KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

KUMASI, GHANA

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

PROJECT REPORT
TOPIC:
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A PIT WALL AT PERSEUS
MINES, AYANFURI

PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE B.Sc. (ENG) DEGREE

NAME: AINOO EMMANUEL KWABINA

ANOKYE KOJO KYEI

BOATENG SAMUEL AMPOMAH

MAY, 2019
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that except for references to other people’s works, which have been duly
acknowledged, this dissertation submitted to the Geological Engineering Department Board,
College of Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, is
the result of our own investigations, and has not been presented for any other degree.

Ainoo Emmanuel Kwabina ………………………. ……………………….

4092615 (Signature) (Date)

Anokye Kojo Kyei ………………………… ………………………

4093715 (Signature) (Date)

Boateng Ampomah Samuel ………………………... ………………………

4094815 (Signature) (Date)

I hereby declare that I have supervised these students in the undertaking of the project and
can confirm that these students have my permission to submit it for assessment.

MR. S.S.R GIDIGASU ………………………. ………………………..

(Supervisor) (Signature) (Date)

i
 ABSTRACT

All slopes are prone to failure and hence there must be routine analysis of these slopes to detect
and mitigate against possible failure. The failure of these slopes has a negative impact on life,
property and the environment. This research work sought to assess the stability of a pit slope
of the Esuaja North Pit of the Perseus Mines, Ayamfuri. Structural discontinuities were mapped
using scanline mapping and Sirovision; and the data analyzed for potential failure using
Kinematic and limit equilibrium analysis with the help of Rocscience DIPS and Slide software
respectively. Results of the study reveal that two main discontinuity sets exist, with average
dip and dip direction of 81° and 274° for set 1 and 90° and 185° for set 2. The dominant
structures were joints. Kinematic analysis of the slope wall showed that Planar sliding, wedge
and Toppling failures were kinematically possible with the probability of failure being 1.55%
33.33% and 8.74% respectively. Limit equilibrium analysis showed that the factor of safety is
0.590 irrespective of the groundwater condition. From the analysis, the pit slopes are unsafe.
It is recommended that the slope angle be reduced or the area be barricaded and restricted from
personnel access.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We give thanks to the Lord Almighty for His endless love and grace.

We wish to express our sincere gratitude to our supervisor Mr. S. S. R Gidigasu of the
Geological Engineering Department, KNUST, for his supervision and guidance. We thank you
for the words of correction, encouragement you gave us throughout the project.

Our sincere gratitude goes to Mr. Stephen Ndede, Mr. Douglas Kane Mensah and Mr. Samuel
Andoh who are all staff of the Mining Department of Perseus Mining Ghana Limited, Ayanfuri,
for their immense contributions which made the undertaking of the project possible.

We are also grateful to the entire staff of Perseus Mining Ghana Limited, Ayanfuri for all their
support.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................ i
ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. vi
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................vii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem statement ............................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Justification ...................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Aim and Objectives .......................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................... 3
2.1 Physical features.......................................................................................................... 3
2.1.1 Location of project site ........................................................................................ 3
2.1.2 Relief and Drainage ............................................................................................. 3
2.1.3 Climate ................................................................................................................. 4
2.1.4 Vegetation ............................................................................................................ 4
2.1.5 Regional Geology ................................................................................................ 4
2.1.6 Local Geology ...................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Open Pit Slopes ........................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1 Slope Geometry ................................................................................................... 6
2.2.2 Geological Structures ........................................................................................... 8
2.3 Types of Slope Failures in Rocks ................................................................................ 9
2.3.1 Plane failure ......................................................................................................... 9
2.3.2 Wedge Failure .................................................................................................... 10
2.3.3 Circular Failure .................................................................................................. 11
2.3.4 Toppling Failure................................................................................................. 12
2.4 Slope Stability Analysis Methods ............................................................................. 12
2.4.1 Limit Equilibrium Analysis ............................................................................... 14
2.4.2 Stereographic and Kinematic Analysis .............................................................. 15
2.4.3 Kinematic Analysis ............................................................................................ 16
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................... 19
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 19
3.2 Field Work...................................................................................................................... 19
3.4 Limiting equilibrium Analysis using Rocscience Slide software .................................. 19

iv
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................... 20
4.1 Characterisation of Discontinuities ........................................................................... 20
4.2 Kinematic Analysis ........................................................................................................ 21
4.2.1 Planar Failure Analysis............................................................................................ 21
4.2.2 Wedge Failure Analysis........................................................................................... 22
4.2.3 Toppling Failure Analysis ....................................................................................... 23
4.3 Limit Equilibrium Analysis .......................................................................................... 24
4.3.1 Dry State Condition ................................................................................................. 24
4.3.2 Groundwater state condition.................................................................................... 25
4.3.3 Influence of groundwater level on the factor of safety of the slope ........................ 27
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ............................................... 28
5.1 Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 28
5.2 Recommendation............................................................................................................ 28
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 29

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Upper Denkyira West District Map (after GSS, 2014) ........................................... 3
Figure 2.2: Location and geology of the project site ................................................................. 5
Figure 2.3: Configuration of a rock slope in a mine .................................................................. 7
Figure 2.4: Plane failure (after Wyllie and Mah 2004) .............................................................. 9
Figure 2.5: Cross section showing planes forming a plane failure (after Wyllie and Mah,
2004) ........................................................................................................................................ 10
Figure 2.6: Wedge failure (after Wyllie and Mah, 2004) ........................................................ 10
Figure 2.7: view of slope at right angles to the line of intersection (after Wyllie and Mah,
2004) ........................................................................................................................................ 11
Figure 2.8: Different modes of circular failure (Prakash, 2009).............................................. 12
Figure 2.9: Toppling failure (Wyllie and Mah, 2004) ............................................................. 12
Figure 2.10: Polar and equatorial projections of a sphere. (after Wyllie and Mah, 2004) ...... 16
Figure 2.11: Kinematic analysis of blocks of rock in slope: (a) discontinuity sets in slope; and
(b) daylight enveloped on equal area stereonet........................................................................ 17
Figure 4.1: Distribution of discontinuities in the pit walls. ..................................................... 20
Figure 4.2: Stereo plot of discontinuities ................................................................................. 21
Figure 4.3: Planar sliding failure analysis................................................................................ 22
Figure 4.4: Wedge failure analysis .......................................................................................... 23
Figure 4.5: Toppling failure analysis ....................................................................................... 23
Figure 4.6: Dry State Condition ............................................................................................... 25
Figure 4.7: Groundwater level in the Oxide zone .................................................................... 25
Figure 4.8: Groundwater level in the transition zone .............................................................. 26
Figure 4.9: Groundwater level in the fresh rock zone ............................................................. 26

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Conventional methods of analysis(after Coggan and Stead, 1998) ........................ 13
Table 2.2: Factor of safety for different structures (after Sowers, 1979) ................................ 15
Table 4.1: Mine Configuration parameters and material properties ........................................ 24
Table 4.2: Limit equilibrium analyses results .......................................................................... 27

vii
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Since the dawn of civilization, humanity’s obsession over gold has led to the improvement in
the techniques of exploitation. In times past, simple tools were used for digging; and mining
shafts were dug out by hand. Black powder was used an explosive in mining in the late middle
ages to break up large rocks. Dynamite came to replace black powder in the 19th century and
around that time mining equipment such as drills, lifts and steam powered pumps came into
use (Anon, 2019).

Traditional exploitation methods fall into two broad categories based on locale: surface or
underground mining. Surface mining is the commonest exploitation procedure across the
world. Almost 98% of metallic ores and about 97% of the non-metallic ores as well as 61% of
the coal in the United States are mined using surface methods (U.S. Geological Survey, 1995;
Energy Information Administration, 2000).

Open pit is a surface mining technique of extracting rock or minerals by their removal from the
earth. In open pit mining, a thick deposit is generally mined in benches or steps. Along each
bench, slopes are cut progressively into deeper levels.

As mining progresses, the blasting mechanism coupled with the activities of earth moving
equipment induces additional stresses to the pre-existing stresses in the ground and on slopes.
The ground reacts to these induced stresses by fracturing, opening of joint spacing and rock
displacement which weakens the slope cuts. The continuous fracturing and displacement of in-
situ rock and opening of joint spacing progressively results in general slope failure by wedging
or toppling sliding.

Rock slope failure results in fatalities, damage to mine equipment and decrease in productivity.
Huge sums of money are required for remediation in the event of failure. Hence there is the
need to assess the stability of slope. For example, in 2013, the world’s largest man-made
excavation, the Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah was shut down by an enormous landslide that
smashed roads and buildings and left two thirds of the pit base buried. It is estimated that there
were 100,000 tonnes cut in production (Anon, 2019).

1
1.2 Problem statement
All slopes are prone to failure and hence there must be routine inspection of these slopes to
detect and mitigate against possible failure. This would help prevent loss of lives and
destruction of property to the Mine.

1.3 Justification
Slope failures have an extreme adverse effect on human life, property, the natural environment
and even the economy of the country. The cost of rehabilitation and remediation works may be
too expensive and could lead to reduction in production of the mine and hence hinder the
economic growth of the country.

1.4 Aim and Objectives

The main aim of this project is to assess the stability of a pit slope at Perseus Mine, Ayanfuri.

The specific objectives were to:

1. Characterize the discontinuities.

2. Determine the possible slope failure modes.
3. Perform limit equilibrium analyses of the slope.
4. Determine the sensitivity of slope to change in groundwater conditions.

2
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Physical features

2.1.1 Location of project site

Perseus Mines Limited is in Ghana, West Africa, approximately 57km to the South West of
the regional town of Obuasi and 195km West North West of the capital Accra. The Perseus
Mine Licences are located in the Central Region of Southern Ghana, on the western flank of
the highly prospective Ashanti Belt. It is found within the Upper Denkyira West District. The
District has a total land area of 579.21 square kilometres which represents 3% of the total land
area of the Central Region. Ayanfuri Mine is located between 1°50’00” West and 2°00’00’’
West and 5°48’49’’ North and 6°00’00” North. Fig 2.1 shows the map of the Upper Denkyira
West district.

Figure 2.1: Upper Denkyira West District Map (after GSS, 2014)

2.1.2 Relief and Drainage

The district is about 250 meters above sea level. The topography of the district is generally
undulating with pockets of steep sided hills alternating with flat-bottomed valleys. The major
river in the area is the River Dia and River Offin. Several streams which are tributaries of

3
either the river Offin or Dia flow through the district and serve as major sources of water for
farming activities and domestic use. (GSS,2014)

2.1.3 Climate

The Project area has a South Western equatorial climate with seasons influenced by the moist
South West monsoon winds from the South Atlantic Ocean and the dry North east trade winds
(GSS, 2014). The mean annual rainfall is approximately 1,500mm with peaks of more than
170mm per month in June and October. November to February are the drier months with
20mm-90mm per month of rainfall (GSS,2014). The mean annual temperature is
approximately 25 degrees with small daily temperature variations. During the wet season,
access and transport become difficult unless well-formed and drained roads are constructed.

2.1.4 Vegetation

The Upper Denkyira West District falls within the semi-deciduous forest zone of Ghana. The
trees in this forest zone do not all shed their leaves at the same time nor are they of the same
species. The district has two major forest reserves which are both rich in wildlife and lumber.
They include the Maudaso-Amenase- Denkyira-Obuasi Forest and Nkronua Forest reserves.
They consist of different species of tropical hardwood of high economic value trees like Odum,
Mahogany, Edinam, Wawa, Sapele, among others. Trees of the lower layer of the forest and
some of the topmost layers stay evergreen throughout the year. This is due to the generally
humid condition of the area.

2.1.5 Regional Geology

Perseus Mines is located in south-western Ghana in the Leo Man Shield of the Precambrian
West African Craton. In Ghana, the Man Shield consists of five mostly NE striking
Paleoproterozoic greenstone belts of the Birimian Supergroup, emplaced during 2250-2170Ma,
separated by flyschoid basin sediments deposited during 2150-2100 Ma (Feybesse et al, 2009).
The Man Shield was affected by the Eburnean Orogeny resulting from convergence between
the West African craton and the São Luis Craton of South America (Feybesse et al, 2006). The
early stages of this collision event resulted in thrust tectonism and crustal thickening. Uplift
developed foreland basins in several of the greenstone belts in Ghana, particularly in the
Ashanti Belt, which were subsequently filled with molassic sediments of the Tarkwaian Group
deposited between 2132-2097Ma (Feybesse et al, 2009). Most of the gold in Ghana was
emplaced relatively late in the Eburnean Orogeny. Metallogenetically the most important
greenstone belt in Ghana is the Ashanti Belt.
4
2.1.6 Local Geology

Perseus Mines deposits occur near the western flank of the Ashanti Greenstone Belt. Numerous
small Basin-type or Cape Coast-type granite bodies have intruded the sediments along several
regional structures. The intrusive shapes vary from nearly ovoid plugs 200m to 400m long by
40m to 150m wide to relatively long (+2,000m) narrow (50m-100m) sills or dykes. Figure 2.2
shows the exact location of the mines on the Ghana map.

Figure 2.2: Location and geology of the project site

5
2.2 Open Pit Slopes
Open pit mining is a surface mining technique of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by
their removal from an open pit or burrow. (Wikipedia, 2018). Minerals deposits are mined
from the ground surface downwards depending on the orientation of the orebody. Progressively
as ore is being mined pit slopes are formed. In order to ensure the safety of slopes to a certain
degree; the slopes are mostly cut inclined rather than vertical to a suitable angle (slope angle)
under a number of considerations.

The actual slope angles used in the mine depend upon (Prakash, 2009):

(i) the presence of haulage roads, or ramps, necessary for the transportation of the
blasted ore from the pit
(ii) possible blast damage
(iii) ore grades, and
(iv) economic constraints.

2.2.1 Slope Geometry

The basic geometrical slope design parameters are height, overall slope angle and area of
failure surface. With increase in height the stability of the slope decreases. Generally overall
slope angle of 45° is considered to be safe by the Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS)
in India. The curvature of the slope has profound effect on the instability and therefore the
convex section slopes should be avoided in the slope design. The steeper and higher the slope
the less stable it becomes. Fig 2.3 shows the configuration of a typical rock slope in a mine and
the various components are discussed.

6
Figure 2.3: Configuration of a rock slope in a mine

Bench:

Bench is a ledge that forms a single level of operation above which mineral or waste materials
are mined from the bench face.

Bench height:
Bench height is the vertical distance between the highest point on the bench (crest) and the
lowest point of the bench (toe). It is influenced by size of the equipment, mining selectivity,
government regulations and safety.

7
Bench slope:
Bench slope is the horizontal angle of the line connecting bench toe to the bench crest.

Berm:
Horizontal shelf or ledge within the ultimate pit wall slope left to enhance the stability of a
slope within the pit and improve the safety. by catching or arresting slope slough materials.

Overall pit slope angle:

The angle measured from the bottom bench toe to the top bench crest. It is the angle at which
the wall of an open pit stands, and it is determined by: rock strength, geologic structures and
water conditions.

2.2.2 Geological Structures

The stability of rock slopes is significantly influenced by structural geology of the rock in
which the slope is excavated. Almost all rock slope stability studies should address the
structural geology of the site, and such studies involve two steps as follows. First, determine
the properties of the discontinuities, which involves mapping outcrops and existing cuts, if any,
and examining diamond drill core, as appropriate for the site conditions. Second, determine the
influence of the discontinuities on stability, which involves studying the relationship between
the orientation of the discontinuity and the face. The objective of this study, which is termed
kinematic analysis, is to identify possible modes of slope failure (Wyllie and Mah, 2004).

Some geological structures considered during mapping are faults, bedding planes, joints,
among others.

Faults discontinuities along which there has been an observable amount of displacement. Faults
are rarely single planar units; normally they occur as parallel or sub-parallel sets of
discontinuities along which movement has taken place to a greater or less extent.

Bedding planes are surface parallel to the surface of deposition, which may or may not have a
physical expression.

Joints are discontinuities in which there has been no observable relative movement. In general,
joints intersect primary surfaces such as bedding, cleavage and schistosity. A series of parallel
joints is called a joint set; two or more intersecting sets produce a joint system; two sets of
joints approximately at right angles to one another are said to be orthogonal.

8
2.3 Types of Slope Failures in Rocks
There are several types of failure and they include plane failure, wedge failure, circular failure
and toppling failure.

2.3.1 Plane failure

It is the simplest form of slope failure to analyse. It takes place when a discontinuity parallel
to the slope face daylights or intersects the slope face. There can also be a combination of
several joint sets which will form a straight path to the slope face and also cause failure. Fig
2.4 and 2.5 show how plane failure occurs.

Figure 2.4: Plane failure (after Wyllie and Mah 2004)

There are some general conditions that need to be met before plane failure occurs and they are:

1. The plane on which sliding occurs must strike parallel or nearly parallel (±20°) to the
slope face.
2. The sliding plane must daylight on the slope face. This means that the dip of the sliding
plane must be less than the dip of the slope face, that is ψp < ψf.
3. The dip of the sliding plane must be greater than the angle of friction of this plane, ψp
> ϕ.
4. The upper end of the sliding plane must intersect either upper slope or terminate at a
tension crack.

9
Figure 2.5: Cross section showing planes forming a plane failure (after Wyllie and Mah, 2004)

2.3.2 Wedge Failure

Wedge is formed when two continuous planar discontinuities intersect and the line of
intersection of these two planes daylights just at the toe of the slope face. Figure 2.6 is an
illustration of a wedge failure.

Figure 2.6: Wedge failure (after Wyllie and Mah, 2004)

The basic conditions under which wedge failure can occur is as follows:

1. Two planes will always intersect in a line.

2. The plunge of the line of intersection must be flatter than the dip of the slope face and
steeper than the average friction angle of the two slide planes, that is ψfi > ψi > φ. (Fig
2.7)
3. The line of intersection must dip in a direction out of the face for sliding to be feasible.

10
Figure 2.7: view of slope at right angles to the line of intersection (after Wyllie and Mah, 2004)

2.3.3 Circular Failure

Circular failure occurs when there are too many closely spaced fractures in the rock. They
occur when joint sets are not very well defined. The conditions under which this type of failure
occurs are:

1. When the individual soil or rock mass particles of which the slope is composed is small
compared to the size of the slope.
2. When the particles are not locked as a result of their shape and tend to behave as soil.

Circular failure is classified in 3 ways depending on the area it occurs (Wyllie and Mah, 2004).
They are graphically shown in Figure 2.8 and are discussed:

1. Slope failure: The arc along which the failure occurs meets the slope face above the toe
of the slope. It is highly possible when the slope angle is very high and the soil close to
the toe possesses a high strength.
2. Toe failure: The arc along which the failure occurs meets the slope at the toe.
3. Base failure: In this type of failure, the arc along which the slope occurs passes below
the toe and in to the base of the slope. It occurs frequently when the slope angle is low
and the soil below the base is softer and more plastic than the soil above the base.

11
Figure 2.8: Different modes of circular failure (Prakash, 2009)

2.3.4 Toppling Failure

They occur in slopes with near vertical joint sets. It is one of the most common types of failure.
This type of failure involves rotation of blocks of rocks about some fixed base. They generally
occur where hill lopes are very steep (Prakash, 2009) There are two main types of toppling and
they are block and flexural toppling and a typical failure mechanism is shown in Figure 2.9

Figure 2.9: Toppling failure (Wyllie and Mah, 2004)

2.4 Slope Stability Analysis Methods

Slope stability analysis are performed with the aim of assessing the safe design of excavated
slopes like road cuts, open pit mining and landfills and the equilibrium conditions of natural
slopes (Abdel and Ahmed, 2005). The analytical method chosen to analyse slope stability
depends on several conditions including site conditions/ characteristics, potential mode of
failure and the geological information. The aim of slope stability analyses ranges from (Abdel
and Ahmed, 2005):

12
 • Determination of rock slope stability conditions
• Investigation of potential failure mechanisms
• Design of possible remedial measures

There are several slope stability analysis methods as shown in Table 2.1 but this research work
discusses two which are limit equilibrium analysis and kinematic analysis.

Table 2.1: Conventional methods of analysis (after Coggan and Stead, 1998)

13
2.4.1 Limit Equilibrium Analysis

Limit equilibrium analysis methods assesses the stability of a soil or rock mass that will slide
down under the influence of gravity. In limit equilibrium analysis methods, the failure surface
is assumed. The shear strengths of the materials are also described from the Mohr- Coulomb
criteria. The most common limit equilibrium analysis methods are the method of slices which
include the Ordinary method of slices (Fellenius), Bishop’s modified method, Swedish method
among others. The common method is the ordinary method of slices which is discussed as
follows:

Ordinary method of slices (Fellenius Method)

In the Ordinary method of slices, the sliding mass above the failure surface is sectioned into a
number of slices. Every slice is analysed on its own and there are no interactions between slices
as the resultant forces are parallel to the base of each slice. Because of this assumption a simple
static equilibrium equation is gotten. This method also gives a very conservative factor of
safety.

It is assumed that the side forces are neglected and the normal force can be determined by
simply resolving the weight W of the slice in a direction normal to the arc of failure at the mid-
point of the slice.

N = W cos α

where α is the angle of inclination of the potential failure arc to the horizontal at the mid-point
of the slice

Effective normal force N’ =N-U

= W cos α – ul

τf
Factor of safety =
τr

= Στr = ΣWsinα

Στfl
=
ΣWsinα

Σ(c′ +𝜎 ′ tan 𝜙′ )𝑙
=
ΣWsinα

𝑐 ′ 𝐿𝑎+tan 𝜙′ Σ N′
=
ΣWsinα

14
 𝑐 ′ 𝐿𝑎+tan 𝜙′ Σ (W cos α – ul)
Factor of safety =
ΣWsinα

Factor of Safety
The Factor of Safety (FoS) is the ratio of capacity (of the slope to resist failure) to demand
(placed on the slope by driving forces such as gravity and seismic accelerations). A FoS of
unity implies the slope is in a state of limiting equilibrium. Any miniscule increase in load or
decrease in resistance will result in an unstable slope (FoS < 1). Conversely a FoS > 1, implies
some margin of safety (MoS = FoS – 1) against failure. Table 2.2 is an interpretation of Factor
of Safety from Sowers, (1979).

Table 2.2: Factor of safety for different structures (after Sowers, 1979)
Factor of Safety Significance
Less than 1.0 Unsafe
1.0 - 1.2 Questionable safety
1.3 - 1.4 Satisfactory for cuts, fills; questionable for dams
1.5 - 1.75 Safe for dams

2.4.2 Stereographic and Kinematic Analysis

Stereographic projection enables a 3-dimensional orientation data to be examined in 2

dimensions. Stereographic projections allow planes and lines to be represented by lines and
points respectively. A disadvantage of stereographic projection is that they consider only
angular relationships between lines and planes and do not depict the location or size of feature.

The stereographic projection consists of a reference sphere in which its equatorial plane is
horizontal and its orientation is fixed relative to the North. There are two types of stereographic
projections used in structural geology and they are equatorial and polar projection (Figure
2.10). The polar projection can be used to plot only poles while the equatorial net can be used
to plot both planes and poles. This can be done on the computer with the DIPS software or
manually with tracing sheets and stereonets. Stereonets are used for graphical kinematic
analysis.

15
Figure 2.10: Polar and equatorial projections of a sphere. (after Wyllie and Mah, 2004)

2.4.3 Kinematic Analysis

It is a method used to analyse the potential for the various modes of rock slope failures (plane,
wedge, circular, toppling failures), that occur due to the presence of unfavourably oriented
discontinuities. The diagram from the stereonet which tells what type of failure is likely to
occur can also be used to examine the direction in which a block will slide and give an
indication of stability conditions. This is known as kinematic analysis (Anon,2019). The
relationship between the direction in which a block of rock will slide and the orientation of the
face is apparent in stereonet. The usual design procedure is to apply the kinematic analysis to
identify potential unstable blocks. This stereonet based analysis is qualitative in nature and
requires the presence of tight data clusters for which a representative orientation value can be
assigned. An example of kinematic analysis is shown in figure 2.11 where a rock slope contains
three sets of discontinuities. The potential for these discontinuities to result in slope failures
depends on their dip and dip direction relative to the face; stability conditions can be described
on the stereonet.

16
Figure 2.11: Kinematic analysis of blocks of rock in slope: (a) discontinuity sets in slope; and
(b) daylight enveloped on equal area stereonet.

In Figure 2.13, a potentially unstable planar block is formed by plane AA, which dips at a flatter
angle than the face (ψA <ψ f) and is said to “daylight” on the face. However, sliding is not
possible on plane BB which dips steeper than the face (ψB >ψ f) and does not daylight.
Similarly, discontinuity set CC dips into the face and sliding cannot occur on these planes,
although toppling is possible. The poles of the slope face and the discontinuity sets (symbol P)
are plotted on the stereonet in Figure 2.11(b), assuming that all the discontinuities strike parallel
to the face. The position of these poles in relation to the slope face shows that the poles of all
planes that daylight and are potentially unstable, lie inside the pole of the slope face. This area

17
is termed the daylight envelope and can be used to identify potentially unstable blocks. The dip
direction of the discontinuity sets will also influence stability. Plane sliding is not possible if
the dip direction of the discontinuity differs from the dip direction of the face by more than
about 20◦. That is, the block will be stable if |αA − αf| > 20◦, because under these conditions
there will be an increasing thickness of intact rock at one end of the block which will have
sufficient strength to resist failure. On the stereonet this restriction on the dip direction of the
planes is shown by two lines defining dip directions of (αf +20◦) and (αf −20◦). These two lines
designate the lateral limits of the daylight envelope on Figure 2.11(b). (Wyllie and Mah, 2004)

18
 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
Analysing the stability of a slope is mainly characterising the discontinuities within the slope
and their potential effects. In order to assess for the safety and stability of slopes in an open
cast mine, it is relevant to map geological discontinuities. Structural discontinuities and their
orientation in rock masses have greater influence on stability of slopes. The methods used
consisted of mapping of the pit slopes and analysing the data collected using Rocscience Dips
6.0 software. Limit equilibrium analyses of the slope was also carried out using Rocscience
Slide software.

3.2 Field Work

Structural data used for the project were obtained from scanline mapping of the eastern wall of
Perseus Mines. This was augmented with secondary data from Sirovision software from the
mine. The sirovision is a system which incorporates the use of digital imagery to model, map
and also assess the stability of walls by performing kinematic analysis. It uses three-
dimensional (3D) imaging which allows higher accuracy of measurement and sampling than
that allowed by conventional mapping methods (Anon, 2011). The equipment used in the field
work were: Garmin GPS, geological compass, Sirovision kit including a camera, tripod and
two lenses, Marking paint and Surveyor’s tape measure.

3.4 Limiting equilibrium Analysis using Rocscience Slide software

The analysis of possible sliding after the kinematic analysis was carried out with the help of
Rocscience slide software. Slide is a 2D limit equilibrium slope stability for evaluating the
safety factor or probability of failure of circular or non-circular failure surfaces in soil or rock
slopes. Slide takes into consideration the strength parameters, slope geometry and groundwater
level to perform analysis on slopes. For the sake of the analysis, the ordinary/fellenius method
of slices was incorporated with the stress field being Mohr-Coulomb.

19
 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Characterisation of Discontinuities

From the analysis of the discontinuity data, it was identified that the main structural features
were bedding planes, contacts, dykes, fault, folds, foliations, joints, quartz veins and shear
planes. The frequency of distribution of these discontinuities is shown in Fig. 4.1. It is noted
that joints had the highest frequency of 454, followed by shear planes with 162.

Figure 4.1: Distribution of discontinuities in the pit walls.

A stereo plot of the discontinuity revealed that there exist two main discontinuity sets with
dip and dip direction of 81o/274o and 90o/185o respectively. This is illustrated in figure 4.2.

20
Figure 4.2: Stereo plot of discontinuities

4.2 Kinematic Analysis

Planar, wedge and toppling failure analysis were performed on the eastern wall of the pit using
the Dips 6.0 software and are discussed.

4.2.1 Planar Failure Analysis

The analysis of slope for planar sliding potential is shown in figure 4.3. It is found that planar
failure is kinematically possible, because 11 out of 709 poles representing 1.55% fall within
the planar sliding zone. The probability of failure of 1.55% is insignificant and can be ignored.

21
Figure 4.3: Planar sliding failure analysis

4.2.2 Wedge Failure Analysis

Figure 4.4 shows the analysis for potential wedge faikure. Althought the intersection of
planes of the major discontinuity sets forms wedges , only one out of three daylights in the
slope and hence wedge failure is kinmatically possible. In addition, individual poles of
discontinuities fall within the wedge failure zone with a probability of failure being 33.33%.

22
Figure 4.4: Wedge failure analysis

4.2.3 Toppling Failure Analysis

Toppling failure is found to be kinematically possible, with 62 out of the 709 poles,
representing 8.74% falliing within the critical zone. Almost 98% of the critical poles
belonging to discontinity set 1 (figure 4.5).

Figure 4.5: Toppling failure analysis

23
4.3 Limit Equilibrium Analysis
The analysis of the pit slope using Rocscience slide software was carried out using the mine
slope configuration parameters and material properties as shown in Table 4.1 The analysis was
carried out for four (4) states of groundwater conditions. Thus, when the slope is dry or with
groundwater level in the oxide zone, transition zone or fresh rock zone.

Table 4.1: Mine Configuration parameters and material properties

Strength Parameters
Material (m3) C(m2) Φ(o)
Oxide 5 15 16
Transition 15 22 23
Fresh rock 25 28 30

Slope Parameters
Dip/Dip Direction (o)
Dip 36
Dip Direction 255

Depth of pit (m) 240.5

Overall Slope Angle (o) 42
Material zone Bench Height Berm width Slope angle Inter-Ramp Angle
(m) (m) (o) (o)
Oxide 5 6 80 37
Transition 5 6 80 37
Fresh rock 20 10 80 43.7

4.3.1 Dry State Condition

The lithological units making up the slope were assumed to have ground water table at a
greater depth such that it will have minimal or no effect on the slope cuts. Fig. 4.6 shows the
analysis of the slope under dry state condition. It is observed that the slip surface fell between
1090 and 965 Reduced Level (RL) with a factor of safety of 0.590.

24
Figure 4.6: Dry State Condition

4.3.2 Groundwater state condition

The ground water table was considered to be at 1132 RL , 1089 RL and 1045 RL which
represented the oxide, transition and fresh rock domains respectively. This main idea behind
varying the level of water table was due to the fluctuating nature of the water level due to
continous pumping of water from the pit and recharge from rainfall. This helped to assess the
slope sensitivity to groundwater.

i. Groundwater level in the oxide zone

Fig. 4.7 shows the groundwater level at 1132 RL within the oxide zone. It can be observed that
the slip surface fell between 1090 RL and 965 RL with a factor of safety of 0.590.

Figure 4.7: Groundwater level in the Oxide zone

25
 ii. Groundwater level in the transition zone

Fig. 4.8 shows the groundwater level at 1089RL within the transition zone. It can be observed
that the slip surface fell between 1090RL and 965RL with a factor of safety of 0.590.

Figure 4.8: Groundwater level in the transition zone

iii. Groundwater level in the fresh rock zone

Fig. 4.9 shows the groundwater level at 1045 RL within the fresh rock zone. It can be observed
that the slip surface fell between 1090 RL and 965 RL with a factor of safety of 0.590.

Figure 4.9: Groundwater level in the fresh rock zone

26
4.3.3 Influence of groundwater level on the factor of safety of the slope
The sensitivity of the Factor of safety to the groundwater condition is summarised in Table 4.2.
It is observed that irrespective of the lithology in which groundwater was found the factor of
safety remain the same. This implies that under the conditions simulated the slope still remains
unsafe.

Table 4.2: Limit equilibrium analyses results

Groundwater level Factor of safety

Oxide zone 0.590
Transition zone 0.590
Fresh rock zone 0.590

27
 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion
The study sought to determine the stability of a pit wall at Perseus Mines, Ayanfuri. From the
study the following conclusions are drawn:

The discontinuities consisted of 51 bedding planes, 10 quartz veins, 2 dykes, 162 shear zones,
10 foliations, 454 joints, 14 folds and 1 fault. Joints were the most dominant discontinuity
with a total number of 454.

From the kinematic analysis, the possible modes of failure identified were planar, wedge and
toppling with probabilities of failure being 1.55%, 33.3% and 8.74 respectively.

Results of limit equilibrium analysis of the slope indicate that the factor of safety is 0.590 and
that the slopes are unsafe because it was less than unity. It was also found that the factor of
safety is insensitive to groundwater level as the factor of safety remained constant.

5.2 Recommendation

It is therefore recommended that the slope angles be reduced to increase stability or the area be
barricaded off and restricted from personnel access.

28
 REFERENCES

Abd El - Latif M. Y. and Moussa A. A. M. (2005). Slope Stability of Jointed Rock Masses.
PhD Dissertation, Ain Shams University, Egypt.

Anon (2019). A Brief History of Mining: The Advancement of Mining Techniques and
Technology. https://www.generalkinematics.com/blog/a-brief-history-of-mining-and-the-
advancement-of-mining-technology//. Accessed 25/05/19.

Adams, B. M. (2015). Slope Stability Acceptance Criteria for Opencast Mine Design. 12th
Australia New Zealand Conference on Geomechanics, 22 - 24 February 2015, Volume 3: Paper
No. 120

Brady, B. H. G. and Brown E. T. (2004). Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining .3rd edition.
Kluwer Academic Publishers, New York. 628p.

Coggan, J. S., Stead, D., and Eyre, J. M. (1998). Evaluation of techniques for quarry slope
stability assessment. Transactions of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. Section B.
Applied Earth Science, 107.

Deanna, C. (2019). Today in Science: Bingham Canyon Landslide. https://earthsky.org/

earth/this date-in-science-landslide-at-bingham-canyon-mine/ Accessed on 31/04/2019

Feybesse. J, Billa. M, Guerrot .C, Duguey. E, Lescuyer J et. al. The paleoproterozoic Ghanaian
province: Geodynamic model and ore controls, including regional stress modeling.
Precambrian Research, Vol. 149(3):149-196

Ghana Statistical Service (2014). District Analytical Report: Upper Denkyria West District
https://www.statsghana.gov.gh/.Accessed on 15/11/18

Goodman, R. E. (1989). Introduction to Rock Mechanics, 2nd edition. John Wiley & Sons
Publications, New York, 562 pp.

Hoek, E. and Bray, J.W. (1981). Rock Slope Engineering,3rd edition. The Institute of Mining
and Metallurgy, London, England.

Kliche, C. (1999). Rock Slope Stability. Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc.
Colorado, 253.

29
Laubscher, D. H., and Taylor, H. W. (1976). The importance of geomechanics classification of
jointed rock masses in mining operations. Exploration for Rock Engineering, Cape Town, A.
A. Balkema.

Oberthuer, T., Mumm, A. S., Vetter, U., Simon, K., and Amanor, J. A. (1996). Gold
mineralization in the Ashanti Belt of Ghana; genetic constraints of the stable isotope
geochemistry. Economic Geology, 91(2), 289-301.

Payne, P., Marwood, B. and Price, D. (2009) Technical Report Central Ashanti Gold Project,
Ghana. Perseus Mining Gold Limited, Ayamfuri.
https://secure.kaiserresearch.com/i/jk/tr16/TRPRU20091130.pdf. Accessed on 18/11/18.

Prakash, B. B. (2009). Design of Stable Slope for Opencast Mines, Bachelor thesis, National
Institute of Technology, India.

Rocscience, (2019). Kinematic Analysis.http://www.dipanalyst.com/Kinematic%20Analysis/

.html. Accessed on 30/01/2019

Sowers, G.F. (1979). Introductory Soil Mechanics and Foundations: Geotechnical Engineering,
4th Edition, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York, Collier Macmillan Publishers,
London.

Wyllie, D. C., and Mah, C. W. (2004). Rock Slope Engineering: Civil and Mining, 4th edition,
New York, Spon Press Publications.

30