1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Natural wind has been a valuable source of mechanical power since

ancient times. Nowadays, consequent to the advances in engineering and
technology, the wind energy converters of large capacity are available to feed
electrical power into the power grid. This introductory chapter reviews wind
power status in India and abroad apart from emphasising its growing
importance as a major source of renewable energy. This chapter further deals
with power quality issues that crop up in power grids which employ Wind
Energy Conversion Systems (WECS). It also provides relevant literature
survey carried out, to identify the research problem and concludes with the
presentation of the layout of the thesis in the form of different chapters.

1.1 WIND ENERGY

Wind power is used to generate either mechanical or electrical

power and the latter is one of the fastest growing forms of electrical power
generation across the world. The power of wind has been exploited by humans
for at least 3,000 years. Until the twentieth century, wind power was used to
provide mechanical power to pump water or to grind grain. During the initial
phase of modern industrialization, the fluctuating wind energy appeared to be
a disadvantage and hence was substituted by fossil-fuel-fired engines and the
electrical grids that provided a more consistent power source. The use of wind
energy is divided into two parts: (1) mechanical power generation; and (2)
electrical power generation. Wind is the natural flow of air. It is caused by the
 2

uneven heating of the earth‟s surface by the sun. Since the earth‟s surface is
covered by different types of land and water, it absorbs the sun‟s heat at
different rates. During the day, the air above the land gets heated up more
quickly than the air over water. The warm air over the land expands and rises,
and the heavier, cooler air rushes up, creating winds. At night, the winds are
reversed because the air cools more rapidly over land than over water. In the
same way, the large atmospheric winds that circles the earth is created because
the land near the earth‟s equator is heated more by the sun than the land near
the North and South Poles. Today, wind energy is mainly used to generate
electricity. Wind energy is called a renewable energy source because the wind
will blow as long as the sun shines.

1.1.1 Need for Wind Energy System

The degradation of environmental factors and fossil fuels

accelerated the growth of clean and safe renewable energy sources like wind,
solar, hydro power etc. The impact of conventional power system on
environment can be minimized by integrating WECS (Ammar 2011 & 2012)
(Hawkins et al. 2007) (Mazumder et al. 2007) and (Xiu-xing et al. 2015). But
the integration of wind conventional power system has to meet technical
challenges that require consideration of power quality and stability issues
(Baiju et al. 2006) (Kim & won 2009) (Haibo et al. 2009) (Marra & Pomilio
2000) (Ravikumar et al. 2012) (Ray et al. 2013) and (Suresh et al. 2012). On
the whole, wind being a geographically and climatically uncontrollable
resource coupled with the nature of distributed wind generators, the stability
and power quality issues with regard to integrating large wind farm is an
important challenge to be overcome.
 3

1.1.2 Wind Power in India

Wind power accounts for the largest share of renewable power

installed capacity. The Government of India has planned to increase the
renewable power capacity of wind energy to 60 GW out of 175 GW of total
capacity by 2022.The total installed wind power capacity in India has reached
26743.61 MW out of 42726.77 MW of total renewable energy. The
geographic distribution of the estimated potential of wind power as on
31.03.2016 reveals that Tamil Nadu has the highest share of about 3613.86
MW out of 33800 MW and 22.53 % has been utilized. This is followed by
Maharashtra with 4653.83 MW wind power produce out of 45394 MW and
10.25% of utilization and Rajasthan with 3993.95 MW wind power produce
out of 18770 MW and 21.28% has been utilized. [Source: MNRE news letter
Renewable Energy – Akshay Urja, Volume 9, issue 5, April 2016].

1.2 OVER VIEW OF POWER QUALITY

Power quality is an important aspect of electrical power systems. It

simply means the quality of the electrical service. Utility, equipment
supplier/manufacturer, and consumer are continuously facing challenges that
are related to power quality issues. A power quality problem may be defined
as any power problem that manifests in the form of voltage, current, or
frequency deviations that could result in failure or malfunctioning of
customers‟ equipment. It deals with voltage sags and interruptions, transient
over voltages, fundamentals of harmonics, applied harmonics, long-duration
voltage variations, inter connectivity of distributed generation into existing
grids, wiring and finally grounding. Impulsive transients are sudden
undesirable increase or decrease in steady-state value of voltage or current,
usually characterized by rise and decay times. An oscillatory transient is
always bidirectional and oscillates between positive and negative values of the
 4

transient. Long-duration voltage variations encompass overvoltage and under

voltage in addition to sustained interruptions. Short-duration interruptions are
often caused by faults or equipment failures. Short-duration sags or dips can
also arise due to the faults in the system or increase in loads. A swell is a
short-duration increase in voltage or current. Phase unbalance can be defined
in terms of symmetrical components as the ratio of zero-sequence components
to positive-sequence components. This ratio defines the amount of voltage
unbalance. Voltage fluctuations occur when there is a systematic variation of
voltage or a series of random changes that do not exceed normal operating
ranges. Another aspect of the power system, affected with power quality
problems is system frequency. Frequency variation is any deviation from the
nominal frequency of the power system.

There are many causes for waveform distortion. These can be

broadly classified into five main types: DC offset, harmonics, inter harmonics,
notching, and noise. DC offset can occur when power converters are subjected
to a disturbance or due to some other malfunction that causes asymmetry in
the switching. One of the main concerns with DC offset is the saturation of
transformer cores. Harmonics are sinusoidal components of the waveform that
are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency of the waveform.
Harmonic content is typically described by the total harmonic distortion. Inter
harmonics, however, is similar to harmonics but occurs at non integer
multiples of the fundamental frequency. Notching is a periodic distortion in
the waveform that is caused generally by switching power converters.

Finally, noise can be defined as broadband distortion of the

waveform. It is any undesirable distortion that cannot be classified as
harmonics or transients. Current power quality research is focused on
improving the power quality in both large and small electric grid systems
 5

through the use of next-generation power electronics. The main contribution

of the research work is the identification of suitable FACTS controller and its
implementation in WECS.

1.2.1 Relevance of FACTS Devices

The rapid control of active and reactive powers in conventional

power systems can be achieved using Flexible AC Transmission System
(FACTS) devices. Many researchers have demonstrated the ability of the solid
state technology based FACTS devices in power system operation and
security enhancement. FACTS devices are used to control the system
oscillation within the stable limit as they can control most parameters related
to the operation of transmission systems with a quick response. Since control
of FACTS devices is complex and various features like monitoring and
control etc. are required to stabilize the system online, soft computation and
solid state control are preferred.

1.2.2 Contribution of FACTS Devices for Power Quality

Improvement

The renewable resources when connected to transmission lines

induce sag and swell due to certain environmental characteristics. The STATic
COMpensator (STATCOM) is employed to overcome these power quality
problems. The installation of STATCOM in the system interconnection is
found to reduce sags and swells produced in the power system. Thus it allows
the power system to maintain the constant voltage and ensures rated power
flow in the grid.

STATCOM is considered for the improvement of power quality

because it possesses many advantages such as fast response and superior
 6

voltage support capability with its nature of voltage source. The Hexagram
based STATCOM with proposed controlled scheme provides an excellent
performance, eliminating the voltage instability at the point of its connection
to the grid.

STATCOM provides variable reactive power in response to voltage

variation, thus supporting the stability of the grid. STATCOM uses Voltage
Source Converter (VSC), which generates controllable AC voltage. This
voltage is compared with the AC bus voltage of the system. When the AC bus
voltage is above that of the VSC voltage, then the STATCOM acts as an
inductance and if the VSC voltage is above that of the AC bus voltage, then
the STATCOM acts as a capacitance connected to its terminals. If the voltages
are equal, then reactive power exchange is zero. Switched or fixed air core
reactors and capacitors can be used with VSC as additional reactive power
elements. If the STATCOM has a DC source or energy storage device on its
DC side, it can supply real power to the power system. This can be achieved
by adjusting the phase angle of the STATCOM voltage with the phase angle
of the AC power system voltage. When the phase angle of the former leads the
phase angle of the later, the STATCOM absorbs real power from the AC
system. If it is lagging, the STATCOM supplies real power to AC system.
Installing a STATCOM at the point of common coupling (PCC) in the grid
will increase power transfer capability by enhancing voltage stability and
maintaining a smooth voltage profile under different network conditions. Its
ability to perform active filtering is also very useful for improving the power
quality.

Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC) limits the voltage and

current disturbances that affect the sensitive electrical loads while
compensating the load reactive power. UPQCs consist of combined series and
 7

shunt Active Power Filters (APFs) for simultaneous compensation of voltage

and current disturbances and reactive power. These functionalities can be
carried out by applying diverse control strategies that can operate either in the
time domain or frequency domain or both. UPQC for nonlinear and voltage
sensitive loads reduces the harmonics in the supply current, so that it can
improve utility current quality for nonlinear loads and provide their reactive
power compensation requirement. Further, since the supply voltage and
current are in phase, there is no requirement for additional power factor
correction equipments.

The main aim of Interline Power Quality Conditioner (IPQC) is to

maintain the voltage constant in the sensitive load against the disturbance.
IPQC can be visualized by two VSCs that are connected by a common DC
capacitor. One VSC is connected in series and the other is connected in shunt
with the line. Both the Inverters are supplied from a common single capacitor
and each inverter has a transformer connected at its output. Series inverter is
used to isolate load from the supply by using voltage inverter. Here reference
voltages are generated by subtracting the load voltage from the supply voltage
to be injected in series with the load. The series inverter compensates the
voltage in series with the source voltage. Shunt control injects the
compensating currents to reduce the harmonics at the load side and it also
changes the capacitance to a particular value to operate the VSC. IPQC is able
to monitor multiple lines in a substation and also multiple systems.

1.3 LITERATURE SURVEY

This section provides a comprehensive overview of the current

status of the research related to power quality issues that would arise in grid
connected WECS. The unique problem with wind energy is that it is
 8

fluctuating due to the variation in wind speed. There is a need for a control
system to be placed in order to make wind turbine operation smoother. It is
imperative to install a control system on wind energy systems because of its
vital role in minimizing the adverse affects on the environment caused by the
conventional power system. Wind energy systems face problems of voltage
regulation, power system stability and power quality problems. However
considering the nature of distributed wind generators dependent on wind, a
climatically uncontrollable resource, the stability and power quality issues
arising out of integrating them become more complex. Various power quality
issues related to WECS were discussed in Bhim Singh et al. (2004), Mohamed
Abdel-Rohman et al. (2006), Qi et al. (2008) and Qiao et al. (2009).

The simulink model of a WECS with power tracking controller was

investigated by Emad et al. (2011), Corzine et al. (1999), Harika et al. (2014),
White & Bhattacharya (2010) and Sridhar et al. (2010). This controller
typically consists of a step-up or step-down DC-DC converter, used to
regulate the voltage and current at the load. It can be achieved by controlling
the duty-cycle of the control circuit. Traditional converters and control
algorithms are not highly effective in terms of ripple content, controller
response to track the power from the WECS in Chen et al. (2005) and Il-Oun
Lee et al. (2012). To overcome these drawbacks, interleaved converter
topology is introduced to improve the overall converter efficiency. The
interleaved buck converter with reduced switching losses is explained in Doo-
Yong et al. (2011). Design and implementation of an interleaved boost
converter for PV application is presented in Carl Ngai-Man Ho et al. (2012).
Interleaved boost converter topology is implemented for fuel cell application
in Ahmad Saudi Samosir et al. (2010), Dmitri et al. (2012), Jang et al. (2006),
Rodriguez et al. (2002), Samir et al. (2009) and Smedley & cuk (1991). To
reduce the overall switching losses of the converter, resonant converter
 9

topology like Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) and Zero Current Switching
(ZCS) have been introduced and presented in Bor-Ren Lin et al. (2011),
Mahdi Rezvanyvardom et al. (2010) and Yao-Ching Hsieh et al. (2009).

Combination of ZVS and ZCS is known as soft switching converter

in Doo-Yong Jung et al. (2011), Bertola et al. (2004) and Saranya et al. (2013)
which improves the overall performance of the converter such as speed of
response and conversion efficiency. The hybrid interleaved soft switching
topology reduces the overall conversion efficiency as well as reduces the
switching losses of the converter in Doo-Yong Jung et al. (2011). Generally,
DC-DC converter feeds DC power to inverters in a solar power plant and their
control scheme is implemented using a dedicated digital controller as
discussed by Ahmad Saudi Samosir et al. (2010), Yao-Ching Hsieh et al.
(2009) and Pongiannan et al. (2013). Then the power conversion in the
inverter has also been carried out using another digital controller as shown in
Prakash Singh et al. (2012), Muhammad Sadikin et al. (2012), PrajnaParamita
Dash et al. (2012), Karuppanan and Kamala KantaMahapatra (2010),
Pongiannan et al. (2011), Pongiannan et al. (2010) and Pongiannan et al.
(2008). The various Multilevel Inverter (MLI) topologies are investigated by
the researchers for their merits such as improved voltage levels and reduced
rating of power switches.

The rapid development of FACTS devices is attributed to the

increasing need to control the active and reactive powers in power systems.
Many researchers have studied the role of FACTS devices in power system
operation and its security enhancement as explained in Ambati et al. (2014),
Dizdarevic et al. (2003), Muljadi et al. (2006). The FACTS devices are more
complex as explained in Meng ji and Magnus Egerstedt (2007) and hence they
can control the parameters related to the operation of transmission systems in
 10

few cycles. Improper switching of FACTS controller can create power quality
issues like Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) and Electro Magnetic
Interference (EMI). This will lead to failure of FACTS devices and the
electrical equipments at the consumer end. This underlines the need of
powerful controller like Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS)
that includes various features such as monitoring and control Stephen et al.
(2007).

Cheng et al. (2006) and Jin et al. (2004) explains the integration of
STATCOM with the grid and its benefits. But power quality is not much
improved using single inverter in the STATCOM. In Wen & Smedley (2007)
and smedley et al. (2007) Hexagram converter has been proposed for the
control of 3 phase motor drive. This multilevel based Hexagram inverter is
found to have improved power quality in Mikhail et al. (2007). Among the
FACTS devices, UPFC and the Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) are
considered to be more powerful and versatile by Shan Jiang et al. (2011). Both
the UPFC and IPFC are self commutated and VSCs coupled via a common
DC voltage link as in Zobaa A.F & Jovanovic M (2006) and Vibhor gupta
(2010). These two controllers can be employed to provide combined
compensation, series or shunt and can address the problem of compensating
multiple transmission lines at a given substation as stated by Ganguly (2014)
and Khadkikar (2012). Various studies have been carried out on these two
controllers and their control system by Jang et al. (2006), Karanki et al.
(2011), Millnitz et al. (2014), Nagata et al. (2002), Pipattanasamporn et al.
(2009) and Qasim et al. (2014).

Various control schemes for the control of these two FACTS

devices have been developed and discussed in Dhanalakshmi et al. (2013),
Karthik et al. (2014) and Khadem et al. (2014). Xiu-xing Yin et al. (2015)
 11

proposed the effective Fuzzy integral sliding mode current control strategy for
wind energy system to extract maximum power and also to eliminate the
generator side voltage harmonics with good accuracy. Similarly, voltage dip
mitigation using Cuckoo search based Neuro-Fuzzy controller for UPQC wind
farms elaborated in Aryanezhad et. al. (2013) Ganguly (2014) and D‟Antona
(2014) explains the UPQC based power quality improvements. However,
coordinated controls of these controllers with grid parameters are more
complex as discussed by Ammar & Joos (2012). But ANFIS based Hex-IPQC
has been found to provide better solutions to the coordinated control problem.
There are very few open literatures on the application of IPQC Akhilesh et al.
(2011), Sandhya et al. (2013).

These effects could be expensive for both customers and utilities as

discussed by Mascarella et al. (2015). Hideaki et al. (1998) has proposed a
UPQC system to mitigate the sag. Wang et al. (2006) uses a parallel active
filter to compensate the imbalance, reactive power, neutral current and
harmonics of the source.

The simulink model of a WES with power tracking controller is

investigated in Emad et al. (2011) and Sridhar et al. (2010). This controller
typically consists of a step-up or step-down DC-DC converter. These
converters are used to regulate the voltage and current at the load. It can be
achieved by proper form of duty-cycle to the control circuit. Traditional
converters and control algorithms are not highly effective in terms of ripple
content, controller response to track the power from the WES in Li-Y et al.
(2016) to Il-OunLee et al. (2012). To overcome these drawbacks, interleaved
converter topology is introduced, which improves the overall converter
efficiency. The interleaved buck converter with reduced switching losses is
explained in Doo et al. (2011), Jang et al. (2006), Louganski et al. (2007),Qian
 12

et al. (1998), Wei et al. (2000), Yao et al. (2007) and Zhou et al. (2008).
Design and implementation of an interleaved boost converter for PV
application is presented in Carl Ngai-Man Ho et al. (2012). Interleaved boost
converter topology is implemented for fuel cell application in Ahmad Saudi
Samosir et al. (2010). To reduce the overall switching losses of the converter,
resonant converter topology like Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) and Zero
Current Switching (ZCS) have been introduced and presented in Bor-Ren Lin
et al. (2011), Mahdi Rezvanyvardom et al. (2010) and Yao-ChingHsieh et al.
(2009). Combination of ZVS and ZCS is known as soft switching converter in
Doo-Yong Jung et al. (2011) which improves the overall performance of the
converter such as speed of response and conversion efficiency. The hybrid
interleaved soft switching topology reduces the overall conversion efficiency
as well as reduces the switching losses of the converter in Doo-Yong Jung et
al. (2011).

Generally, DC-DC converter feeds DC power to inverters in a solar

power plant and their control scheme is implemented using a dedicated digital
controller Ahmad Saudi Samosir et al. (2010), Yao-Ching Hsieh et al. (2009)
and Pongiannan et al. (2013). Then the power conversion in the inverter has
also carried out using another digital controller in Prakash Singh et al. (2012),
Muhammad Sadikin et al. (2012), Prajna Paramita Dash et al. (2012),
Karuppanan and Kamala KantaMahapatra (2010), Pongiannan et al. (2011),
Pongiannan et al. (2010) and Pongiannan et al. (2008). The multilevel inverter
(MLI) topologies are investigated by the researchers due to its merits such as
improved voltage levels and reduce rating of power switches. Photovoltaic
energy has great potential to provide power supply with minimum impact on
the environment, since it is clean and pollution free as discussed by X.Liu et
al. (2004).
 13

There are many control strategies reported in the literature to

determine the reference values of the voltage and the current of UPQC. The
Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) for the control of UPQC method has been
developed by Bhim singh et al. (1998). Bulent Irmak et al. (2009), Saranya et
al. (2013) presented Power Quality Distributed-Voltage (PQD-V) using ANN
controller.

ANFIS is a hybrid system incorporating the learning abilities of

ANN and excellent knowledge representation and inference capabilities of
fuzzy logic Jyh-shing (1993) that have the ability to self modify their
membership function to achieve the desired performance. An adaptive
network that subsumes almost all kinds of neural network paradigms can be
adopted to interpret the Fuzzy Inference System (FIS). ANFIS utilizes the
hybrid-learning rule and manage complex decision-making or diagnosis
systems. ANFIS has been proven to be an effective tool for tuning the
membership functions of fuzzy inference systems. Ghani (2009) proposed an
ANFIS based system to learn power quality signature waveform. It has been
shown that adaptive fuzzy systems are very successful in learning power
quality waveform. Prabha (2009) & Prabha (2010) have proposed ANFIS
based systems for power quality assessment.

1.3.1 Research Gap Identified from Literature Survey

A careful study of section 1.3 leads to following conclusions:

(i) The issues associated with WECS connected grid is complex and demand
examination of various issues over and above consideration of conventional
converters, FACTS devices and power quality problems. (ii) Majority of
research works deal with employment of FACTS devices only for voltage
compensation in WECS and there is a necessity for further research. But
 14

intelligent controllers and algorithms are needed to inject voltage of

appropriate magnitude and phase at weak buses and make the grid more
reliable. However very few literature are available to analyze modern FACTS
devices and intelligent algorithms. Connecting the FACTS devices in optimal
locations along with modern controllers to solve the problems occurring in the
power system forms the main theme of the present research.

1.4 OVER VIEW OF THE PROPOSED RESEARCH

The research starts with the consideration of actual bus system,

available at Thungavi and WECS at Metrathi. The necessary bus data is
collected from Thungavi substation at Gudimangalam, Udumalpet circle,
Tamilnadu, India while Metrathi in the same area provides a 225 kW wind
mill specifications. The existing system with added FACTS controllers
supported by different control algorithms is simulated. The research is carried
out in the following sequence:

(i) Validity analysis for the available bare system

(ii) Analysis of the above system considered in (i) augmented

with fuzzy algorithm

(iii) Analysis with ANFIS algorithm

A flow diagram depicting the over view of the proposed research is shown in
Figure 1.1.
 15

Wind Energy Conversion System

(WECS)

Power Quality Issues

Modeling of FACTS Devices for 13 BUS System

Selection of Controllers for FACTS Devices

Natural / FLC Based ANFIS Based

Algorithm Control Control
Free

Validity Analysis

Results & Discussion

Figure 1.1 Overview of the Proposed Research

1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE THESIS

The main objectives are;

 To model and analyze the voltage source converter based

FACTS devices for the proposed system.
 16

 To connect Hexagram converter based FACTS controller for

power quality improvement in proposed system.

 To focus intelligent control methods to synchronize and control

the FACTS devices.

 To analyze and compare the FACTS devices like STATCOM,

UPQC and IPQC with the various intelligent control techniques
like Fuzzy and ANFIS control strategies.

The following parameters to be investigated in this research are:

Voltage injection during load side disturbance, θinj(rad), Voltage

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) and Current THD.

1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

The thesis is organized into six chapters. Each chapter presents the
investigations under taken, significant results arrived and contributions made
by the author. The chapters in the thesis are organized as follows:

Chapter 1 –Introduction: It presents the status of WECS in India

and abroad. It introduces the concept of power quality and its significance.
The role of FACTS devices in maintaining the power quality is briefly
explained. It provides an elaborative literature survey followed by the
presentation of the scope of the present work. Also the outline of the present
work is depicted in a flow diagram figure no. 1.1. This introduction chapter
concludes with the presentation of chapter wise organization of the thesis.

Chapter 2 – Monitoring and Fault Detection in WECS: This

chapter introduces various types of possible faults in a typical wind mill and
their detection techniques. Fault identification and its intimation to operator
 17

are carried out by means of CAN, which enables the analysis and rectification
of various problems, which shall arise while connecting wind power to grid.

Chapter 3 – Modeling of FACTS controllers for 13 bus WECS:

This chapter describes the modeling of 13 bus system modified by
incorporating WECS at the various generator buses system taken into study to
implement FACTS devices. It provides modeling and analysis of various
FACTS controllers like STATCOM, UPQC and IPQC driven by VSC based
converter and Hexagram converter.

Chapter 4 - Fuzzy based PWM Control Scheme for FACTS

Devices in 13 bus WECS: This chapter presents the preface of coordinated
Fuzzy based PWM control and its implementation steps. It includes the
implementation of 3 Phase VSC and Hexagram converter based STATCOM
and its results and comparison. Correspondingly, comparison of 3 Phase
VSC and Hexagram converter based UPQC with Fuzzy PWM control
scheme are analyzed.

Chapter 5 - ANFIS based PWM Control Scheme for FACTS

Devices in 13 bus WECS: This chapter introduces the Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy
Inference System (ANFIS) based PWM method to control the proposed
FACTS devices. The main purpose of ANFIS is to provide gating signal to the
FACTS switches, which controls power flow between different transmission
lines. This ability makes FACTS to normalize both active and reactive power
flow between the lines, and also to transfer power from overloaded to under-
loaded lines based on power demand. The Intelligent control methods are
more efficient than classical control techniques. Compared with FLC, ANFIS
is faster in convergence and it improves the dynamic behavior of the system.
 18

Chapter 6 - Results and Discussions: This chapter gives the

summary of the research, its conclusion and scope for the further research.

1.7 SUMMARY

The overview of power quality, objectives along with the need of

FACTS devices, literature survey and research gap identified along with
problem, overview of proposed research, scope and organization of the thesis
are described in this chapter. A detailed view of FACTS devices like
STATCOM, UPQC and IPQC and their implementation and analysis using
intelligent techniques, fault identification techniques related to this present
thesis are presented in the next chapter.