TECTONICS, VOL. 6, NO.

3, PAGES 233-248, JUNE 1987

RELATIVE MOTION OF THE NAZCA (FARALLON)

AND SOUTH AMERICAN PLATES SINCE LATE
CRETACEOUS TIME

FedericoPardo-Casas
1 and Peter Molnar
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge

Abstract. By combining reconstructions subduction zones with variations in the

of the South American and African plates, convergence rate.
the African and Antarctic plates, the
Antarctic and Pacific plates, and the INTRODUCTION
Pacific and Nazca plates, we calculated
the relative positions and history of Since Steinmann's [1929] treatise on
convergence of the Nazca and South Amer- the geology of the Peruvian Andes, his
ican plates. Despite variations in con- inference that there have been a small
vergence rates along the Andes, periods number of brief phases of relatively
of rapid convergence (averaging more than intense tectonic activity, separated by
100 mm/a) between the times of anomalies periods of relative (if not complete)
21 (49.5 Ma) and 18 (42 Ma) and since quiescence, has pervaded the literature
anomaly 7 (26 Ma) coincide with two on the tectonics of the Andes. Most
phases of relatively intense tectonic discussions of the regional tectonics of
activity in the Peruvian Andes, known as particularly large areas of the Andes
the late Eocene Incaic and Mio-Pliocene begin with this idea [e.g., Audebaud et
Quechua phases. The periods of rela- al., 1973• Dalmayrac, 1978; Dalmayrac et
tively slow convergence (50 to 55 ñ 30 al., 1980; Iberico, 1986; Laubacher,
mm/a at the latitude of Peru and less 1978; Marocco, 1978; Martinez, 1980;
farther south) between the times of McKee and Noble, 1982; M•gard, 1978,
anomalies 30-31 (68.5 Ma) and 21 and 1984; M•gard et al., 1984; Noble et al.,
between those of anomalies 13 (36 Ma) and 1974, 1979], and many detailed investi-
7 correlate with periods during which gations of small areas have specifically
tectonic activity was relatively addressed the timing of tectonic events
quiescent. Thus these reconstructions with the presumption that these events
provide quantitative evidence for a were not local but widespread phenomena
correlation of the intensity of tectonic [eg. McKee and Noble, 1982; M•gard, 1984;
activity in the overriding plate at M•gard et al., 1984; Noble et al., 1974,
1979]. Although the number of "phases"
1
Now in Lima, Peru. has increased from Steinmann's original
three--the late Cretaceous Peruvian, the
Copyright 1987 Eocene Incaic, and the Pliocene Quechua
by the American Geophysical Union. phases--to as many as six [M•gard, 1984;
M•gard et al., 1984], the idea of periods
Paper number 7T0132. of widespread quiescence punctuated by
0278-7407/87/007T-0132510.00 these brief phases persists.
234 Pardo-Casas and Molnar: South America Plate Motions

Table 1. Best and Partial Uncertainty Rotations

End Points of Plate Boundaries

Best Pole and Angle and Azimuths of Transform Faults
Anomaly L--•-••-- -•oo• TM Ang1e Lat•---•-o-•-g* Lat*' Long
• Azimuth

5 73.44 -53.31 -4.04 -17.80 -14.90 -50.80 -9.50 078

6 75.00 -66.63 -8.30 -19.20 -17.25 -49.85 -14.90 080
7 60.58 -40.38 -9.70
10 52.08 -34.68 -11.09
13 43.69 -30.94 -13.24 -29.60 -20.05 -50.85 -18.20 082
18 51.91 -32.52 -16.29
20 54.94 -33.25 -17.90 -18.65 -22.35 -52.60 -20.35 085
21 58.10 -33.95 -20.13
25 60.53 -34.57 -22.31
30-31 62.96 -35.30 -25.05
31 63.38 -35.44 -25.60 -17.40 -26.75 -44.60 -33.80 086
32 62.44 -34.56 -27.74 -18.20 -28.00 -44.55 -35.45 088
33 62.81 -33.38 -31.00 -15.20 -30.28 -47.65 -36.80 089
34 63.06 -36.63 -33.58 -16.28 -31.45 -47.70 -39.15 090

North and East are positive.

If such variations in the styles and parameters and uncertainties of Molnar et

amounts of deformation were to reflect al. [1987]. Finally, we derived para-
variations in rates of crustal shortening meters and uncertainties the reconstruc-

in the Andes, then one might expect to tions of Africa to South America.
observe concurrent changes in relative We describe the uncertainty in an
motion between the South American and individual reconstruction of neighboring
Nazca (or Farallon) plates. To examine plates at a specific time in terms of
this possibility, we have determined the partial uncertainty rotations, small
relative positions of these plates and perturbing rotations about three ortho-
uncertainties in these positions at the gonal axes [Stock and Molnar, 1983]. For
times of several well defined magnetic each reconstruction, one such axis lies
anomalies. Using these reconstructions, in the middle of the reconstructed plate
we can determine average rates of boundary, so that small rotations about
convergence for intervals between the it skew the fit of magnetic anomalies and
ages of the anomalies. fracture zones and cause an over lap at
To reconstruct the Nazca and South one end and a gap at the other. The
American plates, one must reconstruct the other two axes lie 90 ø away in directions
Nazca to the Pacific plate, the Pacific such that rotations about one axis cause
to the Antarctic plate, the Antarctic to a systematic misfit of fracture zones,
the African plate, and the African to the and rotations about the other cause a
South American plate. For reconstruc- systematic misfit of magnetic anomalies.
tions of the Nazca and Pacific plates
we Thus each reconstruction is described by
derived parameters and uncertainties for the position of a pole and a rotation
times younger than anomaly 13 (36 Ma), angle, and the uncertainty in the recon-
and we combined them with the parameters struction is described by the positions
for reconstructions of the Farallon to of three poles, 90 ø from one another, and
the Pacific plate before the time of three small angles (Tables 1 and 2).
anomaly 13, which are given by Rosa and Although, in the future, better methods
Molnar [1987] . For reconstructions of for evaluating and describing uncertain-
the Pacific to the Antarctic plate we ties will surely be developed, this
used Stock and Molnar's [1987] revision approach allows us avoid underestimating
of their previous scenario [Stock and the uncertainties and hence helps prevent
Molnar, 1982]. For reconstructions of us from overinterpreting our results.
Antarctica to Africa we used rotation The calculated reconstructions of the
Pardo-Casas and Molnar: South America Plate Motions 235

for the South Atlantic Ocean (Africa to South America)

hat* ---•-•
Skewed
Fit Mismatched
FractureZones Mismatched
Angle, Angle, hat* '•ong* Angle, Ang]e,
Magnetic
Anomalies_
Lat* --•-•ng Angle, Angle,
deg km deg km deg km

-34.33 -12.76 0.63 70 9.89 70.40 0.22 25 53.88 -33.41 0.13 15

-34.53 -16.29 1.02 113 8.22 68.00 0.22 25 54.22 -33.57 0.22 25
-34.76 -17.51 1.53 170 6.73 67.79 0.33 37 54.40 -31.70 0.33 37
-40.05 -17.92 2.19 244 7.50 65.72 0.33 37 48.96 -32.98 0.24 27
-40.23 -19.28 1.46 162 6.10 65.53 0.22 25 49.12 -31.56 0.16 18
-35.61 -20.46 1.38 154 4.17 66.54 0.33 37 54.07 -29.24 0.20 22
-35.63 -21.46 0.92 103 4.06 65.62 0.22 25 54.07 -30.00 0.13 15
-35.64 -22.80 1.15 128 3.88 64.40 0.28 31 54.08 -30.97 0.16 18
-35.65 -24.09 1.38 154 3.71 63.23 0.33 37 54.10 -31.91 0.20 22
-31.05 -29.46 1.16 130 3.47 58.45 0.28 31 58.71 -37.27 0.19 21
-31.05 -29.77 0.93 104 3.43 58.16 0.22 25 58.72 -37.49 0.15 17
-31.43 -31.19 0.96 107 1.71 57.77 0.22 25 58.51 -35.02 0.09 10
-31.47 -32.96 0.63 71 0.85 56.52 0.22 25 58.52 -34.87 0.11 12
-32.05 -34.63 0.65 72 0.00 55.37 0.22 25 57.95 -34.63 0.09 10

relative positions of the Nazca and South few hundred kilometers of displacement
American plates differ somewhat from between East and West Antarctica cannot
those of Pilger [1981, 1983, 1984]. We be eliminated. It is remotely possible
used different parameters to describe the that there has been a relative rotation
evolutions of the Indian, South Atlantic of these two parts of Antartica about a
and Pacific ocean basins, each of which pole close to them, such that a large
is based on a reanalysis of the published systematic error (larger than 300 km)
magnetic anomaly and bathymetric data exists in our reconstructions. We con-
[Molnar et al., 1987; Rosa and Molnar, sider this sufficiently unlikely that we
1987; Stock and Molnar, 1987] instead of ignore it here. Movement of East with
using parameters listed in published respect to West Antarctica of 300 km or
papers as Pilger [1981, 1983, 1984] did. less about a pole far from their boundary
Although the effect of the differences in would alter the reconstructions of the
most of these parameters is small, the Nazca and South American plates by a
reanalysis of the original data was comparable amount but would not affect
necessary for evaluating the uncertain- the observed correlation of rates of
ties in the reconstructions. The most
convergence with the intensity of tec-
important difference between our para- tonic activity on the South American
meters and Pilger's is a major revision plate.
in the inferred history of the South Below, we first describe the recon-
Pacific [Stock and Molnar, 1987]. Pre- structions of the South American and
vious global reconstructions, including African plates in the South Atlantic and
those of Pilger [1981, 1983, 1984], of the Pacific and Nazca (or Farallon)
either ignored an unrecognized plate plates in the Central Pacific. We
boundary there or guessed where it might briefly note how these were combined to
lie. Consequently, in general, they yield Nazca-South America reconstructions
misrepresented motion between the Pacific and how uncertainties were calculated.
and Antarctic plates. The recognition of Then we examine the history of
this previously suspected plate boundary convergence between them.
and a quantification of motion at it have
resolved some of the difficulties in THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOUTH ATLANTIC BASIN
reconstructing the Pacific plate to its
other neighbors for times before anomaly We reexamined profiles of magnetic
18 (42 Ma) [Stock and Molnar, 1987]. anomalies from as many published tracks
This revision includes no deformation in the South Atlantic as we could find
of Antarctica, but the possibility of a (in 1984), and when we considered the
236 Pardo-Casas and Molnar: South America Plate Motions

Table 2. Best and Partial Uncertainty

End Points of Plate Boundaries

Best Pole and Angle and Azimuths of Transform Faults
Anomaly Lat* Long* Angle Lat •----•• * -L•-•----•o ng* Azimuth

5 56.64 -87.88 -16.30 2.94 -108.64 -32.27 -122.37 NlO5E

6 62.38 -93.02 -30.18 3.47 -115.09 -31.15 -130.34 N99E
7 63.88 -94.75 -39.08 -12.72 -129.26 -35.08 -128.16 N80E
10 67.34 -100.08 -43.77 -13.75 -131.67 -35.01 -130.68 N80E
13 69.85 -106.13 -49.54 -13.94 -134.45 -31.36 -136.70 N80E
18t 73.13 -114.08 -56.86
73.92 -!17.66 -60.36
21t 74.76 -122.36 -69.98
25 • 78.94 -!36.6! -71.40
30-31 t 80.16 -151.26 -77.87

North and East are positive.

•Poles and angles from Rosaand Molnar [1986].
$Poles, angles, and partial uncertainty axes interpolated from Rosaand
Molnar's [1986] values.

anomalies to be clear, we measured the Rabinowitz [1977], and of Ladd [1974],

positions of anomalies 5, 6, 13, 20, 31, including some that he used but did not
32, 33, and 34, according to the standard publish. Although we did not use pre-
numbering system of Pitman et al. [1968]. cisely the same locations of magnetic
For some anomalies we did not measure the anomalies that Ladd had measured, in
coordinates of crossings at the places general, ours and his agreed within a few
where their numbering system would assign kilometers. In addition, we used the
the position of each, but instead we data of Barker [1979], Bergh and Barrett
measured the locations of particularly [1980], Dickson et al. [1968], LaBrecque
clear shapes in the magnetic anomaly and Hayes [1979], and Rabinowitz and
profiles, such as at the older edges of LaBrecque [1979]. Finally, from the
broad anomalies 5, 31, 32, and 33 and the GEBCO charts [Heezen and Tharp, 1978;
young edge of anomaly 34. We define the
positions of the parts of the anomalies
that we picked by their ages (Table 3) Table 3. Ages Assigned to Magnetic
according to the geomagnetic reversal Anomalies
chronologies of Berggren et al. [1985]
for the Cenozoic era and of Kent and Anomaly Age, Ma
Gradstein [1985] for the Cretaceous
period. 5 10.59
For readers only interested in the 6 19.90
evolution of the South Atlantic basin, 7 25.82
the reconstructions and the parameters 10 30.03
describing them given here probably are 13 35.58
not significantly different from those of 18 42.01
Ladd [1974]. Our main goal has not been 20 45.41
to improve them but rather to quantify 21 49.55
the uncertainties in these reconstruc- 25 58.94
tions, and in doing so, revision was 30-31 68.47
easily done. 31 69.40
To pick the positions of anomalies we 32 73.55
relied heavily on the large maps of Cande 33 80.17
and Rabinowitz [1979], of LaBrecque and 34 84.00
Pardo-Casas and Molnar: South America Plate Motions 237

Rotations for the Pacific Ocean (Nazca to Pacific)

SkewedFit MismatchedFracture Zones MismatchedMagnetic Anomalies

Lat* Long
• Angle,Angle,
La------•
TM LOng
* Angle,Angle, Lat• Long
• Angle,Angle,
deg km de• km de• km
-14.77 -114.93 2.79 ø 311 -14.49 -21.02 0.90 ø 100 69.07 -68.50 0.90 ø 100
-13.96 -122.13 5.58 ø 622 -8.73 -29.94 1.80 ø 200 73.44 -88.84 1.80 ø 200
-23.90 -128.76 0.69 ø 77 9.13 -42.85 0.90 ø 100 64.21 -152.28 0.13 ø 15
-24.38 -131.22 0.73 ø 81 9.10 -45.38 0.90 ø 100 63.77 -154.35 0.13 ø 15
-23.65 -135.63 0.79 ø 88 9.15 -49.68 0.90 ø 100 64.44 -159.36 0.13 ø 15

+33.83 -133.22 0.72 ø 80 -54.76 -114.76 0.36 ø 40 8.73 -37.31 0.36 ø 40

Searle and Johnson, 1982] we digitized 25 km in assigning angles to partial

the positions of the Chain and Romanche uncertainty rotations (Table 1).
fracture zones, which lie near the equa-
tor and north of where magnetic anomalies RECONSTRUCTIONS PACIFIC AND NAZCA (OR
are clear, and the positions of the FARALLON PLATES)
Falkland and Agulhas fracture zones
(Figure 1). Points were digitized at Using Handschumacher et al.'s [1975]
each degree of longitude where the frac- catalogue of magnetic anomalies plotted
ture zones are clearly defined by the perpendicular to shipVs tracks, we
bathymetry. measured the positions of the magnetic
Using Hellingerrs [1981] program, we anomalies 7, 10, and 13 on the Pacific
searched for poles of rotation and angles and Nazca plates. These include the data
that brought both magnetic anomalies and used by Handschumacher [1976] and Herron
fracture zones of the same age into coin- [1972]. From the bathymetric maps of
cidence. These reconstructions were then
Mammerickx and Smith [1976] we digitized
plotted and examined to determine if the positions of the Marquesas, Agassiz,
fits could be visually improved, with Menda•a, and Challenger fracture zones on
final parameters describing the finite the Pacific and Nazca plates. Then,
rotations given in Table 1. The scatter using the procedure described above, we
in the positions of some anomalies, such sought parameters that brought these
as 20, 33, and 34 on the African side, anomalies into coincidence (Figure 2,
made it impossible to match all segments Table 2). The reconstructed positions of
of anomalies with misfits of less than 20 the magnetic anomalies lie within 15 km
km, but in general the individual posi- of their common lineations, but the
tions of magnetic anomalies lie within 15 mapped fracture zones cannot be made to
km of the reconstructed segments of plate overlie one another, because the dis-
boundaries (Figure 1). Depending upon tances between the fracture zones on the
the number of data and the quality of the two plates are different by 100 km.
fit, we allowed misfits (overlaps or Accordingly, to quantify the uncertain-
gaps) in the reconstructed magnetic anom- ties, we assigned large angles to the
aly lineations of 10 to 37 km. Similarly partial uncertainty rotations that
the reconstructed positions of the Chain describe the mismatch of fracture zones.
and Romanche fracture zones lie within 25 For the reconstructions of these
km of one another. For the times of plates at the time of anomaly 5 (Table 2)
anomalies 33 and 34, those of the we took the angular velocity of Minster
Falkland and Agulhas fracture zones lie and Jordan [1978] and multiplied the rate
within 10 km of one another (Figure 1). by 10.59 Ma, the age of the outermost
We allowed misfits of fracture zones of edge of anomaly 5, which we have used in
238 Pardo-Casas and Molnar' South America Plate Motions

40øW 35øW 30øW 25øW 20øW 15øW IOøW 5øW 0o

15ø$ 33

I0ø$

20øS

15ø$

25øS

33
20øS

30øS

25øS

35øS 20

30øS

40øS

35øS

45øS

40øS
FALKLAND FRACTURE
50øS

45øS
55øS

40øW 35øW ;50øW 25øW 20øW 15"W IOøW 5øW 0 5øE IOøE 15øE

Fig. 1. Map of magnetic anomalies in the South Atlantic. Solid symbols show
the measured positions of anomalies on each side of the ridge, and open symbols
show positions of anomalies from the African plate rotated, using parameters
listed in Table 1, to their corresponding positions on the South American
plate. Different symbols show different anomalies, assigned the numbers
written above and below lines correlating them. These numbers correspond to
those defined by Pitman et al. [1968]. The scatter of the open and solid
symbols about the lineations that they define provides measures both of the
scatter in their measured positions (which reflect errors in navigation and
identification) and of the quality of fits (which reflect the quality of the
reconstructions). In addition the position of the Agulhas fracture zone on the
African plate has been rotated to its corresponding position at the time of
anomaly 34. The map is an oblique Mercator projection with the pole at
73.44øN, 53.31øW, the pole position for reconstructing positions of anomaly 5.
Pardo-Casas and Molnar: South America Plate Motions 239

and Jordan's [1978] angular velocity.

Because when rotated, their latitudes
IOøS
+• x• differ by 4 ø and the trend of the ridge
crest at that time is undefined, it is
difficult to make a definitive compari-
son. Qualitatively the relative posi-
o 15øS tions seemed reasonable, but differences
of 100 km probably would also be dif-
% oo ficult to rule out and we allow for a
• o mismatch of that amount (Table 2).

u 7
20øS For anomaly 6 we interpolated between
•3 •O the reconstructions for anomaly 5 and the
one that we determined for anomaly 7.
There are no pairs of crossings of anom-
ß o aly 6, one on each plate, generated
25øS at the same segment of the ancient ridge
o
crest, and thus no test of the parameters
used can be made. Clearly the uncer-
tainty at the time of anomaly 6 is large,
30øS and we allow for mismatches as large as
200 km (Table 2).
For anomalies older than 13, we used
parameters that describe the motion of
o
o
the Farallon plate with respect to the
35øS Pacific plate between the times of anom-
alies 32, 30-31, 25, 21, 18, and 13 [Rosa
•o 7 and Molnar, 1987] to determine where the
Farallon plate lay with respect to the
Pacific plate at these earlier times.
+ 40øS These parameters are based on magnetic
anomalies and fracture zones not only
from the South Pacific but also from part
140øW 135øW 130øW I25øW 120øW of the North Pacific; the fit of data
from these two areas shows that both the

Fig. 2. Map showing reconstructions of Pacific and Farallon plates were rigid
the positions of anomalies 7, 10, and 13 during the interval from about 70 to 35 Ma
from the Nazca plate (open symbols) to [Engebretson et al., 1984; Rosa and
those on the Pacific plate (solid Molnar, 1987]. The use of these para-
symbols), which is held fixed. Plus signs meters carries with it the assumption
show crossings of the Marquesa (top) and that the spreading of the Pacific and
Agassiz (bottom) fracture zones, and X's Nazca plates was symmetric. We quantify
show rotated positions of the Menda•a this only by doubling the rotation angles
that describe both the finite rotations
(top) and Challenger (bottom) fracture
zones at the times of these three and the partial uncertainty rotations;
anomalies. Ellipses surrounding X's show the angles given by Rosa and Molnar
the errors in the reconstructions that are [1987] describe the positions of the
allowed by the partial uncertainty Pacific plate with respect to the Paci-
rotations. fic-Farallon spreading center, not with
respect to magnetic anomaly lineations of
the same age on the Farallon plate.
other studies. There is little evidence Although the parameters describing the
to check this reconstruction. Handschu- reconstructions are different, the basic
macher [1976] showed crossings of anomaly 5 evolution of the Nazca plate described
at only 3 locations, two of which may have here is similar to that given by Hand-
formed at the same segment of the spread- schumacher [1976]. The Pacific and
ing center (profile C-13 and 0c-2-73 in Farallon plates separated from one
Handschumacher et al. [1975]) . We another at a long, roughly northerly
rotated them to one another to check trending spreading center from before the
whether it would be safe to assume a time of anomaly 32 (73.5 Ma) until some
constant rate of spreading and Minster time after anomaly 7 but before anomaly 6.
240 Pardo-Casas and Molnar: South America Plate Motions

Table 4. Latitudes and Longitudes of Poles and Rotation

Angles for Reconstructing Points on the Nazca Plate
to the South American Plate

Anomaly Latitude, deg N Longitude, deg E Angle

5 52.03 -98.24 - 9.92

6 62.62 -107.80 -21.79
7 60.95 -100.00 -26.66
10 63.43 -103.00 -28.49
13 64.64 -104.93 -30.40
18 68.51 -123.50 -36.52
20 69.87 -133.07 -40.60
21 70.29 -144.69 -46.34
25 69.76 -174.12 -53.11
30-31 63.36 +169.48 -58.58

The lack of unambiguous observations of were chosen to be particularly large for

anomaly 6 and the clear jump in the anomaly 6 between the Nazca and Pacific
spreading center after anomaly 6 formed plates.
[Herron, 1972] make it difficult to To determine the uncertainties in the
define the history of plate motion reconstructed positions of the Nazca and
between the times of anomaly 7 (26 Ma) South American plates, we successively
and anomaly 5 (11 Ma). rotated the appropriate partial uncer-
tainty poles to the South American plate
NAZCA-SOUTH AMERICA RECONSTRUCTIONS AND and then combined them to determine
THEIR UNCERTAINTIES uncertainties in the positions of the
Nazca plate at the corresponding times
To calculate the positions of the [see Molnar and Stock, 1985]. To calcu-
Nazca and South America plates at late the locations of parts on the Nazca
different times, we arbitrarily held plate that formed before the time of
South America fixed and successively anomaly 13 for times since the time of
rotated the Nazca plate to the neigh- anomaly 13, two separate rotations, and
boring plates (Table 4). For the times therefore two sets of partial uncertainty
of most anomalies, it was necessary to rotations, describing the separation of
interpolate between reconstructions at the Nazca (Farallon) and Pacific plates
different times in at least one of the are necessary. One describes the rela-
different oceans. In each case we inter- tive movement of the Farallon and Pacific
polated between the reconstructions in plates before the time of anomaly 13
the individual ocean, not between the (taken from Rosa and Molnar [1987]
calculated parameters for positions of assuming symmetric spreading). The
the Nazca and South American plates. For second describes their relative displace-
the South Atlantic we used the spacings ment since that time (Table 2). Similar-
between anomalies on the large maps of ly, the reconstructions for times older
Cande and Rabinowitz [1979], LaBrecque than anomaly 18 include two separate
and Rabinowitz [1977], and Ladd [1974], rotations and two sets of partial
but for other oceans we simply assumed a uncertainty rotations for the South
constant rate of spreading in the inter- Pacific. One describes the reconstruc-
val surrounding the anomaly for which we tion of the Pacific plate to Antarctica
obtained interpolated parameters. To for the time of anomaly 18, and a second
assign partial uncertainty rotations for describes the relative motion of the
such interpolated parameters, we rotated Pacific and Antarctic plates before that
the partial uncertainty pole positions time [Stock and Molnar, 1987].
for a neighboring anomaly to their posi-
tions appropriate for the interpolated THE HISTORY OF CONVERGENCE BETWEEN THE
anomaly, and we increased the angles by NAZCA AND SOUTH AMERICAN PLATES
25% or 50% depending upon how reliable
the interpolation seemed to be. As noted Since the time of anomaly 25 (59 Ma),
above, the partial uncertainty angles the Nazca plate has moved steadily toward
Pardo-Casas and Molnar: South America Plate Motions 241

NAZCA TO SOUTH AMERICA

I 2__OW I OOW SOW

20S

40S

Fig. 3. Positions of two points on the Nazca plate, which formed at the time
of anomaly 30-31, plotted with respect to South America at the times of various
magnetic anomalies. Note the relatively steady convergence since the time of
anomaly 21 (49.5 Ma).

South America (Figure 3) [Pilger, 1983, between the times of anomalies 21 and 18,
1984]. Between the times of anomalies and perhaps for a few million years
30-31 (68.5 Ma) and 21 (49.5 Ma), the before and after this interval. Rates
Nazca plate seems to have rotated about a reached 164 ñ 65 mm/a at the equator and
pole in southern South America so that it 154 ñ 58 mm/a at 10øS. In Chile this
converged with South America in the nor- period of rapid convergence is much less
thern but not the southern Andes. The clear than in Peru (Figures 4 and 5), but
uncertainties in the reconstructions are there is a suggestion of its presence.
so large that no definitive statement can The average rate of convergence in the
be made about the relative motion in the preceding 20 m.y. was relatively low,
southern Andes (Figure 4h and 4i), except only 55 ñ 28 mm/a at 10øS and decreasing
that if there was convergence, it was not southward along the Andes. The conver-
fast. A large component of right-lateral gence rate between 36 and 26 Ma also was
strike slip motion may have existed in relatively low, 50 ñ 30 mm/a at 10øS in
the central part of the Andes. After Peru and 35 ñ 25 mm/a at 40øS in Chile
approximately the time of anomaly 21 (Figures 4 and 5). Since 26 Ma, the
(49.5 Ma), however, changes in the direc- average rate has again been high all
tion of relative motion were small along the Andes: 110 ñ 8 mm/yr at 10øS
[Pilger, 1983, 1984] and not resolvable and 112 ñ 8 mm/a at 40øS. There could
given the uncertainties in the have been other variations in convergence
reconstructions (Figure 3). rates, such as a higher rate between 10
The clearest fact presented by these and 20 Ma than in the 5-10 Ma before and
reconstructions is that the rate of after it, but such variations are barely
convergence between the Nazca and South resolvable given the uncertainties in the
American plates has not been constant. reconstructions. The changes from slow
At the latitude of Peru, convergence was convergence (or even divergence in south-
most rapid between about 50 and 42 Ma, ern latitudes) in late Cretaceous and
242 Pardo-Casas and Molnar' South America Plate Motions

NAZCA TO SOUTH AMERICA, ANOMALY 5 TO PRESENT NAZCA TO SOUTH AMERICA, ANOMALY 6 TO ANOMALY 5
90W 70W 90W 70W

OS OS

20S 20S

40S 40S

Fig. 4a Fig. 4b
NAZCA TO SOUTH AMERICA, ANOMALY 7 TO ANOMALY 6 NAZCA TO SOUTH AMERICA, ANOMALY 7 TO PRESENT
90W TOW I OOW 80W

OS OS

20S 20S

40S 40S

Fig. 4c Fig. 4d

Fig. 4. Sequence of plots showing the displacement of the Nazca plate with
respect to South America, between the times of selected magnetic anomalies.
Note the steady east-northeast to easterly convergence since the time of
anomaly 21o
Pardo-Casas and Molnar' South America Plate Motions 243

NAZCA TO SOUTH AMERICA, ANOMALY 15 TO ANOMALY 7 NAZCA TO SOUTH AMERICA, ANOMALY 18 TO ANOMALY 1.5
90W 70W 90W 70W

OS OS

20S 20S

40S 40S

Fig. 4e Fig. 4f

NAZCA TO SOUTH AMERICA, ANOMALY 21 TO ANOMALY 18 NAZCA TO SOUTH AMERICA, ANOMALY 25 TO ANOMALY 21
90W 70W 90W 70W

OS OS

20S 20S

40S 40S

Fig. 4g Fig. 4h
244 Pardo-Casas and Molnar: South America Plate Motions

NAZCA TO SOUTH AMERICA, ANOMALY 31 TO ANOMALY 25 NAZCA TO SOUTH AMERICA, ANOMALY 31 TO ANOMALY 21
90W 70W 90W 70W

OS OS

20S 20S

40S 40S

Fig. 4i Fig. 4j

early Eocene time to fast convergence in et al. [1979] to conclude that the defor-
late Eocene to slow again in Oligocene mation was most intense in middle to late
time and finally to fast again in Miocene Eocene time (= 50-40 Ma), when conver-
and Pliocene time, however, are gence was most rapid. Similarly, precise
inescapable. dating of Neogene rocks led M•gard et al.
The periods of rapid convergence [1984] to subdivide the Quechua phase
correlate remarkably well with two of the into three short subphases, the first of
periods of high relatively intense which occurred in early Miocene time, and
tectonic activity in the Peruvian Andes; the last in Pliocene time, not just in
the late Eocene Incaic and the Mio- Pliocene time as Steinmann [1929] and
Pliocene Quechua phases of Steinmann M•gard [1978] had inferred earlier. One
[1929] [Dalmayrac et al., 1980; M•gard, of us (P.M.), in fact, is somewhat embar-
1984; M•gard et al., 1984; Noble et al., rassed to admit that this correlation is
1979]. The third of Steinmann's phases a big surprise; he set off on this study
occurred at a time before which we can expecting to find the contrary and has
determine reliable reconstructions. The always doubted the existence of separate,
correlations of rapid convergence between brief tectonic phases in the Andes [see
the Nazca and South American plates at Molnar and Lyon-Caen, 1987].
times when folding and thrust faulting This correlation of rapid subduction
were particularly active and of slower with intense deformation in the Andes
convergence when tectonic activity had obviously implies that the tectonic
been relatively quiescent is probably too activity of the overriding plate at
clear to be coincidence. In fact, the subduction zones is strongly dependent on
correlation is better with the revised the convergence rate of the major plates.
ages for these phases than it would be if Such a dependence had been suspected for
Steinmann's original more qualitative a long time, but until the work of
ages were used. Specifically, whereas Engebretson et al. [1984b, 1986] and
Steinmann [1929] and later M•gard [1978] Jurdy [1984], there was little evidence
assumed that the Incaic phase spanned the to support this suspicion. Beginning
entire Eocene epoch (= 60 to 40 Ma), from different assumptions, these authors
precise dating in one locality led Noble reconstructed the positions of the Faral-
Pardo-Casas and Molnar' South America Plate Motions 245

-- i i i i i I
uncertainties in their rates are surely
PERU
--Quechua Phose--.- Inco•c Phose at least as large as ours, we remain
I0øS

2OO unconvinced that their proposed correla-

tion is resolvable. In any case, it
appears that the intense tectonic acti-
150
vity that has built much of the structure
along the western margins of both North
I00 and South America is related to rapid
subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath
them. In fact, the greater width of the
50 Andes of Peru and Bolivia than that of
most of Chile and Argentina might be a
consequence of the longer duration of
0 io 20 •o 40
rapid subduction beneath the northern
TIME (Ma) BEFORE PRESENT
than the southern segment of the belt.
0 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70
Rapid convergence alone, however,
CHILE clearly is not a sufficient condition for
40øS
200
Andean margins to be built; convergence
in the western Pacific ocean at present
is rapid, but Andean margins are absent,
iõo or minor if present at all. Molnar and
iiiii11
Atwater [1978] suggested that the age of
subducting ocean floor might be an impor-
tant factor in controlling the presence
or absence of Andean margins or interarc
50 spreading. Interarc spreading would be
associated with subduction of old oceanic
lithosphere, greater than about 100 Ma,
and Andean margins with ocean floor
younger than 50 Ma [see also England and
-50 Wortel, 1980]. The results for the Andes
do not help to clarify this because we
-ioo I I I I cannot know well the age of the ocean
floor subducted beneath South America
before about 25 Ma. We cannot be sure
Fig. 5. Plot of average rates of
convergence as a function of time. how the Mesozoic spreading centers respon-
sible for the Phoenix lineations of Meso-
Average rates were calculated for
intervals of time between selected zoic magnetic anomalies in the western
magnetic anomalies. For the periods Pacific [Larson and Chase, 1972] evolved
between the times of anomalies 7 (26 Ma) during the Cretaceous magnetic quiet
interval. Therefore we do not know how
and the present and between the times of
the Cretaceous seafloor in the southwest
anomalies 30-31 (68.5 Ma) and 21 (49.5
Ma), the average velocities and their Pacific, or on the Farallon plate, older
uncertainties are also shown. The small than anomaly 32 formed. Seafloor of this
uncertainties in these average velocities age was subducted beneath South America
derive from the long period of time over only 15 Ma. If the evolution of the Paci-
which they are averaged. Uncertainties in fic and Farallon plates in the Cretaceous
all these rates, however, do not include period were simple, then the age of ocean-
uncertainties in the ages of magnetic ic lithosphre subducted beneath South
anomalies. America throughout the last 70 Ma would
have been younger than 60 Ma, but we can-
not prove this because of the uncertain-
lon and North American plates at diffe- ties described above. It is thus tempt-
rent times in the Cenozoic and Mesozoic ing to suspect that Andean margins
eras and found a correlation between a require rapid subduction (•100 mm/a) of
period of rapid convergence and the time young ocean floor (< 60 Ma).
of Laramide deformation in the western
United States. Because the differences CONCLUSIONS
in their calculated velocities before and
during the Laramide phase are smaller We have determined both the parameters
than those that we report here and the and their uncertainties describing the
246 Pardo-Casas and Molnar' South America Plate Motions

relative positions of the African and Bergh, H. W., and D. M. Barrett, Agulhas
South American plates and of the Pacific Basin magnetic bight, Nature, 287, 591-
and Nazca plates since late Cretaceous 595, 1980.
time. Combining them with those for the Cande, S., and P. D. Rabinowitz, Magnetic
Pacific and Antarctic plates and for the anomalies bordering the continental mar-
Antarctic and African plates, we calcu- gins of Brazil, Offshore Brazil Map
lated relative positions of the Nazca and Ser., Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol., Tulsa,
South American plates and hence the aver- Okla., 1979.
age rates of convergence between them. Dalmayrac, B., G•ologie des Andes
Since 70 Ma the Nazca plate has converged p•ruviennes: G•ologie de la r•gion de
with South America, but the rate has Huanuco: sa place dans une transversale
varied considerably. The most rapid des Andes du P•rou central, Tray. Doc.
convergence (>100 mm/a) occurred between ORSTOM, 93, Paris, 1978.
about 50 and 42 Ma and since 26 Ma. Dalmayrac, B., G. Laubacher, and R.
Between 70 and 50 Ma and between 36 and Marocco, G•ologie des Andes p•ruviennes'
26 Ma, the average rates have been only Caract&res g•n•raux de l•volution
50-55 + 30 mm/a at the latitudes of Peru g•ologique des Andes p•ruviennes, Tray.
and less farther south. These phases of Doc. ORSTOM, 122, Paris, 1980.
rapid subduction coincide with revised Dickson, G. O., W. C. Pitman lll, and J.
ages [M•gard et al., 1984; Noble et al., R. Heirtzler, Magnetic anomalies in the
1979] of Steinmann•s [1929] two most South Atlantic and ocean floor spreading,
recent phases of relatively intense J. Geophys. Res., 73, 2087-2100,1968.
tectonic activity in Peru: the late Engebretson, D.C., A. Cox, and R. G.
Eocene lncaic phase and the Mio-Pliocene Gordon, Relative motions between Oceanic
Quechua phase. plates of the Pacific basin, J.
Geophys. Res., 89, 10291-10310, 1984a.
Acknowledgments. We thank J. Ladd, Engebretson, D.C., A. Cox, and G. A.
for providing us with large charts of Thompson, Correlation of plate motions
magnetic anomalies plotted perpendicular with continental tectonics: Laramide to
to ship tracks in the South Atlantic, J. basin and range, Tectonics, 3, 115-119,
Stock, for helping us with some calcula- 1984b.
tions, C. Stork for help with the Pacific- Engebretson, D.C., A. Cox, and R. G.
Nazca reconstructions, G. SuArez for Gordon, Relative motions between
encouragement and guidance in the early oceanic and continental plates in the
stages of this work, and D. C. Engebret- Pacific basin, Spec. Pap. 206, Geol.
son, R. G. Gordon, and J. Ladd for criti- Soc. Am., 1986.
cal reviews of the manuscript. This England, P., and R. Wortel, Some conse-
research was supported in part by the quences of the subduction of young
National Science Foundation through grant slabs, Earth Planet..Sci. Lett., 47,
OCE-8400090 and by NASA through grant 403-415, 1980.
NAG5- 300. Handschumacher, D. W., Post-Eocene plate
tectonics of the eastern Pacific, in
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