Latent Thermal Energy Storage

Luisa F. Cabeza

Abstract In the present chapter, an introduction about latent TES technology is

reported. Requirements and different types of phase change materials (PCM) are
discussed. Finally, a short introduction to PCM composites is presented.

1 Introduction

When energy is stored with the use of the phase change of a material, latent thermal
energy storage (also called latent heat storage) is the technology followed [1, 2]. In
practical applications, mainly the phase change solid–liquid is used, although the
phase change solid–solid can also be of interest. In this technology, when a material
is melted, heat is stored at a constant temperature, this is the charge process. The
discharge will happen when the material is solidified, and will also happen at
constant temperature. It should always be remembered that before and after the
phase change, the material will be heated or cooled, storing or releasing energy
sensibly (Fig. 1). Moreover, one of the oldest thermal energy storage applications is
the use of ice to store cold from winter to summer [3] and the newest one is the use
of PCM in high temperature applications [4].
The amount of energy stored is calculated with:

ZTpC ZT2
Qlatent ¼ Cps  dT þ DHpC þ Cpl  dT; ð1Þ
T1 TpC

where Qlatent is the energy stored, Cps is the heat capacity of the solid, and Cpl is the
heat capacity of the liquid.

L. F. Cabeza (&)
GREiA Research Group, INSPIRES Research Centre,
Universitat de Lleida, Pere de Cabrera s/n, 25001 Lleida, Spain
e-mail: lcabeza@diei.udl.cat

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 9

A. Frazzica and L. F. Cabeza (eds.), Recent Advancements in Materials and Systems
for Thermal Energy Storage, Green Energy and Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96640-3_2
10 L. F. Cabeza

Temperature (ºC)

Stored heat (kJ/kg)

Fig. 1 TES as latent heat for solid–liquid phase change

Table 1 Requirements for latent thermal energy storage [1, 5]

Physical and technical Thermal requirements Non-technical
requirements requirements
Low density variation and Suitable phase change temperature High availability
small volume change fitted to application
High energy density Large phase change enthalpy (DH) Low cost
and specific heat (Cp)
Small or no subcooling High thermal conductivity (except for Non-toxic
passive cooling)
No phase segregation Reproducible phase change Non-harmful to the
environment
Low vapour temperature Thermal stability Recyclable
Chemical and physical stability Cycling stability Safety
Compatible with other – –
materials

As any other technology, several requirements should be considered when

selecting the material and designing the components and system. For latent heat
storage, those requirements are listed in Table 1. A new methodology for the
selection of the right PCM considering some of these requirements was developed
by Miro et al. [6].

2 Materials

Already in 1983 Abhat [7] classified the materials used for latent thermal energy
storage, those commonly used as phase change materials (PCM). Today it is widely
accepted that PCM can be divided between organic and inorganic materials, but
Latent Thermal Energy Storage 11

more and more, new composites and hybrid materials are being developed.
Between organic materials, paraffin and fatty acids are those most used, while
between inorganic, salt hydrates and salts are used [8]. Many materials have been
studied as PCM and a long list can be found in the literature [8–19]. Advantages
and disadvantages of each type of PCM have been reported by many authors [2, 8]:
1. Paraffin: These are the most used commercial PCM. Paraffin is alkanes with
different chain length. The longer the alkane the higher the melting temperature.
Paraffins show good storage density with respect to mass. As other organic
PCMs, they do not show sub-cooling. Their melting temperature is between 0 °C
up to around 120 °C. Flammability of paraffin can be a concern in some appli-
cations. Finally, paraffin are usually compatible with metals, but not with plastics.
2. Fatty acids: These are also carbon chains, but with one acid radical. Their
melting temperature is similar to paraffin and they are stable upon cycling. They
show no sub-cooling and low thermal conductivity. Their acid radical can give
more corrosivity with metals.
3. Sugar alcohols: They are organic materials with higher melting temperature.
Their main disadvantage is that they can oxidise with presence of oxygen,
therefore they need to be used in inert atmospheres [20]. Their energy storage
density is quite high.
4. Plastics: Plastics such as PEG or HDPE can also be used as PCM. Their main
disadvantage is the wider melting enthalpy curve.
5. Water–salt solutions: These materials have a melting temperature below 0 °C,
therefore are used for refrigeration and other cooling applications. They usually
have good energy storage density. To avoid phase segregation eutectic com-
positions can be used.
6. Salt hydrates: These are inorganic materials with a melting temperature between
5 and 130 °C. Salt hydrates usually have higher phase change enthalpy than
organic PCM, but their main disadvantages are phase segregation, sub-cooling,
and corrosion. Their thermal conductivity is similar to water.
7. Salts: These are inorganic materials with melting temperatures above 150 °C
that can reach around 800 °C. Their description and advantages and disad-
vantages are similar to those of salt hydrates, except that salts do no show phase
segregation.
8. Mixtures: To improve any of the properties of PCM, mixtures can be used.
These can be mixtures of organic materials, of inorganic materials, or of
organic–inorganic materials.
9. Metals and metal alloys: Although some pure metals and metal alloys present
interesting thermal properties to be used as PCM due to their high storage
density and very high thermal conductivity, Fernandez et al. [21] highlighted
a lack of understanding on the implications of the metallurgical aspects related
to the melting and solidification of these materials under thermal cycling at high
temperatures. The main issues to be considered include vapour pressure,
sub-cooling, corrosion, segregation, changes in composition and microstructure,
changes in thermal properties, and undesired reactions.
12 L. F. Cabeza

3 Composites and Other Material Modifications

A composite is a material composed of several different materials. They are

developed to improve a property of a material or to combine properties of different
materials. PCM composites can be used to improve the thermal conductivity of the
material [22]. PCM composites include:
– Metal foam composite PCM: when the PCM is impregnated into a porous metal
foam. As a continuous skeleton structure, the metal foam has high open
porosity, high specific strength and stiffness, and high thermal conductivity; but
on the other hand, PCM can leak from the composite and corrosion may be an
issue.
– Carbon material composite PCM: when the PCM is used together with carbon
materials such as expanded graphite, carbon nano-materials, or graphene. The
final properties of the composite depend a lot on the type of carbon material
used and on the manufacturing process used.
– Form-stable composite PCM [23]: when the PCM is included in a material that
prevent the leakage of the PCM. Base materials used are polymers, silica-based
materials, perlite, diatomite, clay minerals, etc. The main advantage of these
composites is that they do not need to be encapsulated further. The main dis-
advantage is that the melting enthalpy of the PCM can decrease considerably.

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