat capacity [H/kg.K]
Re – Reynolds number tc – door closing time (s)

Qθ+Φ – heat transfer [W]
µ - viscosity [kg/m.s] to – door opening time (s)

U – fabric U value [W/m2.K]
ς – pressure loss factor tad – advance door opening time (s)

A – area [m2]
Hfan – energy demand of fan [kWh] tv – floor transit time (s)

T – temperature [˚C or K]
SFP – specific fan power [W/ls-1] H – average highest reversal floor

f – decrement factor
RTT – round trip time (s) S – average number of stops

HS – sensible heat gains/losses [kW]
UPPINT – average up-peak interval with 80% car load (s) df – average interfloor height (m)
HL – latent heat gains/losses [kW]
UPPHC – average up-peak handling capacity (person/5 DT – distance between terminal floors (m)
Ṁ – mass flow rate [kg/s]
minutes)
N – number of served floors above the terminal floor
V̇ – volume flow rate [m3/s]
%POP – percentage population (%)
L – latent heat of vaporisation [kJ/kg]
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x
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Simulating energy demands of proposed buildings allows for changes to be made to the design
of systems and technical plants in order to reduce the cost and carbon impact of the running of
the building. It can also highlight any safety concerns.
Calculating the heating, cooling, and ventilation demands allows the boiler and air conditioning
systems to be sized optimally. It shows the biggest areas of heat gain and loss allowing any
changes that are made to the design to have the largest effect on emissions and cost.
By running the calculations for different designs and environmental conditions, it is possible
to see which areas are the most sensitive to change. This shows how reliable the calculations
are and also where the opportunities for the biggest energy savings are.
Lastly, any possible safety concerns such as fire protection and vertical transportation can be
addressed in the design stage, reducing the chance of errors that waste time and resources once
the construction process is underway.
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The aims and objectives of this report:
• To design the building services for a proposed office block in London to maintain a comfortable
indoor air quality and temperature in the working environment with appropriate vertical
transport and fire safety.
• To estimate the peak and annual energy load of each of the systems in order to calculate the
approximate CO2 emissions and running costs.
• To undertake sensitivity analysis to explore changes that could reduce energy consumption.
(239 words)
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2. BUILDING INFORMATION
This chapter discusses the buildings typology, configuration and construction.
2.1 BUILDING GEOMETRY
The proposal is for a 10 story office building located in central London, with a main entrance,
service access and lobby on the ground floor (G), and offices on the floors above (1-9). While
the ground floor layout is unique, Floors 1 to 9 are identical, with the exception of floor 9 having
an external roof. General statistics about the building geometry can be found in Table 1.
Table 1 - Building Geometry
Number of Floors 10
Area per floor [m] 987
Volume [m3] 38760 Figure 1: First Floor Plan
Surface Area [m2] 6320
Surface Area/Volume ratio [m-1] 0.163
Glazing ratio 0.233
Usable Floor Area [m2] 8040.25
2.2 ZONES AND OCUPANCY
The building has been split into 10 Zones, shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. The floor areas and
occupancy for each zone are shown in Table 2. The Occupancy was calculated using occupancy
rates in m2/person [1,2]. The zone type of City centre offices was used for the offices, giving an
occupancy density of 10 m2/person. This led to a total building occupancy of 759 people.
Figure 2: Ground Floor Plan
Entrance (Zone 1) Circulation (Zones 3, 7 & 10) Service Access (Zone 4)
Offices (Zones 5 & 8) Toilets (Zones 2, 6 & 9)
2
Table 2 - Zone Area and Occupancy
Zone Floor(s) Zone Type Floor Volume Occupancy Occupancy in

No. area [m3] density zone
[m2] [m2/person] [people]
1 Ground Floor (1) Entrance 649.25 2726.85 16 41
2 Ground Floor (1) Toilets 30.375 127.575 0 0
3 Ground Floor (1) Circulation 209 877.8 0 0
4 Ground Floor (1) Service Access 101.75 427.35 0 0
5 Floors 1-8 (9) Offices 798 2872.8 10 80
6 Floors 1-8 (9) Toilets 54 194.4 0 0
7 Floors 1-8 (9) Circulation 135 486 0 0
8 Floor 9 (1) Offices 798 2872.8 10 80
9 Floor 9 (1) Toilets 54 194.4 0 0
10 Floor 9 (1) Circulation 135 486 0 0
Total 9873 759
2.3 MATERIAL TYPES AND PROPERTIES
The building is of concrete construction with double glazed windows. The U values were taken
from BR L2A0 and are shown in Table 6.
Table 3 - Fabric Types and Properties
Component type Material U-value

[W/m2/K]
Window (Large) Double Glazing 2.2
Window (Small) Double Glazing 2.2
Wall Concrete 0.35
Entrance Doors n/a 3.5
Vehicle Access Door n/a 1.5
Floor Concrete 0.25
Roof Concrete 0.25
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2.4 INFILTRATION AND VENTILATION
The infiltration throughout the building has been taken to be at a steady rate of 2.15 m3/s. This
INFILTRATION CALCULATION EXAMPLE
has been calculated assuming 0.2 ach-1.
1
Airchange rate [ach−1 ] × V [m3 ] × [hours/sec]
3600
Table 4 – Minimum Ventilation Rates
= Infiltration rate [m3 /s]
Zone Occupancy Airflow Rate Volume Ventilation Rate Ventilation
[people] [l/s/person] [m3] [Ach-1] Rate [m3/s] 1
0.2 [ach−1 ] × 38760 [m3 ] × [hours/sec] = 2.153 [m3 /s]
1 41 10 - - 0.405 3600
2 - - 127.6 5 0.177
3 0 10 - - 0
4 0 10 - - 0
5 80 10 - - 0.798
6 - - 194.4 5 0.270 VENTILATION CALCULATION EXAMPLE
7 0 10 - - 0 1
Airflow rate [l/sec/person] × Occupancy [people] × [m3 /l]
8 80 10 - - 0.798 1000
9 - - 194.4 5 0.270
= Ventialtion rate [m3 /s]
10 0 10 - - 0
Total 10.195
1
10 [l/sec/person] × 41 [people] × [m3 /l] = 0.41 [m3 /s]
1000
The minimum ventilation is taken to be 10l/s/person[A], except in the toilets where an air
change rate of 5 ach-1 has been used. The example calculation for zone 1 is shown to the right.
The full results are shown in Table 4.
The minimum ventilation rate is therefore calculated to be 10.195 m3/s for the building,
meaning it accounts for 83% of the combined infiltration and ventilation rate. The results are
summarised in Table 5.
Table 5 - Airflow Rates
Airflow Type Airflow Rate Airflow Rate Rate per person

[m3/s] [%] [l/s/person]
Infiltration 2.153 17% 2.83
Ventilation 10.195 83% 13.43
Combined Total 12.348 - 16.27
4
2.5 CASUAL HEAT GAINS
People, lighting and office equipment all contribute towards casual heat gains within a building,
140000
that need to be considered during the cooling season. CIBSE Guide A gives estimated casual
120000
heat gains for different environments per m2 which can be used calculate the casual heat gains
in each zone [2]. Combining the results from each zone gives the peak casual heat gains for the 100000
building, shown in Table 6. The overall heat gain is 124559.8 W and the largest source is the
80000
Heat Gain [W]

lighting at 44864W.
60000
Table 6 - Casual Heat Gains
Heat Source Heat Gain 40000

[W]
People (sensible) 28958.25 20000
People (latent) 21462.25
Lighting 44864.25 0
Equipment 29275 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Total 124559.8 Time (Hours)
People (sensible) People (latent) Lighting Equipment TOTAL

Due to the occupancy levels fluctuating throughout the day (occupants begin arriving at
Figure 3 - Casual Heat Gains throughout the day
0700hrs, the building is fully occupied between 0900-1800hrs, and it is empty by 2000hrs),
the causal heat gains also fluctuate. Figure 3 shows these changes throughout a working day.
THERMAL CONDUCTANCE CALCULATION EXAMPLE
Area [m2 ] × U value [W/m2 /K] = Thermal Conductance [W/K]

2.6 BUILDING THERMAL CONDUCTANCE
The U values mentioned in section 2.3 can be used to calculate the Thermal conductance 1662 [m2 ] × 2.2 [W/m2 /K] = 3656.4 [W/K]
through surface. This is done by multiplying the U value with the area as demonstrated in the Table 7 - Thermal Conductance
example calculation for the windows to the right. The results for each type of surface are shown Surface Area U-value Thermal Proportion of
[m2] [W/m2/K] Conductance load per surface
in Table 7. These gave a thermal conductance for the building of 5801.7 W/K. The largest
[W/K]
contributor was the windows with over 63% of the load. Total Windows 1662 2.2 3656.4 63.02%
Total Walls 3416.952 0.35 1195.9 20.61%
(468 words) Total Doors 99.72 3.5 349.0 6.02%

Total Floor 1414.35 0.25 353.6 6.09%
Total Roof 987 0.25 246.8 4.25%
Total 5801.7
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3. EXTREME CONDITIONS: HEATING SEASON
This chapter discusses the effect on the building during the coolest parts of the year.
3.1 LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
The heating system is sized for worst case conditions which for London is -1.7°C [3] and only
exceeded 1% of the year. Indoor comfort temperature for an office is 21°C. A worst-case scenario
sees the building completely overcast so it is assumed no solar gains as the building would be
in complete shade. In order to calculate the load needed to heat the ventilation and fabric losses
must be calculated. The ventilation and infiltration losses are listed in Table 9.
3.2 FABRIC LOSSES

FABRIC LOSSES EXAMPLE CALCULATION
Loss of heat occurs due to the 22.7◦C difference in temperature, inside 21◦C and outside Thermal Conductance [𝑊𝑊/𝐾𝐾 ] × ∆T [K] = Space heating load [W]
-1.7◦C. In order to calculate the loss through fabric type the thermal conductance needs to be
For windows:
multiplied by the temperature difference.
3656.4 [𝑊𝑊/𝐾𝐾 ] × 22.7 [K] = 83000.28 [W]
Table 8 - Fabric Losses Breakdown
Surface Thermal Space Proportion of

Conductance heating load load per surface
[W/K] [W]
Total Windows 3656 83000 63.02%
Total Walls 1195 27147 20.61%
Total Doors 349 7922 6.02%
Total Floor 353 8026 6.09%
Total Roof 246 5601 4.25%
TOTAL 5801 124051 100.00%
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3.3 AIRFLOW LOSSES
EXAMPLE CALUCATION VENTILATION LOSSES
Airflow losses are ventilation and infiltration losses combined. Airflow Rate [m3 /s] × Cp [𝐽𝐽/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾 ] × ρ[kg/m3 ] = conductance [𝑊𝑊/𝐾𝐾 ]
The airflow losses are as a result of warm air being extracted from the building through ducts, Conductance[𝑊𝑊/𝐾𝐾 ] × ∆T[K] = Airflow gains [W]
transferring heat out of the building. Due to the temperature difference this loss is greatest in
Where Cp is the specific heat capacity of air, ρ is the density of air and ΔT is the
the winter, and ventilation and infiltration losses are calculated using the same equation. difference between internal and external temperatures.
10.195 [m3 /s] × 1020 [𝐽𝐽/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾 ] × 1.2 [kg/m3 ] = 12233.9[𝑊𝑊/𝐾𝐾 ]

277711 W is lost due to ventilation and 58657W through infiltration.
12233.9 [𝑊𝑊/𝐾𝐾 ] × 22.7 [K] = 277710.949 [𝑊𝑊/𝐾𝐾 ]
3.4 TOTAL PEAK SPACE HEATING LOAD
The energy needed to keep the whole building at the comfort temperature. Table 9 shows us
that ventilation is the biggest load, therefore heat recovery would reduce the heating demand.
Infiltration
Within the breakdown of the fabric loads (Figure 4) windows are the next largest proportion of Windows
13%
17%
load, which would be reduced with triple glazing.
Table 9 - Heating Load Breakdown Walls

6% Doors
Load Type Conductance [W/K] Load [W] Load [%] 2%
Fabric Loads 5801 131968 28% Floors
Ventilation Load 12233 277711 59% Roof 2%
1%
Infiltration Load 2584 58657 13%
Total Thermal Load 20619 468066
Ventilation
59%
(250 words)
Figure 4 - Heating Load Breakdown
7
4. EXTREME CONDITIONS: COOLING SEASON
30000
The external temperature of 26.1oC was chosen for modelling as it is only exceeded 1% of the year [4].
20000
4.1 SOLAR GAINS
Total instantaneous heat transfer [W]

10000
Sol-air calculations were carried out to find the instantaneous gains through the opaque fabric
0
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
of the building (Figure 5, Figure 6), excluding the windows as these gains were accounted for
-10000
in the solar shading calculations. The sol-air temperatures [5] are used to calculate
-20000
instantaneous heat transfer when solar radiation is incident as the sum of convective and
radiant heat. -30000
-40000
SOL-AIR EXAMPLE CALCULATION

-50000
Heat transfer through 1281m2 wall of U-value 0.35 oriented East in July at 17:00:
Q θ+ϕ = UA(t em − t r ) + UA(t e0 − t em )f -60000
Where: Qθ+φ is the thermal heat transfer [W], U is the fabric U-value [W/m2K], A is the fabric Figure 5 - Sol-air gains through the building fabric over the course of a day, for each month
surface area [m2], tem is mean sol-air temperature over a 24 hour period [˚C], tr is the ambient
room temperature [˚C], te0 is the instantaneous sol-air temperature at time θ [˚C], and f is the 10000
decrement factor [dimensionless].
Q θ+ϕ = 0.35 ∗ 1281 ∗ (21.2 − 21.0) + 0.35 ∗ 1281 ∗ (35.3 − 21.2) ∗ 1.0 = 6413.28W 8000
The total heat transfer at a given time is the sum of the heat transfer of all facades and the roof: 6000
Total heat thansfer [W]

Q θ+ϕ = 6413 + 4260 + 2642 + 1146 + 3109 = 17570 [W] 4000
2000
-2000
-4000
-6000 Time
Horizontal North East South East South West North West
Figure 6 – Sol-air instantaneous heat transfer through the building fabric per hour in July
8
4.2 SOLAR SHADING
SOLAR SHADING EXAMPLE CALCUALTION
To simulate the heat transfer through the windows, the proportion of shaded glazing for the
Wall orientated South East (225o), Window size 1.5m by 3.85m
cooling months was calculated as it varies throughout the day, depending on the Sun’s azimuth Side reveal 0.25m, Sill overhang 0.5m
and altitude [6]. May at 14:00, Sun Azimuth 245.5o, Sun Altitude 43.23o
Shaded Width: x = R tan(n)

Shaded Height: y = M tan(a) = R sec(n) tan(a)
Where: x is the shaded width [m], y is the shaded height [m], R is the side reveal [m], M
is the sill overhang [m], n is the window-solar azimuth angle [o], a is the solar altitude
[o]
Shaded Width: 0.25 tan(245.5 − 225) = 0.09m

Shaded Height: 0.5 sec(245.5 − 225) tan(43.23) = 0.5m
Therefore, the sunlit area is (1.5 − 0.09) × (3.85 – 0.5) = 4.72m2

and the shaded area is (1.5 × 3.85) – 4.72 = 1.06m2
50%
Calculations were conducted for each façade for every hour within a typical day of each of the
45%
cooling months. Figure 7 shows the highest sunlit areas occur during the mornings and
40%
Percentage of Glazing Sunlit

evenings in September as the sun is lower and incident on the South East and North West
35%
facades, where the majority of the buildings glazing is oriented. 30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
May June July Auguest September
(Each bar represents 1 hour)
Figure 7 - Percentage of glazing Sunlit
9
CIBSE provides data for the cooling loads through both sunlit and shaded glazing for each hour
SOLAR COOLING LOAD EXAMPLE CALCUALTION
of the day for each façade angle [7]. Figure 8 shows the peak load was found to be 215kW at
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚2 [𝑊𝑊. 𝑚𝑚−2 ] × 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴[𝑚𝑚2 ] = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 [𝑊𝑊]
11:00 during September. Although the sun is weaker, the lower sun means less shading occurs. For May at 14:00 on South East Façade, assuming glazing has G value 0.7 and Correction
factor 0.85
Shaded Cooling Load: 161 [W. m−2 ] × 200.5 [m2 ] = 32280 [W]
Sunlit Cooling Load: 205 [W. m−2 ] × 371.2 [m2 ] = 76101 [W]
Total Cooling Load: 32280 [W] + 76101 [W] = 108381 [W]
Corrected Cooling Load: 108381 [W] × 0.7 × 0.85 = 64487 [W]
250000
200000
Cooling Load [W]

150000
100000
50000
0
May June July Auguest September
(Each bar represents an hour of the day)
Figure 8 - Glazing cooling load for full building
10
4.3 VENTILATION AND INFILTRATION GAINS
VENTILATION GAIN EXAMPLE CALCUALTION
The airflow entering the building (section 2.5) causes heat gains within the building due to the 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 [𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠] × 𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 [𝐽𝐽/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. 𝐾𝐾] × 𝜌𝜌 [𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 ] = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 [𝑊𝑊/𝐾𝐾]
exterior temperature (26oC) being higher than the internal temperature (21oC). The total load
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 [𝑊𝑊/𝐾𝐾] × ∆𝑇𝑇 [𝐾𝐾] = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 [𝑊𝑊]
was found to be 77083W.
Where CP is the specific heat of air, 𝜌𝜌 is the density of air, ∆𝑇𝑇 is the difference between
external and internal temperatures
10.195 [𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠] × 1020 [𝐽𝐽/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. 𝐾𝐾] × 1.2 [𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 ] = 12479 [𝑊𝑊/𝐾𝐾]
4.4 CASUAL GAINS
12479 [𝑊𝑊/𝐾𝐾] × (26.1 − 21) [𝐾𝐾] = 63641 [𝑊𝑊]
From section 2.6, Table 6 the peak internal gains are 124560W.
4.5 TOTAL COOLING LOAD 450000
Figure 9 shows the peak cooling load is 423kW at 11:00 during September with Table 10 400000
showing the breakdown by type. 350000
Total Cooling Load [W]

300000
250000
Table 10 – Peak Cooling Load Breakdown 200000
Load Type Cooling Load Cooling Load 150000

[W] [%]
100000
Façade Gains 6316.976 1.5%
Roof Gains 740.25 0.2% 50000
Glazing Gains 215045 50.7%
0
Casual Gains 124560 29.4%
Ventilation Gains 63641 15.0% -50000
May June July August September
Infiltration Gains 13442 3.2% (Each bar represents an hour of the day)
Wall Gains Roof Gains Glazing Gains Casual Gains Airflow Gains
Figure 9 - Total Cooling Load Breakdown
(285 words)
11
5. BOILER PLANT SIZING
5.1 SIZING THE BOILER

BOILER SIZING CALCULATION
The peak space heating load (Chapter 3.4) is multiplied by the plant size ratio to find the peak The peak space heating load is calculated:
heating load of the boiler, found to be 561kW. Peak space heating load [W] × Plant Size Ratio = Peak Boiler Load [W]
Table 11 - Peak Boiler Load
468066 [W] × 1.2 = 561679 [W]
Peak space heating load [W] 468066
Peak heating load [kW] 562
= 562 [kW]
Peak heating load [kW/K] 25
5.2 ANNUAL RUNNING COSTS AND EMISSIONS

ENERGY DEMAND CALCULATIONS
The annual heating demand is calculated with the building thermal conductance (section 3.4),
The yearly heating demand [MWh] is found:
and the degree days for the Thames Valley (Heathrow) [8]. This is then divided by the boiler annual heating demand
efficiency to find the energy demand of the boiler, which in turn is used to find the annual cost
= building thermal conductance × heating hours × degree days
of running the boiler and the carbon emissions.
20619[W/K] x 16 [hour/day]x 2033[Kday] ÷ 1,000,000[MW/W] = 670.62 [MWh]
The typical annual fossil fuel and gas cost/m2 floor area is typically expected to be £3/m2 [9]
And used to calculate the annual heating energy demand [MWh]:
and can be halved in good practice, therefore the higher than expected energy cost could
annual heating demand
annual heating energy demand =
suggest that the building fabric should be specified to a higher standard, or more likely that the boiler efficiency
cost of energy has increased in the past 16 years since this advice was published. The annual
670.62 [MWh]
= 789.08[MWh]
carbon emissions and annual energy demand are within the good practice range [10,11] for this 0.85[%]
building type.
Annual heating cost:
Table 12 - Annual heating energy demands 670.62[MWh] × 1000[kWh/MWh] × 0.05[£/kWh] = £39,454.89
Total for building Per m2
Annual heating energy demand [MWh] 789.1 0.0981 Annual carbon emissions:
Annual heating energy cost £39,454.89 £4.91 670.62[MWh] × 1000[kWh/MWh] × 0.2[kgCO2 /kWh] × 1/1000[tonnes/kg]
[£]
= 157.82 [tonnes CO2 ]
Annual carbon emissions 157.8 0.0196
[tonnes CO2]
(168 words)
12
6. AIR CONDITIONING
This Chapter looks at air-conditioning design, based on Section 2.4 and Chapter 4, assuming that
cooling will be required for the 13 hours a day in the warmer months.
6.1 SYSTEM FLOW DIAGRAM

AHU
Fresh Outdoor Air
A system flow diagram is determined. Recirculated Air Mixed Air
Exhaust Air
Extract Supply Air

Fan
Indoor Air
Extract
Fan
ZONE 1
ZONE 2
Figure 10 - System Flow Diagram
13
6.2 PSYCHOMETRIC DESIGN
The ACS uses psychrometry to achieve the desired conditions.

MASS FLOW RATE OF AIR
Four main points are plotted on the chart [12]: 𝐻𝐻𝑆𝑆 = 𝑀𝑀̇ × 𝑐𝑐 × (𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 − 𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆 )
• Room: the dry-bulb temperature is 21°C, the sensible and latent heat gains are where: HS = the sensible heat gain/ loss, in kW = 28.96kW, M = the mass flow rate of air, in
kgs-1., c = the specific heat capacity of air, in kJkg-1K-1 = 1.02 kJkg-1K-1 (CIBSE TM 20), TR
103.098 kW and 21.46 kW respectively. To plot the data, the moisture content of = the room/return temperature, in °C, TS = the supply temperature, in °C.
This can be rearranged to find M, where
the room (gR) was calculated.
𝐻𝐻𝑆𝑆 28.96
• Outside: the dry-bulb temperature is 26°C, with a relative percentage saturation of 𝑀𝑀̇ = = = 2.84 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 −1
𝑐𝑐 × (𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 − 𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆 ) 1.02 × (21 − 11)
60%.
• Supply: the dry-bulb temperature is 11°C, with a relative percentage saturation of

MOISTURE CONTENT OF ROOM AIR
95%.
𝐻𝐻𝐿𝐿 = 𝑀𝑀̇ × 𝐿𝐿 × (𝑔𝑔𝑅𝑅 − 𝑔𝑔𝑆𝑆 )
• Mixed: a room line is drawn, and the temperature is calculated.
where: HL = the latent heat gain/ loss, in kW = 21.46 kW, M = the mass flow rate of air, in kgs-
1 = 10.108., L = Latent heat of vaporisation of water [kJ/kg] = 2450 kJ/kg, gS = the supply
moisture content = 0.008 kg/kg dry air.
This can be rearranged to find gR, where
𝐻𝐻𝐿𝐿 2.145
𝑔𝑔𝑅𝑅 = + 𝑔𝑔𝑆𝑆 = + 0.0082 = 0.00907 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
̇
𝑀𝑀 × 𝐿𝐿 1.01 × 2450
MIXING TEMPERATURE
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 × 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 =
𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡
Where: Tm is mixed air temperature [˚C], To is outdoor air temperature [˚C], Tr is room air
temperature [˚C], Vo is fresh air volume flow rate [m3/s], Vr is recirculated air volume flow rate
[m3/s], Vt is total air volume flow rate [m3/s].
14
Outside Air Properties
Supply Air Properties
Room Air Properties
Mixed Air Properties
Figure 11 - CIBSE psychometric chart
Table 13 - Psychometric Chart Readings
Specific
Moisture Specific Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Percentage
Psychometric Volume
Content (G) Enthalpy (h) Temperature Temperature Saturation
Chart Points (V) /
/ Kgkg-1 / KJ.kg-1 (Tdb) / C (Twb) / C /%
M3/Kg
Outside 0.0135 61.0 26 21.0 60 0.867

Supply 0.0082 31.0 11 11.5 95 0.818
Room 0.0091 43.5 21 16.0 56 0.845
Mixed 0.0106 50.0 22.4 17.9 59 0.851
15
6.3 COOLING ENERGY DEMAND VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE
The mixing temperature was found [13] using the proportion of fresh and mixed air in the V̇ = Ṁ × v
ventilation system to find the peak refrigeration load, which could then be adjusted by
where: v = the specific volume, in m3kg-1.
modelling energy usage to find the average cooling load. V̇ = 10.108 × 0.818 = 8.268 m3 s −1
To find the operating time of the system, CIBSE guide A [14] was used to find that the outdoor
temperature in London is greater than 21˚C for 16.21% of the hours in the year (1420 hours), COOLING LOAD
and the annual CO2 emissions from the refrigeration plant was found to be 79 tonnes (Table Cooling load = mass flow rate × decrease in enthalpy
14). H = Ṁ × (hM − hS ) = 2.84 × (50 − 31) = 53.95kJ
Table 14 - Annual refrigeration energy demand

where: HS = the sensible heat gain/ loss, in kW, M = the mass flow rate of air, in kgs-1., c
Building Per m2 floor area [/m2] = the specific heat capacity of air, in kJkg-1K-1 = 1.02 kJkg-1K-1 (CIBSE TM 20), hM =
the mixed air enthalpy, and hS = the supply air enthalpy, in kJ/kg.
Annual running costs [£] 15757 0.008
Annual carbon emissions 78.78 0.993

[tonnes]
POWER
This can be rearranged to the power, where
𝐻𝐻 52.95
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = = = 19.98 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 2.7
ANNUAL REFRIGERATION ENERGY DEMAND
average cooling load [kW] = peak cooling load [kW] ÷ √2 = 0.707 × 424
= 300[kW]
Where: dividing by √2 models the energy demand as a wave.
Therefore, the annual energy demand is:
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 [𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘ℎ]
= 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 [𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ] × ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 [ℎ]
= 300[𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ] × 1420[ℎ] = 157,561[𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘ℎ]
The cost of electrical energy (£0.10/kWh) can then be used to find the annual energy
cost of refrigeration as £15,757, and the carbon emissions for electricity (0.5kg/kWh)
are used to find the annual CO2 emissions as 79 tonnes.
16
6.4 CONTROL STRATEGY
A fan-assisted variable-air-volume (VAV) system is used, where air is cooled in a central unit, Table 15 - Advantages and disadvantages of VAV systems
and supplied to and extracted from the zones. This ACS work as a fan draws a mixture of Advantages Disadvantages
recirculated air and supply air though a filter and across a two-pipe fan coil system. The air
Allows for variation across multi-zones buildings Requires a lot of space
then moves into a pleninum and through some ducts after which it is supplied through chill
beams and a single-slot diffuser [15]. If excessive air-conditioning is used during low
"Is relatively energy efficient through its "Requires complicated design and
reduction of fan speeds during periods of low to commissioning, where the design of some VAV
occupancy, a demand-control ventilation approach can be applied, where sensors measure moderate loads" systems is simplified and can result in an oversized
plant, wasteful fan power, and increased capital cost"
metabolic CO2 levels, upon which the rate can be varied [16].
Allows for good temperature control May potentially increase notise levels due to fan-
assisted terminal units
(291 words) Allows for mixing air supply with recirculated Fan assisted systems incur higher capital and
room air maintenance costs
Minimized the risk of dumping through the use

of fans
17
7. VENTILATION
7.1 DUCT CONFIGURATION
Four duct networks have been chosen for the office and bathroom sanitary ventilation.
Horizontal ducts run in the ceiling void space, vertical ducts are positioned in the designated
spaces on the floor plans and the supply diffusers and extract grilles are located on the
Figure 12: First floor supply duct and diffusers layout
suspended ceiling (Figure 12-Figure 15).
Based on the volumetric flow rate the following supply diffuser has been chosen, which uses
the Coanda effect to allow the air to travel further with a lower discharge velocity and noise
level.
Table 16 - Supply diffuser
Gilbert Series Four-Way Blow Type DG4
Neck Velocity [m/s] 2.5
Total Pressure [Pa] 17 Figure 13: Ground floor extract duct and grilles layout
Total Air Flow Rate [m3/s] 0.225
Throw [m] 2/3.8
Air is extracted from the office and bathrooms through eggcrate grilles, with two vertical
extraction ducts taking air from the two bathrooms. The office return air path is a separate duct
for mixing with fresh air for recirculation.
Figure 14: First floor extract duct and grilles layout
Figure 15: Ground floor supply duct and diffusers layout
18
7.2 PRESSURE LOSS
FRICTION EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS
The supply index run was calculated as the first floor, due to the unconditioned space on the These example calculations are from points along the supply index run.
ground floor. HAALAND EQUATION

The friction factor was found for the same duct section:
1.11
Total pressure loss of index run = pressure loss in duct/pipe + pressure drop due to components ⎡ 𝑘𝑘[𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚] ⎤
1 6.9 𝑑𝑑[𝑚𝑚]
= −1.8 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ⎢ +� � ⎥
√λ ⎢ 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 3.71 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
7.2.1 PRESSURE LOSS IN A DUCT OR PIPE

Where: λ is the friction factor [dimensionless], k is the roughness [mm], and d is the pipe
diameter [m].
The pipe roughness was found for an ordinary galvanised steel pipe [7]. The pressure loss
1.11
⎡ 0.12[𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚] ⎤
[Pa/m] was compared to data from figure 4.2, CIBSE guide C for verification. 1 6.9 0.97[𝑚𝑚]
= −1.8 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ⎢ +� � ⎥ = 8.25
√λ ⎢485195 3.71 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
λ = 0.0147
D’ARCY EQUATION
The pressure drop per unit length of duct was found:
FRICTION EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS
λlρu2
These example calculations are from points along the supply index run. ∆P =
2d
REYNOLDS NUMBER
For the vertical pipe between branches to the second and first floor: Where ∆P is the pressure loss [Pa], λ is the friction factor [dimensionless], l is the pipe length
[m] (taken as l=1 when calculating pressure drop per unit length), ρ is density [kg/m3], u is
ρud velocity [m/s], and d is the pipe diameter [m].
Re =
μ
λlρu2 0.0147 × 1[m] × 1.2[kg/m3 ] × 7.5[m/s]2
∆P = = = 0.511[Pa/m]
2d 2 × 0.97[m]
Where: Re is the Reynolds number [dimensionless], ρ is the fluid density (1.2 for air) [kg/m3],
u is the fluid velocity [m/s], and µ is the viscosity of the fluid [kg/ms].
And used to calculate the pressure drop along that duct section:
1.2[kg/m3 ] × 7.5[m/s] × 0.97[m]
= = 485195 0.535[Pa/m] × 3.6[m] = 1.840[Pa]
1.8 × 10−5 [kg/ms]
Demonstrating that the flow is turbulent as Re>2000.
19
7.2.2 COMPONENTS PRESSURE LOSS
COMPONENT PRESSURE DROP COMPONENT EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS

1 The pressure drop across the tee junction at the branch to the second floor is calculated below.
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 = ς ρu2
2 Firstly, the relative branch [qb] to input flow rate [qc] is calculated in order to find the pressure
loss factor for the branch flow:
Where: ∆P is the pressure loss [Pa], ς is the pressure loss factor [dimensionless], ρ is density 𝑞𝑞𝑏𝑏 3.38[𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠]
= = 0.333
𝑞𝑞𝑐𝑐 10.14[𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠]
ς was found in CIBSE guide C for straight [18] and branch flow [19] in tee junctions, elbow
Then the straight flow [qs] to input flow rate [qc] is calculated:
junctions [20] and Y junctions [21].The diffuser components have a pressure drop of 17Pa per
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 6.76[𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠]
= = 0.667
diffuser [22] and the extract grill has a pressure drop of 6Pa [23]. 𝑞𝑞𝑐𝑐 10.14[𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠]
To ensure that noise levels from the pipes were not disruptive, low air velocities appropriate to Therefore, for the branch flow ς=0.06, and the straight flow ς=0.00, and the pressure loss for the
component can be calculated as a sum of the pressure loss from the straight flow and the branch
the size of the duct were applied to the system [24]. flow:
1 1
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 = 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏ℎ + 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑔𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑡 = 𝜍𝜍𝑏𝑏 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢2 + 𝜍𝜍𝑠𝑠 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢2
Table 17 shows the supply and extract index run pressure drops which vary due to different 2 2
duct layouts and components. 1

= 0.06 × × 1.2[𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 ] × 6[𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠]2 + 0 = 1.30𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
2
Table 17 - Index run total pressure drop
The branch velocity (6m/s) was used to calculate the branch pressure loss, and the main duct
velocity (7.5m/s) for the straight pressure loss. Because the junctions have been specified with
Supply Index Run [Pa] 551.4 bevels, the effect of the straight flow on pressure loss is negligible at most points in the ducts, as
(roof to first floor)
is demonstrated above.
Extract Index Run [Pa] 594.1

(roof to ground floor)
20
7.3 FAN SIZING
FAN POWER
7 AHU are required for the system, therefore each fan would be required to have a power of The power that must be supplied to the air in the ducts in order to achieve the
3.3kW. A low specific fan power (SFP) [W/ls-1] indicates a high efficiency of air distribution desired flow is calculated using:
system, should not exceed 2 W/ls-1 [25].

𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝑸𝑸̇∆𝑷𝑷
Table 18 - Fan energy demand
Annual Annual 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 [𝑊𝑊 ] = 35.31 [𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠] × 551.4[𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃] = 19427 [𝑊𝑊]
per m2
Energy demand of fan Hfan [kWh] 32530.02698 3.29 Where: Pair is the air power [W], 𝑄𝑄̇ is the volume flow rate [m3/s], ∆P is the
Energy cost of fan [£] 3253.002698 0.33 pressure loss [Pa].
Fan CO2 emissions [tCO2] 16.26501349 0.0017

The electrical power supplied to the fans can then be calculated:
Pair
Pelec =
μ
SPECIFIC FAN POWER 19472 [W]

Pelec = = 22909[W]
Pelec 22909 0.85
SFP = = = 0.65
1000Q̇ T 1000 × 35.31
Where: Pelec is the electrical power [W], Pair is the air power [W], and µ is the fan
efficiency [%].
Where: SFP is the specific fan power [W/ls-1], Pelec is the electrical power [W], and QT is the total
The annual energy demand of the fan:
𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 × 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

(300 words)
22909
𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = [𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘] × 1420[ℎ/𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦] = 32530[𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘ℎ/𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦]
1000
Where: Pelec is the electrical power [kW], Hfan is the annual energy demand of the
fan [kWh], and the operational hours for the year are taken from table 2.7 in
CIBSE guide A as the number of hours per year that the outdoor temperature
21
8. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
Various changes are investigated in this chapter, testing their effects on the annual heating, cooling, Table 19 - Sensitivity analysis cases description
fan and building energy demands and carbon emissions per square meter of floor area. The various Case # Case description
changes and baseline values are listed in Section 8.1. Sections 8.2 and 8.3 then compare the newer 1 The fabric thermal inertia is increased such that f=0.2 and φ=7hours, and the window
correction factor is 0.70
values of the annual energy demands, carbon emissions and cost to the baseline results, and the most
2 All windows are shaded 100% of the time during the cooling season.
notable change is determined in Section 8.4.
3 The building is of dark colour.
4 The winter comfort temperature is decreased by 2 ºC, while the summer one is increased
by the same amount.
8.1 BASELINE VALUES 5 All windows are replaced with triple glazed clear absorbing panes with a g-value of 0.40
and correction factor of 0.40 (for heavyweight buildings).
Table 20 - Baseline values
6.1 An upper floor is removed (9 floors)
Baseline Values
6.2 An upper floor is added (11 floors)
Annual heating gas energy demand [kWh] 789077.7
Annual cooling energy demand [kWh] 157560.7
Annual fan energy demand [kWh] 32530.0
Annual building energy demand [kWh/m2] 99.2
Carbon emissions [tCO2/year] 253
Baseline Values per floor area
Annual heating gas energy [kWh/m2] 79.9
Annual cooling electrical energy[kWh] 16.0
Annual fan energy demand [kWh/m2] 3.3
Building energy demand [kWh/m2] 99.2
Carbon emissions [tCO2/year/m2] 0.0
Cost (GBP/year) 58463.0
22
8.2 ANNUAL ENERGY DEMANDS 3
Annual Heating Gas Energy Demand

The annual heating, cooling, fan, and building energy demands are recalculated following the 2
application of the aforementioned changes (Table 21). 1
Reduction (%)
0
Table 21 - Annual Energy Demands
-1
Variable Case
-2
Baseline 1 2 3 4 5 6.1 6.2
Annual heating 789077.7 789077.7 789077.7 789077.7 789077.7 769361.2 770586.0 807569.5 -3
gas energy 6.2 1 2 3 4 6.1 5
demand [kWh] Case Number
Annual heating 79.9 79.9 79.9 79.9 79.9 77.9 86.7 74.4
gas energy Figure 16: Annual heating gas energy demand reduction (%)
[kWh/m2]
% Reduction - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 2.3 -2.3
Annual cooling 157560.7 140551.5 140244.9 162165.9 145192.2 99102.5 144996.3 166491.6 40
energy demand
Annual Cooling Electrical Energy

35
[kWh]
30
Demand Reduction (%)

Annual cooling 16.0 14.2 14.2 16.4 14.7 10.0 16.3 15.3
electrical 25
energy[kWh]
20
% Reduction - 10.8 11.0 -2.9 7.8 37.1 8.0 -5.7
15
Annual fan 32530.0 29742.5 29692.0 23436.2 30506.3 22781.0 30474.1 33981.3
10
energy demand
[kWh] 5
Annual fan 3.3 3.0 3.0 2.4 3.1 2.3 3.4 3.1 0
energy demand
[kWh/m2] -5
% Reduction - 8.6 8.7 28.0 6.2 30.0 6.3 -4.5 -10
6.2 3 4 6.1 1 2 5
Annual building 99.2 97.2 97.1 99.7 97.7 90.3 95.8 102.1
energy demand Case Number
[kWh/m2]
% Reduction - 2.0 2.1 -0.5 1.5 9.0 3.4 -2.9
Figure 17: Annual cooling electrical energy demand reduction (%)
35
There is an overall percentage reduction in all cases, with the exception of cases 3 and 6.2 which
Annual Fan Energy Demand

30
25
see a demand increase of 0.5% and 2.9%, respectively.
Reduction (%)
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
6.2 4 6.1 1 2 3 5
Case Number
Figure 18: Annual fan energy demand reduction (%)
23
The annual heating demand shows no change for cases 1-3 where there is no alteration in values 10
Annual Building Energy Demand

in the heating calculations (Figure 15). It was unexpected that there was no reduction in Case 4 8
6
with the decreased temperature difference, however this can be attributed to the heating energy
Reduction (%)
4
demand calculations which relies on degree days rather than a temperature difference. The
2
highest reduction was recorded in Case 5, where the window glazing is changed, reducing heat 0
-2
loss. Meanwhile the maximum increase was in case 6.2 where another floor was added.
-4
6.2 3 4 1 2 6.1 5
The cooling demand also shows an expected pattern, wherein all cases but 3 and 6.2 show Case Number
a reduction in the energy demand, where Case 3 requires more to cool down the dark building,
Figure 19: Annual building energy demand reduction (%)
while Case 6 requires more to cool the added floor. The biggest reduction was found in Case 5
20
Carbon Emissions Reduction (%)

(almost 3 times greater than the second greatest reduction), for similar reasons to above. 18
16
Finally, changes in the fan energy demand are again mostly affected by changing the glazing in 14
12
Case 5 (30% reduction), this is followed by an 8.7% reduction in Case 2, where the windows are 10
8
100% shaded, leading to less heat gain over the cooling seasons. 6
4
2
0
6.2 3 4 1 2 6.1 5
Case Number
Figure 20: Carbon emissions reduction (%)

8.3 ANNUAL CARBON EMISSIONS
Table 22 - Environmental and cost parameters 16
14
Variable Case
12
Total Cost Reduction (%)

Baseline 1 2 3 4 5 6.1 6.2
10
Carbon emissions 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 8
[tCO2/year/m2] 6
% Reduction - 7.4 7.5 2.9 6.5 17.7 8.0 0.5 4
2
Cost [£] 58463 56483 56447 58998 57023.7 50656 56076 60425 0
% Reduction - 3.4 3.4 -0.9 2.5 13.4 4.1 -3.4 -2
-4
-6
6.2 3 4 1 2 6.1 5
Results show an overall decrease in the carbon emissions in all the cases. Case 5 resulted with Case Number
the most significant reduction, followed by Case 6.1 and Case 2. The decrease in carbon
Figure 21: Total cost reduction (%)
24
emission is due to the reduction in energy consumption, thus the total energy cost also
decreases. The most significant percentage reduction occurred in the cases whose changes were
dependent on glazing, which makes up 23.3% of the building.
The practicality of these changes can be analysed through looking at the cost. Case 5 is the most
feasible at a 13.4% reduction, while the most expensive case is 6.2.
8.4 RANKING
It can be estimated that the most energy saving changes are made in Case 5, while the least
effective is Case 6.2.
Table 23 - Case ranking
Annual Annual
Annual fan Annual
Heating cooling Carbon Total Average
Case energy Energy
Energy electrical Emissions Cost Rank
demand Demand
Demand energy
1 3 3 3 4 4 2 3.2
2 4 2 2 3 3 4 3.0
3 6 5 5 5 6 5 5.3
4 5 6 6 6 5 7 5.8
5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.0
6.1 2 4 4 2 2 3 2.8
6.2 7 7 7 7 7 6 6.8
(441 words)
25
9. FIRE PROTECTION
HORIZONTAL ESCAPE EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS
9.1 HORIZONTAL ESCAPE The ground floor exit width is calculated:
Width per occupant [mm] × number of occupants = width of exit [mm]

The building is categorized as an office building with simultaneous escape. On office floors all
doors need to be >850mm as the occupancy is greater than 80 per floor [26]. To allow 5 [mm] × 758 = 3793 [mm]
simultaneous exit of all the occupants the ground floor exit should be at least 3793mm wide.
Doors at both ends of the central core need to be self-closing [27].
9.2 VERTICAL ESCAPE
As the building has floors higher than 11m multiple escape stairs are needed [28] These already
exist within the plan. All corridors that serve part of means of escape need to be protected
corridors [29].
As the office is open plan it is classified as simultaneous evacuation. 9 floors are served with a
stair width of 1000mm. 379 occupants would evacuate through each of the stairwells, and this
size stairwell will serve a maximum of 470 people [30]. A smoke detector system that complies Figure 22 - Smoke Detector Coverage
with building regulations BS EN 12101-6:2005 should be fitted within each stairwells (Figure
22, Figure 23) [31]. Refuges of dimensions 900mmx1400mm need to be provided on each floor
of the escape stairwell so that they do not interfere with the escape route. Currently this is not
provided; see Figure 24 for suggested solution [32]. Artificial lighting for fire evacuation should
be installed in the escape stairs and the open plan office space [33].
Figure 23 - Heat Detector Coverage
26
9.3 COMPARTMENTALISATION
For fire containment the building is segregated into compartments. Escape routes are through
the open plan office space to the protected stairwells and out through the protected lobby [34].
A protected lobby is required as the stairs serve stories with a height greater than 18m [35].
Every escape route must discharge through protected areas and every protected stairway
should have an approach distance of 1200mm [36].

Figure 24 - Refuge Area Plan
Ventilation ducts that supply/extract from protected areas should serve no other areas to
prevent air contamination. Smoke detectors should be in the extract ducts as the system
recirculates air [37]. All openings should be sealed with fire stopping and contain fire dampers
[38]. At the points where the ducts create openings from a fire protected area to another space
in the building the integrity of the compartment should be maintained through fire dampers, a
fire-resistant enclosure and fire-resistant duct work [39]. Fire dampers are placed within the
thickness of the fire separating elements and have access for inspection [40, 41].
9.4 FIREFIGHTING SERVICES
Access for firefighting personnel is vital, all floors >18m need to have access from the
firefighting shaft. Figure 24 shows the dedicated firefighting lift, linking to the lobby which is
the dedicated firefighting shaft as it is less than 45m away from an outlet in a protected
stairway. As the basement is less than 10m in depth the lift does not need to serve it [42]. The
shaft must have a minimum fire resistance of 120 minutes with doors of 60-minute resistance
[43]. All firefighting shafts should be equipped with fire mains outlet connections at each floor.
The must be one hose reel for every [800m2] of floor space, each floor above the ground will
require two hoses which should be positioned at each end of the building [44].
(494 words)
27
10. VERTICAL TRANSPORT
The lift traffic design and analysis has been based on the classical model. The following calculations
10.1.3 Average highest reversal floor (H)
are based on data from CIBSE Guide D.
N−1
i P
H=N− ��
10.1 THE ROUND TRIP TIME (RTT) N
i=1
The time required for a lift to make a round trip around the building during traffic conditions i 7.6
H = 9 − ∑8i=1 � � = 8.38
9
has to be determined (RTT) and is calculated by the following equation [45]:
RTT = 2 H tv + (S + 1) (T – tv) + 2 P tp 10.1.4 Average number of stops (S)

1 P 1 7.6
S = N − �1 − �1 − � � = 9 − �1 − �1 − � � = 5.32
The building was assumed to be a speculative one with 30s travel time between floors and a lift N 9
rated speed of 1.6m/s [46].
10.1.5 Value for floor transit time (tv)

10.1.1 Value for average number of passengers (P)
df (interfloor distance) = DT / N = 36.6/ 9 = 4.06m
The building’s floor plans show that a single lift has a floor area of 2m2 , therefore the lift’s rated
load is 800 kg and actual capacity is 9.5 persons [47]. tv = df/v = 4.06/ 1.6 = 2.54 sec
P = 0.8 X Actual Capacity (AC) = 0.8 × 9.5 = 7.6 persons
The Round Trip Time (RTT)
10.1.2 Performance time (T) & average one-way passenger transfer time (tp) RTT = 2 H tv + (S + 1) (T – tv) + 2 P tp
The value for single floor flight time (tf(1))[48] was taken as 5.8 sec, the value for start delay
RTT = 2 × 8.38 × 2.54 + (5.32 + 1) × (11.3 – 2.54) + 2 × 1.2 = 116.24 sec
(tsd)[49] as 0.5 sec, the values for tc and to[50] as 2.0 sec and the value for advance door opening
(tad) [51] as 1.0 sec. The tp was taken as 1.2 sec.
After the RTT is determined, the up-peak interval time (UPPINT), the up peak
T = tf(1) + tsd + tc + to – tad
handling capacity (UPPHC) and the percentage of building population that can be
= 5.8 + 0.5 + 2 + 2 – 1 = 11.3 sec handled (%POP) can be obtained to determine if the lift installation in the building
is adequate.
28
10.2 THE UP-PEAK INTERVAL (UPPINT)
the capacity and the rated speed can be increased. In terms of accessibility, the installed
lift is a class I passenger lift, and has a door width of 800mm which allows the transport
UPPINT = RTT / number of lifts (L)
of a person in a wheelchair with an accompanying person. One of the pre-existing lifts
= 116.24 / 4 = 29.06 sec
will be designated the firefighting lift, shown in figure 15. [17.13] The firefighting lift
installation includes the car, well, machinery space, control and communications system
10.3 THE UP-PEAK HANDLING CAPACITY (UPPHC)
and must conform with clauses 7&8 of BS 5588-5:2004.
UPPHC = 300P / UPPINT
= (300 × 7.6) / 29.06 = 78.46 ≈ 79 (359 words)
This means that the four lifts can transport 79 persons every 5 mins.
10.4 PERCENTAGE POPULATION SERVED (%POP)
%POP = (UPPHC × 100) / Building’s population (U)
= (79 × 100) / 759 = 10.4%
10.5 AVERAGE WAITING TIME
AWT = [0.4 + (1.8P/CC-0.77)2] × UPPINT
= [0.4 + (1.8(7.6)/(9.5)-0.77)2] × 29.06 = 93 sec
The AWT is not satisfactory as it exceeds 30 seconds [52]. In addition, the handling capacity
was calculated as 79 persons every 5 minutes, however the passenger arrival rate (759 × 12% =
91 persons) should be considered the target handling capacity of the installed lift system, which
means that the lifts handling capacity is also unsatisfactory. To resolve these issues, the number
of lifts,
29
CONCLUSIONS
• The peak heating load was found to be 468066W at an outdoor temperature of -1.7˚C.
Ventilation accounts for 59% of this heat loss.
• The peak cooling load assuming an outdoor temperature of 26.1˚C. Although the peak solar
gains through the façade occurred in July, the overall peak cooling load was in September at
11am when glazing heat gains accounted for 50.7% of the total heat gains.
• Sizing the boiler and air conditioning systems led to an annual energy demand of 979168kWh,
of which 80.5% is gas which has lower carbon emissions and is less expensive than electricity.
• A VAV system should be used to cool the building, with treated recirculated air used to reduce
the cooling energy load on the building.
• Adding an office floor had the least reduction in annual energy demand (2.9%) and carbon
emissions (0.5%). The most effective alteration was replacing the windows with triple glazing,
which decreases the annual energy demand by 9.0% and the carbon emissions are reduced by
17.7%, saving £7,807 annually.
• To abide by fire safety regulations, refuge points must be provided on each floor of the escape
stairwell. The two staircases are sufficient for evacuation of the office occupants, and one lift
should be dedicated for firefighting.
• The round trip time of vertical transport was found to be 116.24 seconds, and the average
waiting time was 93 seconds which is unsatisfactory as it far exceeds the acceptable 30 seconds.
The lift system can transport 79 people every 5 minutes.
(247 words)
30
31
REFERENCES
[1] CIBSE (2018). CIBSE Guide A: Environmental design. London: CIBSE Publications, Table 1.5.
[9] CIBSE (2003). Energy Use in Offices. Energy Consumption Guide. CIBSE Publications, Figure 2.
[10] CIBSE (2003). Energy Use in Offices. Energy Consumption Guide. London: CIBSE Publications, Figure 1.
[11] CIBSE (2003). Energy Use in Offices. Energy Consumption Guide. London: CIBSE Publications, Figure 3.
[12] HM Government (2015). Approved Document F: Ventilation. London: NBS.
[13] Chadderton, D.V., 2014. Air conditioning : a practical introduction / David V. Chadderton. 3rd ed., London.
[15] Chadderton, D.V., 2014. Air conditioning : a practical introduction / David V. Chadderton. 3rd ed., London.
[16] Pennycook, K. (2010). The Illustrated Guide to Mechanical Cooling. BRISA guides. BRISA.
[17] CIBSE (2007). CIBSE Guide C: Reference data. London: CIBSE Publications, Table 4.1.
[22] Gilberts (2015). Series DG Louvred Face Ceiling Diffusers. Blackpool: Gilberts (Blackpool) Ltd, p.11.
[23] Gilberts (2018). Series GE Eggcrate Grilles. Blackpool: Gilberts (Blackpool) Ltd, p.5.
[24] CIBSE (2005). CIBSE Guide B: Heating, ventilating, air conditioning and refrigeration. London: CIBSE Publications, Table 3.2.
[25] HM Government (2016). Approved Document L2A: Conservation of fuel and power. London: NBS.
[26] HM Government (2016). Approved Document B – Volume 2: Buildings other than dwellinghouses. London: NBS. Section 2.8, Table 4.
32
[27] HM Government (2016). Approved Document B – Volume 2: Buildings other than dwellinghouses. London: NBS. Section 2.8, Diagram 13.
[28] HM Government (2016). Approved Document B – Volume 2: Buildings other than dwellinghouses. London: NBS. Section 4.5.b.
[29] HM Government (2016). Approved Document B – Volume 2: Buildings other than dwellinghouses. London: NBS. Section 3.24.
[30] HM Government (2016). Approved Document B – Volume 2: Buildings other than dwellinghouses. London: NBS. Section 4, Table 7.
[32] HM Government (2016). Approved Document B – Volume 2: Buildings other than dwellinghouses. London: NBS. Section 5, Table 9.
[33] HM Government (2016). Approved Document B – Volume 2: Buildings other than dwellinghouses. London: NBS. Section 5.
[34] HM Government (2016). Approved Document B – Volume 2: Buildings other than dwellinghouses. London: NBS. Section 4.34b.
[43] HM Government (2016). Approved Document B – Volume 2: Buildings other than dwellinghouses. London: NBS. Section 17, Diagram 52.
[45] CIBSE (2015). CIBSE Guide D: Transportation systems in buildings. London: CIBSE Publications, Section 3.5.1.
[46] CIBSE (2015). CIBSE Guide D: Transportation systems in buildings. London: CIBSE Publications, Section 3.5.6 Table 3.2.
33
APPENDIX: A
Fabric Losses Breakdown
Surface Width [m] Height Number per Floor Area [m²] U-value [W/m²/K] Thermal Conductance [W/K] Proportion of
[m] Fabric Losses
Ground Floor (1) Window (Large) 4.6 1.5 4 27.6 2.2 60.72 1%
Window (Small) 3.85 1.5 24 138.6 2.2 304.92 5%
Wall 155.5 3.6 1 393.6 0.35 137.76 2%
Entrance Doors 3.85 3.6 2 27.72 3.5 97.02 2%
Vehicle Access Door 4.5 4 4 72 3.5 252 4%
Floor 50 19.74 1 987 0.25 246.75 4%
Total 1099.17 19%
First floor (1) Window (Large) 4.6 1.5 4 27.6 2.2 60.72 1%
Window (Small) 3.85 1.5 24 138.6 2.2 304.92 5%
Wall 139.48 3.6 1 335.928 0.35 117.5748 2%
Floor 1 427.35 0.25 106.8375 2%
Total 590.0523 10%
Middle Floors (7) Window (Large) 4.6 1.5 4 27.6 2.2 60.72 1%
Window (Small) 3.85 1.5 24 138.6 2.2 304.92 5%
Wall 139.48 3.6 1 335.928 0.35 117.5748 2%
Total 483.2148 8%
Top floor (1) Window (Large) 4.6 1.5 4 27.6 2.2 60.72 1%
Window (Small) 3.85 1.5 24 138.6 2.2 304.92 5%
Wall 139.48 3.6 1 335.928 0.35 117.5748 2%
Roof 50 19.74 1 987 0.25 246.75 4%
Total 729.9648 13%
Total Fabric Losses 5801.6907 100%
Heating Load Breakdown

Surface Area [m2] U-value [W/m2/K] Thermal Load Proportion of
Conductance [W] load
[W/K]
Windows 1662 2.2 3656.4 83000 17%
Walls 3416 0.35 1195.9 27147 6%
Doors 99 3.5 349.0 7922 2%
Floor 1414 0.25 353.6 8026 2%
Roof 987 0.25 246.8 5601 1%
Airflow Type Airflow Rate Specific Heat Density of Air Thermal Load Proportion of
[m3/s] Capacity of Air [kg/m3] Conductance [W] load
[J/kg.K] [W/K]
Ventilation 10.195 1000 1.2 12233.9 277711 59%
Infiltration 2.153 1000 1.2 2584.0 58657 13%
TOTAL 20619.7 468066 100.00%
34
APPENDIX B
Glazing Gains Calculations, Peak Month – September
NE façade NW façade SE façade SW façade Full Building
Total cooling Load for building
Total cooling Load for building

including G values and correction
Total Cooling Load for Façade [W]
Total Cooling Load for Façade [W]

Total cooling Load for Façade [W]
Total cooling load for façade [W]

Shaded Cooling Load [W.m-2]

Sunlit Cooling Load [W.m-2]

Shaded Cooling Load [W]
Shaded Cooling load [W]

Sunlit Cooling Load [W]
Sunlit cooling load [W]

Shaded Area [m²]
Shaded Area [m²]
Shaded Area [m²]
Shaded Area [m²]

Sunlit Area [m²]
Sunlit Area [m²]
Sunlit Area [m²]
Sunlit Area [m²]
factor [W]
Time
[W]
7:00 73.03 103.14 117 54 8544 5569 14114 76.37 472.25 33 38 2520 17945 20465 571.73 0.00 245 126 140072 0 140072 176.18 0.00 43 94 7575 0 7575 182228 108425
8:00 176.18 0.00 51 185 8984 0 8984 94.37 454.26 43 50 4057 22712 26770 571.73 0.00 331 495 189241 0 189240 176.18 0.00 55 107 9689 0 9689 234686 139638
9:00 176.18 0.00 80 89 14094 0 14094 123.00 425.62 58 66 7134 28091 35225 571.73 0.00 356 536 203534 0 203534 176.18 0.00 70 122 12335 0 12332 265185 157785
10:00 176.18 0.00 69 78 12156 0 12156 166.26 382.37 69 77 11471 29442 40914 359.69 212.04 346 566 124451 120013 244465 176.18 0.00 74 136 130366 0 13036 310572 184790
11:00 176.18 0.00 77 86 13565 0 13565 228.47 320.16 76 86 17363 27533 44897 238.09 333.64 304 529 72378 176493 248872 176.18 0.00 307 243 54085 0 54085 361420 215045
12:00 176.18 0.00 81 91 14270 0 14270 344.75 203.88 81 90 27924 18348 46273 173.11 398.62 240 453 41546 180573 222119 176.18 0.00 268 361 47214 0 47214 329877 196277
13:00 176.18 0.00 81 90 14270 0 14270 548.63 0.00 81 90 44438 0 44438 127.92 443.80 85 349 10873 154886 165759 176.18 0.00 317 458 55847 0 55847 280316 166788
14:00 176.18 0.00 77 86 13565 0 13565 548.63 0.00 77 85 42244 0 42244 97.97 473.76 171 225 16752 106596 123348 176.18 0.00 340 517 59899 0 59899 239057 142238
15:00 176.18 0.00 69 77 12156 0 12156 548.63 0.00 69 82 37855 0 37855 79.08 492.65 76 130 6009 64044 70054 72.98 103.19 330 537 24083 55414 79498 199564 118740
16:00 176.18 0.00 58 64 10218 0 10218 548.63 0.00 156 100 85585 0 85585 59.73 511.99 71 124 4241 63486 67728 31.46 144.71 286 503 8998 72790 81788 245320 145965
17:00 176.18 0.00 44 49 7751 0 7751 548.63 0.00 47 158 25785 0 25785 571.73 0.00 57 109 32588 0 32588 176.18 0.00 99 407 17441 0 17441 83566 49722
35
Sol Air Calculations, Peak Month - July
Sol-air temperature [°C]
Lag time
Air Temp
[hours]
Time
Horizontal North-East South-East South-West North-West Sum of Total

walls
Light Wall Factor
Light Wall Factor
Light Wall Factor
Light Wall Factor
Light Wall Factor

Q theta+phi [W]
Q theta+phi [W]
Q theta+phi [W]
Q theta+phi [W]
Q theta+phi [W]
Q theta+phi [W]
Q theta+phi [W]
Qm wall [W]
Q theta [W]
Q theta [W]
Q theta [W]
Q theta [W]
Q theta [W]
Qm [W]
Qm [W]
Qm [W]
Qm [W]
0:30 2:00 13.6 370.1 -2566.2 -2566.2 12.6 152.8 -1604.6 -1604.6 13.4 1321.2 -3699.3 -3699.3 12.6 439.3 -1604.6 -1604.6 12.6 89.7 -3767.2 -3767.2 12.6 -10675 -40477
1:30 3:00 13 370.1 -2541.5 -2541.5 12.2 152.8 -1681.0 -1681.0 12.8 1321.2 -3875.5 -3875.5 12.2 439.3 -1681.0 -1681.0 12.2 89.7 -3946.6 -3946.6 12.2 -11184 -42258
2:30 4:00 12.7 370.1 -2344.1 -2344.1 12.3 152.8 -1661.9 -1661.9 14.3 1321.2 -3831.4 -3831.4 12.3 439.3 -1661.9 -1661.9 12.3 89.7 -3901.8 -3901.8 12.3 -11057 -41609
3:30 5:00 12 370.1 -2961.0 -2961.0 11 152.8 -1910.2 -1910.2 16.4 1321.2 -4404.0 -4404.0 11 439.3 -1910.2 -1910.2 11 89.7 -4484.8 -4484.8 11 -12709 -48093
4:30 6:00 12.4 370.1 -2738.9 -2738.9 11.8 152.8 -1757.4 -1757.4 12.6 1321.2 -4051.6 -4051.6 11.8 439.3 -1757.4 -1757.4 11.8 89.7 -4126.0 -4126.0 11.8 -11692 -44260
5:30 7:00 12.9 370.1 -2122.1 -2122.1 15.9 152.8 -76.4 -76.4 21.8 1321.2 -1805.6 -1805.6 13.2 439.3 -1489.9 -1489.9 13.2 89.7 -3498.2 -3498.2 13.2 -6870 -26751
6:30 8:00 14.1 370.1 -1061.0 -1061.0 17.2 152.8 1165.2 1165.2 30.8 1321.2 1453.3 1453.3 15.4 439.3 -1069.7 -1069.7 15.4 89.7 -2511.5 -2511.5 15.4 -962 -4437
7:30 9:00 16 370.1 246.8 246.8 18 152.8 1719.2 1719.2 37.3 1321.2 4800.3 4800.3 19.1 439.3 -573.1 -573.1 18 89.7 -1345.4 -1345.4 18 4601. 17269
8:30 10:00 18 370.1 1505.2 1505.2 20.7 152.8 1528.2 1528.2 39.2 1321.2 7090.4 7090.4 25.8 439.3 -57.3 -57.3 20.7 89.7 -134.5 -134.5 20.7 8426 32813
9:30 11:00 19 370.1 2393.5 2393.5 22.2 152.8 821.4 821.4 37.4 1321.2 7927.1 7927.1 31.1 439.3 229.2 229.2 22.2 89.7 538.2 538.2 22.2 9515 38136
10:30 12:00 21.7 370.1 3528.5 3528.5 25.2 152.8 802.3 802.3 35.1 1321.2 8587.7 8587.7 37.2 439.3 1031.5 1031.5 25.2 89.7 1883.6 1883.6 25.2 12305 49162
11:30 13:00 22 370.1 3725.9 3725.9 25.8 152.8 916.9 916.9 29 1321.2 7046.3 7046.3 38.7 439.3 2158.5 2158.5 25.8 89.7 2152.7 2152.7 25.8 12274 48177
12:30 12:30 23 370.1 4096.1 4096.1 26.7 152.8 1088.8 1088.8 27.5 1321.2 5505.0 5505.0 40.2 439.3 3323.7 3323.7 29.2 89.7 2556.3 2556.3 26.7 12473 48152
13:30 13:30 24 370.1 4096.1 4096.1 27.5 152.8 1241.6 1241.6 28.3 1321.2 3391.1 3391.1 39.5 439.3 4164.2 4164.2 36.6 89.7 2915.1 2915.1 27.5 11712 44340
14:30 16:00 24.6 370.1 3405.2 3405.2 28.1 152.8 1356.2 1356.2 28.9 1321.2 3126.8 3126.8 35.4 439.3 3973.2 3973.2 39.8 89.7 4350.3 4350.3 30.7 12806 47696
15:30 17:00 24.2 370.1 3109.1 3109.1 27 152.8 1146.1 1146.1 27.7 1321.2 2642.4 2642.4 32.1 439.3 4259.7 4259.7 44.7 89.7 6413.3 6413.3 35.3 14461 53379
16:30 18:00 24.7 370.1 1949.3 1949.3 27.2 152.8 1184.3 1184.3 28.7 1321.2 2730.5 2730.5 28.1 439.3 2387.7 2387.7 35.3 89.7 5202.4 5202.4 32.6 11504 42523
17:30 19:00 24.6 370.1 1110.4 1110.4 26.8 152.8 916.9 916.9 28.4 1321.2 2113.9 2113.9 25.8 439.3 1566.4 1566.4 31.1 89.7 4081.2 4081.2 30.1 8678 31863
18:30 20:00 24 370.1 567.5 567.5 26.4 152.8 611.3 611.3 25 1321.2 1409.3 1409.3 24.2 439.3 1184.3 1184.3 30.3 89.7 4036.3 4036.3 30 7241 26350
19:30 21:00 22.9 370.1 -172.7 -172.7 22.2 152.8 229.2 229.2 23 1321.2 528.5 528.5 22.2 439.3 229.2 229.2 22.2 89.7 538.2 538.2 22.2 1525 5243
20:30 22:00 22.1 370.1 -468.8 -468.8 21.1 152.8 19.1 19.1 21.9 1321.2 44.0 44.0 21.1 439.3 19.1 19.1 21.1 89.7 44.8 44.8 21.1 127 -17
21:30 23:00 20.6 370.1 -666.2 -666.2 19.8 152.8 -229.2 -229.2 20.4 1321.2 -528.5 -528.5 19.8 439.3 -229.2 -229.2 19.8 89.7 -538.2 -538.2 19.8 -1525 -6082
22:30 0:00 19.5 370.1 -1110.4 -1110.4 18.5 152.8 -477.5 -477.5 21.1 1321.2 -1101.0 -1101.0 18.5 439.3 -477.5 -477.5 18.5 89.7 -1121.2 -1121.2 18.5 -3177 -12393
23:30 1:00 14.5 370.1 -2344.1 -2344.1 13.5 152.8 -1432.6 -1432.6 14.3 1321.2 -3303.0 -3303.0 13.5 439.3 -1432.6 -1432.6 13.5 89.7 -3363.6 -3363.6 13.5 -9531 -36193
Temp 19 20.4 24.8 23.4 22.6 21.2 0 0
(mean)
36
Cooling Load Calculations, Peak Month - September
Facades - Sol air Glazing - Casual heat gains Airflow gains Total Sensible Total Building
[W] Solar shading [W] [W] [W] Latent Total
[W] [W] [W]
Time / Lag Time [h] Wall Roof Windows Sensible Latent Ventilation Infiltration
2:00 -9023.5 -2122.05 74139.25 63641.07 133441.97 140076.74 0 140,077
3:00 -10167.3 -2467.5 74139.25 63641.07 133441.97 138587.46 0 138,587
4:00 -9531.87 -2048.03 74139.25 63641.07 133441.97 139642.4 0 139,642
5:00 -10675.7 -2566.2 74139.25 63641.07 133441.97 137980.4 0 137,980
6:00 -11057 -2442.83 74139.25 63641.07 133441.97 137722.5 0 137,722
7:00 -11184.1 -2418.15 108426 103097.5 21462 63641.07 133441.97 275004.31 21462.25 296,467
8:00 -10040.2 -2072.7 139638.3 103097.5 21462 63641.07 133441.97 307705.9 21462.25 329,168
9:00 2594.92 -1159.73 157785.4 103097.5 21462 63641.07 133441.97 339401.16 21462.25 360,863
10:00 5192.751 -148.05 184790.5 103097.5 21462 63641.07 133441.97 370015.69 21462.25 391,478
11:00 6316.976 740.25 215045.5 103097.5 21462 63641.07 133441.97 402283.22 21462.25 423,745
12:00 8343.287 1258.425 196277.3 103097.5 21462 63641.07 133441.97 386059.52 21462.25 407,522
13:00 10223.21 1875.3 166788.2 103097.5 21462 63641.07 133441.97 359067.22 21462.25 380,529
14:00 10175.86 2097.375 142239 103097.5 21462 63641.07 133441.97 334692.75 21462.25 356,155
15:00 8683.071 1899.975 118740.6 103097.5 21462 63641.07 133441.97 309504.23 21462.25 330,966
16:00 6503.381 1603.875 145965.6 103097.5 21462 63641.07 133441.97 334253.4 21462.25 355,716
17:00 7935.986 1011.675 49722.2 103097.5 21462 63641.07 133441.97 238850.4 21462.25 260,313
18:00 7814.535 296.1 103097.5 21462 63641.07 133441.97 188291.18 21462.25 209,753
19:00 -1143.82 -592.2 103097.5 21462 63641.07 133441.97 178444.52 21462.25 199,907
20:00 -3812.75 -1233.75 103097.5 21462 63641.07 133441.97 175134.04 21462.25 196,596
21:00 -5973.3 -1702.58 74139.25 63641.07 133441.97 143546.41 0 143,546
22:00 -7625.49 -2023.35 74139.25 63641.07 133441.97 141573.45 0 141,573
23:00 -10421.5 -2566.2 74139.25 63641.07 133441.97 138234.58 0 138,235
0:00 -11565.3 -2788.28 74139.25 63641.07 133441.97 136868.68 0 136,869
1:00 -7244.22 -1554.53 74139.25 63641.07 133441.97 142423.55 0 142,424
37
APPENDIX C
Recirculated airflow
Approximate mixed
Pressure drop/unit
Duct Diameter [m]
component branch
Airflow rate [kg/s]
Fresh air flow rate
supply rate [m3/s]
air temperature T
Pressure drop for

Friction pressure
Relative straight
Component loss
Component loss
Volumetric flow
Duct length [m]
Relative branch
λ friction factor
Duct area [m2]
Velocity [m/s]
length [Pa/m]
flow Qb/Qc
rate [m3/s]
percentage
coefficient
coefficient
drop [Pa]
Fresh air
[m3/s]
Pipe
flow
[Pa]
[oC]
Re
F-9 10.19 35.31 25.12 22.472422 7.5 4.708283 2.169858 1084928.9 0.012605 0.196063 1.8 0.3529 0
Branch 9 1.07 4.24 3.53 2.46 30% 22.542473 6 0.588535 0.767161 306864.24 0.015787 0.444498 0 0.10 0.04 0.90 0 0.864
9-8 9.13 31.78 22.65 22.464638 7.5 4.237455 2.058508 1029253.9 0.012728 0.208678 3.6 0.7512 0
Branch 8 1.07 4.24 3.53 2.46 30% 22.542473 6 0.588535 0.767161 306864.24 0.015787 0.444498 0 0.11 0.04 0.89 0 0.864
8-7 8.06 28.25 20.19 22.454909 7.5 3.766626 1.94078 970389.92 0.012867 0.223755 3.6 0.8055 0
Branch 7 1.07 4.24 3.53 2.46 30% 22.542473 6 0.588535 0.767161 306864.24 0.015787 0.444498 0 0.13 0.04 0.87 0 0.864
7-6 6.99 24.72 17.73 22.4424 7.5 3.295798 1.815433 907716.65 0.013027 0.242189 3.6 0.871 0
Branch 6 1.07 4.24 3.53 2.46 30% 22.542473 6 0.588535 0.767161 306864.24 0.015787 0.444498 0 0.14 0.04 0.85 0 0.864
6-5 5.92 21.19 15.26 22.425721 7.5 2.82497 1.680765 840382.32 0.013217 0.265391 3.6 0.9554 0
Branch 5 1.07 4.24 3.53 2.46 30% 22.542473 6 0.588535 0.767161 306864.24 0.015787 0.444498 0 0.17 0.04 0.83 0 0.864
5-4 4.85 17.66 12.80 22.402371 7.5 2.354142 1.534321 767160.59 0.013446 0.295761 3.6 1.0647 0
Branch 4 1.07 4.24 3.53 2.46 30% 22.542473 6 0.588535 0.767161 306864.24 0.015787 0.444498 0 0.20 0.04 0.80 0 0.864
4-3 3.79 14.12 10.34 22.367345 7.5 1.883313 1.372339 686169.29 0.013734 0.337769 3.6 1.2159 0
Branch 3 1.07 4.24 3.53 2.46 30% 22.542473 6 0.588535 0.767161 306864.24 0.015787 0.444498 0 0.25 0.04 0.75 0 0.864
3-2 2.72 10.59 7.87 22.308969 7.5 1.412485 1.18848 594240.04 0.014121 0.400989 3.6 1.4435 0
branch 2 1.07 4.24 3.53 2.46 30% 22.542473 6 0.588535 0.767161 306864.24 0.015787 0.444498 0 0.33 0.06 0.67 0 1.296
2-1 1.65 7.06 5.41 22.192217 7.5 0.941657 0.97039 485194.96 0.014693 0.51103 3.6 1.8397 0
Branch 1 1.07 4.24 3.53 2.46 30% 22.542473 6 0.588535 0.767161 306864.24 0.015787 0.444498 0 0.50 0.09 0.50 0.07 3.456
1-G 0.58 3.53 2.95 21.84196 7.5 0.470828 0.686169 343084.65 0.015757 0.775037 3.6 2.7901 0
Elbow G 0.58 4.24 3.53 2.95 17% 21.84196 6 0.588535 0.767161 306864.24 0.015787 0.444498 0 1.00 0.52 0 0 11.232
Total not including ground floor 9.30093 10.8

Total 10.19 42.37 35.31 12.09107 32.832
38
Relative branch flow
Pressure drop/unit
Duct Diameter [m]
component branch
supply rate [m3/s]
Pipe/ Component
Pressure drop for

Friction pressure
Relative straight
Component loss
Component loss
Volumetric flow
Duct length [m]
coefficient from
λ friction factor
Duct CSA [m2]
Velocity [m/s]
length [Pa/m]
coefficient
drop [Pa]
branch
Qb/Qc
square
flow
[Pa]
Re
1 3.53 6 0.588535 0.767161 306864.24 0.015787 0.444498 0 0 0
A - y tee junction between 2 and 10 1.65 6 0.27465 0.52407 209628.18 0.017093 0 0.46 0.53 0.46 0 11.448
2 1.65 6 0.27465 0.52407 209628.18 0.017093 0.704515 1.54 1.084953 0
B - tee junction between 3 and 8 0.71 6 0.117707 0.343085 137233.86 0.018747 0 0.42 0.53 0.57 0 11.448
3 0.94 6 0.156943 0.39616 158464.01 0.018159 0.990109 6.88 6.81195 0
C 0.24 6 0.039236 0.19808 79232.005 0.021277 0 0.25 0.04 0.75 0 0.864
4 0.71 6 0.117707 0.343085 137233.86 0.018747 1.180271 7.4 8.734005 0
D - tee 0.24 6 0.039236 0.19808 79232.005 0.021277 0 0.33 0.05 0.66 0 1.08
5 0.47 6 0.078471 0.280127 112050.98 0.019625 1.513242 7.4 11.19799 0
E - tee 0.24 6 0.039236 0.19808 79232.005 0.021277 0 0.50 0.09 0.50 0.07 3.456
6 0.24 6 0.039236 0.19808 79232.005 0.021277 2.320194 7.4 17.16944 0
F - elbow 0.24 6 0.039236 0.19808 79232.005 0.021277 0 1.00 3.00 0.52 11.232
7 0.71 6 0.117707 0.343085 137233.86 0.018747 1.180271 0.52 0.613741 0
G 0.24 6 0.039236 0.19808 79232.005 0.021277 2.320194 0 0.33 0.05 0.66 0 1.08
8 0.47 6 0.078471 0.280127 112050.98 0.019625 1.513242 7.4 11.19799 0
H - tee 0.24 6 0.039236 0.19808 79232.005 0.021277 2.320194 0 0.5 0.09 0.50 0.07 3.456
9 0.24 6 0.039236 0.19808 79232.005 0.021277 2.320194 7.4 17.16944 0
I - tee 0.24 6.00 0.04 0.20 79232.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 3.00 0.52 11.23
10 1.88 6 0.313886 0.560255 224101.95 0.016853 0.649745 3.36 2.183144 0
J - tee junction between 11 and 15 0.94 6 0.156943 0.39616 158464.01 0.018159 0.990109 0 0.50 0.53 0.50 0 11.448
11 0.94 6.00 0.16 0.40 158464.01 0.02 0.99 6.88 6.81 0.00
K - tee 0.24 6.00 0.04 0.20 79232.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.04 0.75 0.00 0.86
12 0.71 6.00 0.12 0.34 137233.86 0.02 1.18 7.40 8.73 0.00
L - tee 0.24 6.00 0.04 0.20 79232.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.05 0.67 0.00 1.08
13 0.47 6.00 0.08 0.28 112050.98 0.02 1.51 7.40 11.20 0.00
M - tee 0.24 6.00 0.04 0.20 79232.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.09 0.50 0.07 3.46
14 0.24 6.00 0.04 0.20 79232.01 0.02 2.32 7.40 17.17 0.00
N - elbow 0.24 6.00 0.04 0.20 79232.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 3.00 0.52 11.23
15 0.94 6 0.156943 0.39616 158464.01 0.018159 0.990109 0.52 0.514857 0
O - tee 0.24 6 0.039236 0.19808 79232.005 0.021277 2.320194 0 0.25 0.04 0.75 0 0.864
16 0.71 6 0.117707 0.343085 137233.86 0.018747 1.180271 7.4 8.734005 0
P - tee 0.24 6 0.039236 0.19808 79232.005 0.021277 2.320194 0 0.33 0.04 0.66 0 0.864
17 0.47 6 0.078471 0.280127 112050.98 0.019625 1.513242 7.4 11.19799 0
Q - tee junction between 18 and a runout 0.24 6 0.039236 0.19808 79232.005 0.021277 2.320194 0 0.50 0.53 0.50 0 11.448
18 0.24 6 0.039236 0.19808 79232.005 0.021277 2.320194 2.3 5.336446 0
Runout 0.24 3.5 0.067261 0.259348 60514.444 0.021566 0.611176 3.7 2.261353
Diffuser 0.24 17
0
Total 3.53 179.7796 351.552
39

Wollaton Environmental Consultancy: London Office Buildings

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WEC

Project Reference: 3279720

explore changes that could reduce energy consumption.

32,530kWh per year, to overcome a maximum pressure loss of 551Pa.

£52,518 and 223tCO2.

the lift size or handling capacity.

2. Building Information ...................................................................................................................... 2

3. Extreme Conditions: Heating Season ............................................................................................. 6

4. Extreme Conditions: Cooling Season ............................................................................................ 8

5. Boiler Plant Sizing ......................................................................................................................... 12

6. Air Conditioning ............................................................................................................................ 13

8. Sensitivity Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 22

9. Fire Protection .............................................................................................................................. 26

10. Vertical Transport ........................................................................................................................ 28

11. Conclusions .................................................................................................................................. 30

12. References .................................................................................................................................... 32

Figure 1: First Floor Plan........................................................................................................................... 2

Figure 2: Ground Floor Plan ..................................................................................................................... 2

Figure 3 - Casual Heat Gains throughout the day .................................................................................... 5

Figure 4 - Heating Load Breakdown ......................................................................................................... 7

Figure 7 - Percentage of glazing Sunlit ..................................................................................................... 9

Figure 8 - Glazing cooling load for full building .................................................................................... 10

Figure 9 - Total Cooling Load Breakdown ...............................................................................................16

Figure 10 - System Flow Diagram ............................................................................................................13

Figure 11 - CIBSE psychometric chart ..................................................................................................... 15

Figure 18: Annual fan energy demand reduction (%) ............................................................................ 23

Figure 19: Annual building energy demand reduction (%).................................................................... 24

Figure 20: Carbon emissions reduction (%) ........................................................................................... 24

Figure 21: Total cost reduction (%) ......................................................................................................... 24

Figure 22 - Smoke Detector Coverage .................................................................................................... 26

Figure 23 - Heat Detector Coverage ....................................................................................................... 26

Figure 24 - Refuge Area Plan .................................................................................................................. 27

Table 1 - Building Geometry...................................................................................................................... 2

Table 2 - Zone Area and Occupancy ......................................................................................................... 3

Table 3 - Fabric Types and Properties ...................................................................................................... 3

Table 4 – Minimum Ventilation Rates ..................................................................................................... 4

Table 5 - Airflow Rates .............................................................................................................................. 4

Table 6 - Casual Heat Gains .......................................................................................................................5

Table 7 - Thermal Conductance .................................................................................................................5

Table 8 - Fabric Losses Breakdown .......................................................................................................... 6

Table 9 - Heating Load Breakdown ...........................................................................................................7

Table 10 – Peak Cooling Load Breakdown .............................................................................................. 11

Table 11 - Peak Boiler Load ...................................................................................................................... 12

Table 12 - Annual heating energy demands ............................................................................................ 12

Table 13 - Psychometric Chart Readings ................................................................................................. 15

Table 14 – Annual refrigeration energy demand .................................................................................... 16

Table 15 - Advantages and disadvantages of VAV systems ..................................................................... 17

Table 16 - Supply diffuser .........................................................................................................................18

Table 17 - Index run total pressure drop ................................................................................................ 20

Table 18 - Fan energy demand ................................................................................................................. 21

Table 19 - Sensitivity analysis cases description .................................................................................... 22

Table 20 - Baseline values ....................................................................................................................... 22

Table 21 - Annual Energy Demands ....................................................................................................... 23

Table 22 - Environmental and cost parameters ..................................................................................... 24

Table 23 - Case ranking ........................................................................................................................... 25

v – specific volume [m3/kg] P – average number of passengers

h – enthalpy [kJ/kg] T – performance time (s)

P – power [W] L – number of lifts

λ – friction factor of pipe U – building population

k – pipe roughness [mm] CC – rated capacity (persons)

d – diameter [m] tp – average one-way passenger transfer time (s)

u – velocity [m/s] tf(1) – single floor flight time (s)