FLOW REGIMES DURING CYCLIC STEAM STIMULATION AT

COLD LAKE

E. VITTORATOS

this article begins on the next page F

Am@ trpl FROM THE CIM/SPE ANNUAL TECHNICAL CONFERENCE Flow regimes during cyclic steam stimulation at Cold Lake E. VITTORATOS Esso Resources Canada Limited ABSTRACT From the analyses of production data from thousands of cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) cycles at Cold Lake, a conceptual model of theflow regimes has been developed It indicates that the tradi- tional reservoirflow conceptualization of bitumen and water slip- ping past each other according to the relative permeability curves is, to a large extent, inapplicable at Cold Lake, and very likely inappropriate to visualizing steam
stimulation in general. Upon completion of steam injection, three distinct and sequential flow regimes characterize the production phase. type I, free water with little if any bitumen production; type II, slugs offree water alternating with slugs of water in bitumen emulsion, resufting i'n scattered production rates; and type III, a single phase flow con- dition compi&ng of water in bitumen emulsion with very smooth, slowly varying production rates. In early cycles the majority of the bitumen production occurs during type IIIflow, with the type ii regime being small. Over time, as the
cycle number increases, the water content of the emulsion in type IlIflow reaches a max- imum of about 50%; the flow then increasingly remains in type Il condition, corresponding to a decline in the well's OSR and increase in the waterloil ratio (WOR) as the well begins to ap- proach its economic limit. T7te swelling of the bitumen by the en- trained waterpermits the emulsion to occupy essentially the whole pore space during type IIIflow, incorporating an otherwise con- tinuousfree water that could competefor production at the well- bore. This may be the physical reason for the need to
introduce hysteresis to depress the water relative permeability during numer- ical stimulations of the production phase of CSS. Introduction Using cyclic steam stimulation (CSS), Esso Resources Canada Limited produces in excess of 14 000 m3/day of 10 API gravity bitumem from the Clearwater formation at Cold Lake, Alberta(l). A significant technological effort supports this large commercial thermal recovery project. Progress has been made in delineating the relative importance of key recovery mechanisms of CSS, such as formation recompaction, solution gas drive and gravity drainage(2).
This paper reports the reservoir flow regimes during the production phase of CSS deduced from the mwyses of produc- tion data from thousands of cycles. This analysis leads to the view- point that the traditional reservoir flow conceptuamtion of bitumen and water slipping past each other according to the rela- Keywords: Cyclic steam stimulation, Flow regimes, Emulsion, Relative permeability, Cold Lake. Paper reviewed and accepted for publication by the Editorial 82 tive permeability curves is, to a large extent, inapplicable at Cold Lake, and very likely inappropriate to
visualizing steam stimula- tion in general. Perusal of the production data shows that the water and bitu- men production rates often track each other with considerable co- herence; this is most striking when the WOR is one. This is _ illustrated in Figure 1 for well A in its fourth cycle production. Note that in the latter half of the cycle, for a period of 150 days, the WOR persists as one even during wide variations in fluid rates. During this period the reservoir is cooling, with the viscosity of the bitumen increasing much faster than that of the water; by the end of the period,
it is estimated that the ratio of bitumen to water viscosity has increased at least by a factor of two. Furthermore this ratio is expected to vary with distance from the wellbore. Thus in order to continue a constant WOR at the wellbore, water needs to be retarded and stored in the reservoir during a period when its viscosity relative to bitumen is decreasing. Cuff ent relative permeability concepts can be used to explain the behaviour in Figure 1. For example, the relative permeability to bitumen can increase with time due to water saturation decline in the reservoir at a rate that
compensates for the increasing bitu- men viscosity, resulting in a constant WOR. The relative permea- bihties can also be made temperature-dependent or given complex shapes. But there is an altemate, possibly simpler, way to visual- ize the process: there is only one phase flowing, i.e. a water in bitumen emulsion. The increasing viscosity of the bitumen rela- tive to water is then irrelevant as the water is trapped to flow at the rate dictated by the emulsion. The assumption here is that there exists within the reservoir a slug of approximately 4500 M3 Of emulsion (the amount produced
over the 150 days) capable of flow- mg through the sand matrix, con@ relatively uniformly 5007o water. There is no need to invoke the slipping of one phase rela- tive to another, i.e. the concept of relative penneabilities. Through such data, a new conceptual model of the flow regimes during steam stimulation at Cold Lake has been developed. That the majority of heavy oils at the wellhead recovered via thermal methods are in the form of water in oil emulsions is wen known(3). There have been two points-of-view: (1) the emulsions are formed in the wellbore via mechanical agitation,
say, with the pumps, and do not exist or flow in the reservoir; and (2) emul- sions are indeed created in the reservoir, but are detrimental to performance because of their increased viscosity and should be removed by injecting demulsifiers. This paper agrees that emul- sions form in the reservoir, but argues that emulsification is es- sential for effective production of high viscosity oils. The flow regimes to be described focus on the interplay between bitumen, water and emulsion flow. It is known, however, that Board of The Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology.
The Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology
 POOR IMAGE DUE TO ORIGINAL DOCUMENT QUALITY
FROM THE CIM/SPE ANNUAL TECHNICAL CONFERENCE
lFlo'w regimes during cyclic steam
stimulation at Cold Lake
E. VITTORATOS
Esso Resources Canada Limited
ABSTRACT
From the analyses of production data from thousands of cyclic
steam stimulation (CSS) cycles at Cold Lake, a conceptual model
oftheflow regimes has been developed. It indicates that the tradi-
tional reservoir jlo w conceptualization of bitumen and water slip-
ping past each other according to the relative permeability curves
is, to a large extent, inapplicable at Cold Lake, and very likely
inappropriate to visualizing steam stimulation in general.
Upon completion of steam injection, tluee distinct and sequential
flow regimes characlerize the production phase: type I, free water
with little if atiY bitumen production: type ll, slugs of free water
alternating with slugs of water in bitumen emulsion, resulting in
scatlered production rates; and type Ill, a single phase flo w con-
dition comprising of ~ ..'ater in bitumen emub;ion with very smooth,
slowly varying production rates. /n early cycles the majority of
tile bitumen production occurs during type III flow, with the type
II regime being small. Over lime, as the cycle number increases,
the water contenl of the emulsion in type III flow reaches a max-
imum of about 50%; the flow then increasingly remains in type
[[ condition, corresponding to a decline in the well's OSR and
increase III the wafer/oil ratio (WOR) as the well begins to ap-
proach its economic limit. The swelling oj the bitllmen by rhe erl-
trained water permits the emulsion to ocmp}' essentially the whole
pore space during type flI flow, incorporating an othem'ise con-
tinuous free water cliat could competejor production at the well-
bore. This maJ' be the physical reasorl for the need to Introduce
hysteresis to depress the water relative permeability during numer-
icul stimulations of the production phase of CSS.
Introduction
Using cyclic steam stimulation (eSS), Esso Resources Canada
Limited produces in excess of 14000 m3/day of 10 API gravity
billlmem from the Clearwater formation at Cold Lake, Alberta(l).
A significant technological effort supports this large corrunercial
thennal recovery project. Progress has been made in delineating
the relative importance of key recovery mechanisms of CSS, sllch
as formation recompaction, solution gas drive and gravity
drainage< 21. This paper reports the reservoir flow regimes during
the production phase of CSS deduced from the analyses of produc-
Uon data from thousands of cycles_ This analysis leads to the view·
point that the traditional reservoir flow conceptualization of
bitumen and water slipping past each other according to the rela-
Keywords: Cyclk steam stimulaLion, Flow regimes, Emulsion, Relative
permeability, Cold Lake.
Paper reviewed and accepted for publication by the EdiLori~1
--.Jc.fJT9/-OI-oZ
tive penneability curves is, to a large extent, inapplicable at Cold
Lake, and very likely inappropriate to visualizing steam stimula-
tion in general.
Perusal of the production data shows that the water and biLU-
men production rates often track each other with considerable co-
herence; [his is most striking when the WOR is one. This is
illustrated in Figure 1 for well A in its fourth cycle production.
Note that in the laHer half of the cycle, for a period of 150 days,
the WOR persists as one even during wide variations in fluid rates.
During this period the reservoir is cooling, with the viscosity of
the bitumen increasing much faster than that of the water; by the
end of the period, it is estimated that the ratio of bitumen to waler
viscosity has increased at least by a factor of two. Furthermore
this ratio is expected to vary with distance from [he wellborc. Thus
in order to continue a constant WOR at the well bore, water needs
to be retarded and stored in the reservoir during a period when
its viscosity relative to bitumen is decreasing.
Current relative permeability concepts can be used to explain
the behaviour in Figure 1. For example, the relative permeability
to bitumen can increase with time due to waLer saturation decline
in the reservoir at a rate that compensates for the increasing bitu-
men viscosity, resulting in a constant "·lOR. The relative permea-
bilities can also be made temperature-dependenL or given complex
shapes. But there is an alternate, possibly simpler, way to visual-
ize the process: there is only one phase flowing, i.e. a water in
bitumen emulsion_ The increasing viscosity of the bitumen rel.l-
tive to water is then irrelevant as the Water is trapped to flow at
the rate dictated by rhe emulsion. The assumption here is Lhat there
exists within [he reservoir a slug of approximately 4500 m] of
emulsion (the amount produced over the 150 days) capable of flow-
ing through the sand matrix, containing relatively uniformly 50 010
water. There is no need to invoke the slipping of one phase rela-
tive to another, i.e. the concept of relative permeabilities. Through
such dam, a new conceptual model of the flow regimes during
steam stimulation at Cold Lake has been developed.
That the majority of heavy oils at the wellhead recovered via
thermal methods are in the form of water in oil emulsions is well
known(J). There have been t\'\o'o points-of-view: (I) the emulsions
are formed in the wellbore via mechanical agitation, say, with Lhe
pumps, and do not exist or flow in the reservoir; and (2) emul-
sions are indeed crea[ed in the reservoir, bUL are detrimental to
performance because of their increased viscosity and should be
removed by injecLing demulsifiers. This paper agrees Lhat emul-
sions form in the reservoir, but argues that emulsification is es-
sential for effective prodlJction of high viscosity oils.
The flow regimes to be described focus on the imerplay between
bitumen, water and emulsion flow. It is known, however, th;:lt
Board of The Journal of Canadian Petroleum TechnuluJ,:}'.
 POOR IMAGE DUE TO ORIGINAL DOCUMENT QUALITY
..,
F1GURE 1. WeD A, qrde 4-flow regime (mJ/day)_ Water denoles
the sum of free and demulsified waler; oil denotes demulsified
bitumen.
both CH, and CO, gases are also produced a!ong with the fluids,
and that significant gas saturations exist in the reservoir, possibly
indicative of a foam state_ However, individual well gas produc-
tion data are sparse and difficult to interpret as gas production
at Cold Lake is typically measured on a satellite level (twenty
wells/satellite)_ A comprehensive model would need to incorporate
the role of gases both as a drive and as an interference to fluid
flow; this may be possible in the future as more single well gas
production data are collected_
Cold Lake Reservoir-Description and
Operations
The main target of steam stimuJation for Esso Resources at Cold
Lake is the Clearwater Formation of Cretaceous age. The sands
are unconsolidated with a porosity between 30% to 35070; the oil
saturation averages 11% by weight, or about 0_7 of the pore
volume. The oil is very viscous, approximately 100 Pa.s (100 000
cp) at the ambient reselVoir temperarure of n°e. To achieve com-
mercial injectivities of 200 m3/day to 300 m3/day the formation
needs to fail. Both vertical and horizontal fracturing have been
,..:, observed at the initiation of failure, with horizontal fractures be-
',.
ing more colIUIlon near areas that have undergone intensive steam
injection. Fluids move preferentially in the northeast/southwest
direction_
All Cold Lake bitumen is produced in the form of wa[er in oil
emulsions, with the wa[er content typically ranging from about
15% to 50% by volwne; on occasion samples with as much as
600/0 water have been coUected_ Unstimulated weUs at Cold Lake
flow minor amounts of bitumen (less than 1 m3/day); analyses
of bailed bitwnen samples indicate an emulsified water content
of about 15"70.
All data reported in this paper are unflltered. unprorated test
separator measurements. A demulsifier is added to the produc-
tion stream entering the separator to promme phase separation;
any residual emulsified water content is then measured with a
capacitance probe at the exit of the oil leg of the separator. In
[he figures, water refers to total produced water (free and emulsi-
fied) and oil to demuIsified bitumen; all rates are in units of
m'/day.
The Conceptual Model
The essence of the model is as follows: During steam injection,
the high shear rates along with chemical interfacial effects cause
the formation of water in oil emulsions. The water saturation in
the emulsion will depend on several factors including fluid shear
rates, temperature, and the ratio of conduction to convection in
the heating of the bitumen_ Excess water not held in the emul-
sions, will remain as free water. At [he end of injection, it is
expected to have primarily free water in the vicinity of the well-
bore; further out, a transition region containing a mixture of emul-
; .
;-....
.. ~ .
~~,,,,,.~III~.,,,,.
IJ2a '''' ~.".
FIGURE 2. Reservoir regions at end of steam injectiOD_
~ ,.
o.
~ ..
oED 10' HIO~O~
F1GURE J_ Well B, cycle 3-fIow regimes_
sions and free water; followed by a region primarily of emulsion;
and finally in [he areas farthest from the wellbore, the reservoir
..•.·-r·
-.
will contain cool emulsion and free water_These regions are illus-
trated in Figure 2_ During production, the well will first produce
primarily free water (interval 1); then a mixture of free water (often
in slugs) and emulsion (interva! II); then primarily emulsion (in-
terva! III); and toward the end of the cycle, the well may stan
producing free water again (interval IV)- This sequence of events
can explain [he production profile of many wells_
Well B, with wellhead fluid sampling and with relatively well
understood heat conformance due to the presence of observation
wells, will serve as the example_ for the sequential flow regim:s
of [he conceptual model. For this well, heat entered the reservOIr
horizontally near the bottom of the perforations at a zone of higher
warer mobillcy, and then propagated preferentially upward. FIgure
3 shows [he production phase of the third stimulation cycle along
with the four flow regimes_ There is little test data. during the flow-
back dominated type I flow because of temperarure limitations
of [he test separator_However, wellhead measurements typically
indicate 100"70 water with some distilled light oil in the first rew
days of lIowback. DUring types II and III flow, production test-
ing is nearly daily.
During in[ervaJ II we see an erratic water and bitumen produc- ,.'
[ion, which is caused by the production of free water and bitu-
men slugs; one would be tempted to invoke faulty test separator
performance, in the absence of a model that predicts such be-
haviour _Note that there eJd.s[S a lower bound in the water produc-
tion as outlined by the dashed curve, which can be extended into
the water production in region III. This water production is from
the water contained in the emulsionj water in excess of that is from
the free water which arrives rather erratically.
Interval III corresponds to the production of lOO~o emulsion,
with no free water. This is in agreement with wellhead observa-
tions. Furthermore, there is usually good agreement between the
wa[er content in the emulsion as measured at the wellhead and
that calculated using the test separator data, asswning complete
demulsification of the bitwnen in the test separator_