SIGMA COACHING CLASSES

Series Formulas
1. Arithmetic and Geometric Series 2. Special Power Series
Definitions: Powers of Natural Numbers
First term: a1 n
1
Nth term: an ∑ k = 2 n ( n + 1)
k =1
Number of terms in the series: n
n
1
Sum of the first n terms: Sn
Difference between successive terms: d
∑k
k =1
2
=
6
n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)

Common ratio: q n
1 2
∑k
2
Sum to infinity: S
3
= n ( n + 1)
k =1 4
Arithmetic Series Formulas:
Special Power Series
an = a1 + ( n − 1) d
1
a + ai +1
= 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + . . . ( for : − 1 < x < 1)
ai = i −1 1− x
2 1
a + an
= 1 − x + x2 − x3 + . . . ( for : − 1 < x < 1)
Sn = 1 ⋅n 1+ x
2 x 2 x3
ex = 1 + x + + + ...
2a1 + ( n − 1) d 2! 3!
Sn = ⋅n
2 x2 x3 x 4 x5
ln (1+ x ) = x − + − + ... ( for : −1 < x < 1)
Geometric Series Formulas: 2 3 4 5
an = a1 ⋅ q n−1 x3 x5 x 7 x9
sin x = x − + − + ...
3! 5! 7! 9!
ai = ai −1 ⋅ ai +1
x 2 x 4 x6 x8
an q − a1 cos x = 1 − + − + ...
Sn = 2! 4! 6! 8!
q −1 x3 2x5 17x7  π π
tan x = x + + + + ...  for : − < x < 
Sn =
( n
a1 q − 1 ) 3 15 315  2 2
q −1 x3 x5 x 7 x 9
sinh x = x + + + + ...
a1 3! 5! 7! 9!
S= for − 1 < q < 1
1− q x 2 x 4 x6 x8
cosh x = 1 + + + + ...
2! 4! 6! 8!
x3 2x5 17x7  π π
tan x = x − + − +...  for : − < x < 
3 15 315  2 2

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3. Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Definition:
f(
n −1) n −1
f ′′(a )( x − a ) 2 (a) ( x − a )
f ( x) = f (a ) + f ′(a ) ( x − a ) + + . . .+ + Rn
2! ( n − 1)!
f(
n) n
(ξ )( x − a )
Rn = Lagrange ' s form a ≤ξ ≤ x
n!
f(
n) n −1
(ξ )( x − ξ ) ( x − a )
Rn = Cauch ' s form a ≤ξ ≤ x
( n − 1)!

This result holds if f(x) has continuous derivatives of order n at last. If lim Rn = 0 , the infinite series obtained is called
n →∞
Taylor series for f(x) about x = a. If a = 0 the series is often called a Maclaurin series.

Binomial series
n n ( n − 1) n ( n − 1)( n − 2 )
(a + x) = a n + na n−1 x + a n−2 x 2 + a n− 3 x3 + ...
2! 3!
n n n
= a n +   a n −1 x +   a n− 2 x 2 +   a n −3 x3 + ...
1  2 3
Special cases:
−1
(1 + x ) = 1 − x + x 2 − x3 + x 4 − ... −1 < x < 1
−2
(1 + x ) = 1 − 2 x + 3 x 2 − 4 x3 + 5 x 4 − ... −1 < x < 1
−3
(1 + x ) = 1 − 3 x + 6 x 2 − 10 x3 + 15 x 4 − ... −1 < x < 1
1
− 1 1⋅ 3 2 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 3
(1 + x ) 2 = 1− x+ x − x + ... −1 < x ≤ 1
2 2⋅4 2⋅4⋅6
1
1 1 2 1⋅ 3 3
(1 + x ) 2 = 1+ x− x + x + ... −1 < x ≤ 1
2 2⋅4 2⋅4⋅6

Series for exponential and logarithmic functions

x 2 x3
ex = 1 + x + + + ...
2! 3!
2 3
x ( x ln a ) ( x ln a )
a = 1 + x ln a + + + ...
2! 3!
x 2 x3 x 4
ln (1 + x ) = x − + − ... −1 < x ≤ 1
2 3 4
2 3
 x −1 1  x −1 1  x −1  1
ln (1 + x ) =  +   +   + ... x≥
 x  2 x  3 x  2

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Series for trigonometric functions
x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + ...
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 − + − + ...
2! 4! 6!

tan x = x +
x 3 2 x5 17 x 7
+ + + ... +
( )
2 2 n 22 n − 1 Bn x 2 n −1
−
π
<x<
π
3 15 315 ( 2n ) ! 2 2
1 x x3 2 x 5 2 2 n Bn x 2 n −1
cot x = − − − − ... − 0< x <π
x 3 45 945 ( 2n )!
x 2 5 x 4 61x 6 E x2n π π
sec x = 1 + + + + ... + n + ... − <x<
2 24 720 ( 2n ) ! 2 2

1 x 7 x3
csc x = + + + ... +
( )
2 2 2 n − 1 En x 2 n
+ ... 0< x <π
x 6 360 ( 2n )!
1 x 3 1 ⋅ 3 x5 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 x 7
sin −1 x = x + ⋅ + ⋅ + + ... −1 < x < 1
2 3 2⋅4 5 2⋅4⋅6 7
π π  1 x3 1 ⋅ 3 x5 
cos −1 x = − sin −1 x = −x+ ⋅ + ⋅ + ...  −1 < x < 1
2 2  2 3 2⋅4 5 
 x3 x 2 x3
x − + − + ... if − 1 < x < 1
 3 5 7
 π 1 1 1
tan − 1 x =  − + − + ... if x ≥ 1
3
 2 x 3x 5 x5
 π 1 1 1
 − − + 3 − 5 + ... if x < 1
 2 x 3x 5x
π  x3 x 2 x 3 
 −x− + − + ..  . if −1 < x < 1

2  3 5 7 

−1 π −1


cot x = − tan x =  1 1 1 1
2 − + − + ... if x ≥ 1
 x 3x 3
5x 5
7 x7
 1 1 1 1
 π+ − + − + ... if x < 1
 x 3x 3
5x 5
7 x7
Series for hyperbolic functions
x3 x5 x 7
sinh x = x + + + + ...
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
cosh x = 1 + + + + ...
2! 4! 6!

tanh x = x −
x3 2 x5 17 x7
+ − + ... +
( −1) n −1 2 n
2 ( 22n − 1) Bn x2n−1 + ... if −
π
<x<
π
3 15 315 ( 2n )! 2 2
n −1 2 n
1 x x3 2 x 7 ( −1) 2 Bn x 2n−1
coth x = + − + + ... + + ... if 0 < x < π
x 3 45 945 ( 2n ) !
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Limits and Derivatives Formulas
1. Limits Power rule
Properties d n
if lim f ( x) = l and lim g ( x) = m , then dx
( )
x = nx n −1
x→a x→a
Chain rule
lim [ f ( x ) ± g ( x)] = l ± m d
x→a
dx
( )
f ( g ( x ) ) = f ′ ( g ( x) ) g ′( x)
lim [ f ( x) ⋅ g ( x) ] = l ⋅ m
x→a
Common Derivatives
f ( x) l
lim = where m ≠ 0 d
x →a g ( x) m (c) = 0
dx
lim c ⋅ f ( x) = c ⋅ l
x →a d
( x) = 1
1 1 dx
lim = where l ≠ 0
x →a f ( x) l d
( sin x ) = cos x
dx
Formulas
d
 1
n ( cos x ) = − sin x
lim 1 +  = e dx
x →∞
 n d 1
1 ( tan x ) = 2 = sec2 x
dx cos x
lim (1 + n ) n = e
x →∞
d
sin x ( sec x ) = sec x tan x
lim =1 dx
x→ 0 x d
tan x ( csc x ) = − csc cot x
lim =1 dx
x→ 0 x d 1
cos x − 1 ( cot x ) = − 2 = − csc2 x
lim =0 dx sin x
x→ 0 x d 1
x −a n n
dx
(
sin −1 x = )
lim = na n −1 1 − x2
x→a x − a
d 1
an −1 dx
( )
cos −1 x = −
lim = ln a 1 − x2
x→ 0 x
d 1
dx
( )
tan −1 x =
1 + x2
2. Common Derivatives
d x
Basic Properties and Formulas dx
( )
a = a x ln a

( cf )′ = cf ′( x) d x
( )
e = ex
dx
(f ± g )′ = f ′( x) + g ′( x) d 1
( ln x ) = , x > 0
Product rule dx x
d 1
( f ⋅ g )′ = f ′ ⋅ g + f ⋅ g′ ( ln x ) = , x ≠ 0
dx x
Quotient rule
d 1
 f ′ f ′ ⋅ g − f ⋅ g ′
( log a x ) = , x>0
dx x ln a
  =
g  g2
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3. Higher-order Derivatives
Definitions and properties
Second derivative
d  dy  d 2 y
f ′′ =  −
dx  dx  dx 2
Higher-Order derivative

f( ) = f(
n
( n −1)
)′
( n)
= f ( ) + g(
n n)
(f + g)
(n)
= f ( ) − g(
n n)
(f − g)
Leibniz’s Formulas

( f ⋅ g )′′ = f ′′ ⋅ g + 2 f ′ ⋅ g ′ + f .g ′′

( f ⋅ g )′′′ = f ′′′ ⋅ g + 3 f ′′ ⋅ g ′ + 3 f ′ ⋅ g ′′ + f ⋅ g ′′′

n ( n − 1)
( f ⋅ g )(
n)
= f ( ) g + nf (
n −1)
f(
n − 2)
g ′′ + ... + fg (
n n)
g+
1⋅ 2
Important Formulas
(n) m!
(x ) m
=
( m − n )!
x m−n

(n)
(x ) n
= n!
n −1
(n) ( −1) ( n − 1)!
( log a x ) =
x n ⋅ ln a
n −1
(n) ( −1) ( n − 1)!
( ln x ) =
xn
( n)
( a ) = a ln a
x x n

( ) n
(e ) = e
x x

( ) n
( a ) = m a ln
mx n mx n
a

 nπ 
( sin x )( )
n
= sin  x + 
 2 
 nπ 
( cos x )( )
n
= cos  x + 
 2 

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Algebra Formulas
Identity
1. Set identities A∪∅ = A
Definitions: A∩ I = A
I: Universal set Set identities involving union, intersection and
A’: Complement complement
Empty set: ∅ complement of intersection and union
Union of sets A ∪ A′ = I
A ∩ A′ = ∅
A ∪ B = { x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
De Morgan’s laws
Intersection of sets
A ∩ B = { x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B} ( A ∪ B )′ = A′ ∩ B ′
Complement ( A ∩ B )′ = A′ ∪ B ′
A′ = { x ∈ I | x ∈ A} Set identities involving difference

Difference of sets B \ A = B ( A ∪ B)

B \ A = { x | x ∈ B and x ∉ A} B \ A = B ∩ A′
A\ A= ∅
Cartesian product
( A \ B) ∩ C = ( A ∩ C) \ (B ∩ C)
A × B = {( x, y ) | x ∈ A and y ∈ B}
A′ = I \ A
Set identities involving union
Commutativity
A∪ B = B∪ A
2. Sets of Numbers
Associativity Definitions:
A ∪ (B ∪ C ) = ( A ∪ B) ∪ C N: Natural numbers
No: Whole numbers
Idempotency
Z: Integers
A∪ A = A +
Z : Positive integers
-
Set identities involving intersection Z : Negative integers
commutativity Q: Rational numbers
A∩ B = B∩ A C: Complex numbers
Associativity Natural numbers (counting numbers )
A ∩ (B ∩ C) = ( A ∩ B) ∩ C N = {1, 2, 3,... }
Idempotency
Whole numbers ( counting numbers + zero )
A∩ A = A
Set identities involving union and intersection N o = {0, 1, 2, 3,... }
Distributivity Integers
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C) Z + = N = {1, 2, 3,... }
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( A ∩ C)
Z − = {..., − 3, − 2, − 1 }
Domination
A∩∅ = ∅ Z = Z − ∪ {0} ∪ Z = .{ .., − 3, − 2, − 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,... }
A∪ I = I
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Roots of complex numbers
Irrational numbers: 1
 θ + 2k π 
1
θ + 2k π
Nonerepeating and nonterminating integers  r ( cos θ + sin θ )  n = r n  cos + sin 
 n n 
Real numbers:
From this the n nth roots can be obtained by putting k = 0,
Union of rational and irrational numbers 1, 2, . . ., n - 1
Complex numbers:
C = { x + iy | x ∈ R and y ∈ R} 4. Factoring and product
N ⊂Z ⊂Q⊂R⊂C Factoring Formulas
a 2 − b 2 = ( a − b )( a + b )

3. Complex numbers (
a 3 − b3 = ( a − b ) a 2 + ab + b 2 )
Definitions: a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a 2
− ab + b )
2

A complex nuber is written as a + bi where a and b are

real numbers an i, called the imaginary unit, has the a 4 − b 4 = ( a − b)( a + b)( a 2 + b 2 )
2
property that i =-1.
The complex numbers a+bi and a-bi are called complex
conjugate of each other.
(
a 5 − b5 = ( a − b ) a 4 + a 3b + a 2 b 2 + ab3 + b 4 )
Equality of complex numbers Product Formulas
a + bi = c + di if and only if a = c and b = d ( a + b) 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
Addition of complex numbers ( a − b) 2 = a 2 − 2ab + b 2
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a 2b + 3ab2 + b3
Subtraction of complex numbers (a − b)3 = a3 − 3a 2b + 3ab 2 − b3
(a + bi) - (c + di) = (a - c) + (b - d)i 4
(a + b) = a 4 + 4a 3 b + 6 a 2 b 2 + 4ab3 + b 4
Multiplication of complex numbers
(a + bi)(c + di) = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i ( a − b )4 = a 4 − 4a3b + 6a 2 b2 − 4ab3 + b4
Division of complex numbers (a + b + c)2 = a 2 + b2 + c 2 + 2ab + 2ac + 2bc
a + bi a + bi c − di ac + bd  bc − ad  (a + b + c + ...) 2 = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + ...2(ab + ac + bc + ...)
= ⋅ = + i
c + di c + di c − di c 2 + d 2  c 2 + d 2 
Polar form of complex numbers
x + iy = r ( cosθ + i sinθ ) r − modulus, θ − amplitude
5. Algebric equations
Multiplication and division in polar form Quadric Eqation: ax2 + bx + c = 0
 r1 ( cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) ⋅  r2 ( cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 )  = Solutions (roots):
= r1r2 cos (θ1 + θ 2 ) + i sin (θ1 + θ 2 ) −b ± b2 − 4ac
x1,2 =
r1 ( cosθ1 + sinθ1 ) r 2a
⋅ = 1 cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + sin (θ1 − θ2 )  2
if D=b -4ac is the discriminant, then the roots are
r2 ( cosθ2 + sin θ2 ) r2
(i) real and unique if D > 0
De Moivre’s theorem (ii) real and equal if D = 0
n
(iii) complex conjugate if D < 0
 r ( cos θ + sin θ )  = r n ( cos nθ + sin nθ )

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Cubic Eqation: x3 + a1 x 2 + a2 x + a3 = 0
Let
3a2 − a12 9a1a2 − 27a3 − 2a13
Q= , R=
9 54
S = 3 R + Q3 + R2 , T = 3 R − Q3 + R2

then solutions are:

1
x1 = S + T − a1
3
1 1 1
x2 = − ( S + T ) − a1 + i 3 ( S − T )
2 3 2
1 1 1
x3 = − ( S + T ) − a1 − i 3 ( S − T )
2 3 2
3 3
if D = Q + R is the discriminant, then:
(i) one root is real and two complex conjugate if D > 0
(ii) all roots are real and at last two are equal if D = 0
(iii) all roots are real and unequal if D < 0

Cuadric Eqation: x4 + a1x3 + a2 x2 + a3x + a4 = 0

Let y1 be a real root of the cubic equation

( )
y3 − a2 y2 + ( a1a3 − 4a4 ) y + 4a2 a4 − a32 − a12 a4 = 0
Solution are the 4 roots of
1 1
z2 +
2
( ) (
a1 ± a12 − 4a2 + 4y1 z + y1 ± y12 − 4a4 = 0
2
)

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Analytic Geometry Formulas
1. Lines in two dimensions
Line forms Line segment
Slope - intercept form: A line segment P1 P2 can be represented in parametric
y = mx + b form by
Two point form: x = x1 + ( x2 − x1 ) t
y2 − y1 y = y1 + ( y2 − y1 ) t
y − y1 = ( x − x1 )
x2 − x1 0 ≤ t ≤1
Point slope form:
Two line segments PP
1 2 and P3 P4 intersect if any only if
y − y1 = m ( x − x1 ) the numbers
Intercept form x2 − x1 y2 − y1 x3 − x1 y3 − y1
x y x3 − x1 y3 − y1 x3 − x4 y3 − y4
+ = 1 ( a, b ≠ 0 ) s= and t=
a b x2 − x1 y2 − y1 x2 − x1 y2 − y1
Normal form:
x3 − x4 y3 − y4 x3 − x4 y3 − y4
x ⋅ cos σ + y sin σ = p
satisfy 0 ≤ s ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
Parametric form:
x = x1 + t cos α
y = y1 + t sin α
Point direction form: 2. Triangles in two dimensions
x − x1 y − y1
= Area
A B
The area of the triangle formed by the three lines:
where (A,B) is the direction of the line and P1 ( x1 , y1 ) lies
A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0
on the line.
General form: A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0
A ⋅ x + B ⋅ y + C = 0 A ≠ 0 or B ≠ 0 A3 x + B3 y + C3 = 0
is given by
2
A1 B1 C1
Distance
A2 B2 C2
The distance from Ax + By + C = 0 to P1 ( x1 , y1 ) is
A3 B3 C3
A ⋅ x1 + B ⋅ y1 + C K=
d= A1 B1 A2 B2 A3 B3
2 2 2⋅ ⋅ ⋅
A +B A2 B2 A3 B3 A1 B1
The area of a triangle whose vertices are P1 ( x1 , y1 ) ,
Concurrent lines P2 ( x2 , y2 ) and P3 ( x3 , y3 ) :
Three lines
x1 y1 1
A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0 1
K = x2 y2 1
A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0 2
x3 y3 1
A3 x + B3 y + C3 = 0
are concurrent if and only if: 1 x2 − x1 y2 − y1
K= .
2 x3 − x1 y3 − y1
A1 B1 C1
A2 B2 C2 = 0
A3 B3 C3
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Centroid
3. Circle
The centroid of a triangle whose vertices are P1 ( x1 , y1 ) ,
P2 ( x2 , y2 ) and P3 ( x3 , y3 ) :
Equation of a circle
 x + x + x y + y + y3  In an x-y coordinate system, the circle with centre (a, b)
( x, y ) =  1 2 3 , 1 2 
 3 3  and radius r is the set of all points (x, y) such that:

( x − a )2 + ( y − b ) 2 = r 2
Circle is centred at the origin
Incenter x2 + y 2 = r 2
The incenter of a triangle whose vertices are P1 ( x1 , y1 ) , Parametric equations
P2 ( x2 , y2 ) and P3 ( x3 , y3 ) : x = a + r cos t
y = b + r sin t
 ax + bx2 + cx3 ay1 + by2 + cy3 
( x, y ) =  1 ,
 a+b+c a + b + c  where t is a parametric variable.
In polar coordinates the equation of a circle is:
where a is the length of P2 P3 , b is the length of PP
1 3,
r 2 − 2rro cos (θ − ϕ ) + ro2 = a 2
and c is the length of PP
1 2.
Area
A = r 2π

Circumcenter Circumference
The circumcenter of a triangle whose vertices are c = π ⋅ d = 2π ⋅ r
P1 ( x1 , y1 ) , P2 ( x2 , y2 ) and P3 ( x3 , y3 ) :
 x12 + y12 y1 1 x1 x12 + y12 1  Theoremes:
 2 2 2 2 
 x2 + y2 y2 1 x2 x2 + y2 1  (Chord theorem)
 x2+y2 y 1 x x2+y2 1 The chord theorem states that if two chords, CD and EF,
( x, y ) =  
3 3 3 3 3 3
, intersect at G, then:
 x1 y1 1 x1 y1 1  CD ⋅ DG = EG ⋅ FG
 
 2 x2 y2 1 2 x2 y2 1  (Tangent-secant theorem)
 x3 y3 1 x3 y3 1  If a tangent from an external point D meets the circle at
  C and a secant from the external point D meets the circle
at G and E respectively, then
2
DC = DG ⋅ DE
Orthocenter (Secant - secant theorem)
If two secants, DG and DE, also cut the circle at H and F
The orthocenter of a triangle whose vertices are
respectively, then:
P1 ( x1 , y1 ) , P2 ( x2 , y2 ) and P3 ( x3 , y3 ) :
DH ⋅ DG = DF ⋅ DE
 y1 x2 x3 + y12 1 x12 + y2 y3 x1 1  (Tangent chord property)
 2 2  The angle between a tangent and chord is equal to the
 y2 x3 x1 + y2 1 x2 + y3 y1 x2 1  subtended angle on the opposite side of the chord.
 y xx +y2 1 x2+y y x3 1 
( x, y ) =  
3 1 2 3 3 1 2
,
 x1 y1 1 x1 y1 1 
 
 2 x2 y2 1 2 x2 y2 1 
 x3 y3 1 x3 y3 1 
 

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4. Conic Sections
Eccentricity:
The Parabola
The set of all points in the plane whose distances from a a 2 − b2
e=
fixed point, called the focus, and a fixed line, called the a
directrix, are always equal.
Foci:

The standard formula of a parabola: if a > b => F1 ( − a 2 − b 2 , 0) F2 ( a 2 − b 2 ,0)

y 2 = 2 px if a < b => F1 (0, − b 2 − a 2 ) F2 (0, b 2 − a 2 )
Parametric equations of the parabola: Area:
2
x = 2 pt K = π ⋅ a ⋅b
y = 2 pt
Tangent line The Hyperbola
2 The set of all points in the plane, the difference of whose
Tangent line in a point D( x0 , y0 ) of a parabola y = 2 px distances from two fixed points, called the foci, remains
constant.
y0 y = p ( x + x0 )
The standard formula of a hyperbola:
Tangent line with a given slope (m)
p x2 y 2
y = mx + − =1
2m a 2 b2
Tangent lines from a given point Parametric equations of the Hyperbola
Take a fixed point P ( x0 , y0 ) .The equations of the a
x=
tangent lines are sin t
y − y0 = m1 ( x − x0 ) and y=
b sin t
y − y0 = m2 ( x − x0 ) where cos t
Tangent line in a point D ( x0 , y0 ) of a hyperbola:
y0 + y0 2 − 2 px0
m1 = and x0 x y0 y
2 x0 − 2 =1
a2 b
y0 − y0 2 − 2 px0 Foci:
m1 =
2 x0
if a > b => F1 ( − a 2 + b 2 , 0) F2 ( a 2 + b 2 , 0)
if a < b => F1 (0, − b 2 + a 2 ) F2 (0, b 2 + a 2 )
The Ellipse
The set of all points in the plane, the sum of whose
distances from two fixed points, called the foci, is a Asymptotes:
constant.
b b
The standard formula of a ellipse if a > b => y = x and y = − x
a a
x2 y 2 a a
if a < b => y = x and y = − x
+ =1
a 2 b2 b b
Parametric equations of the ellipse
x = a cos t
y = b sin t
Tangent line in a point D ( x0 , y0 ) of a ellipse:

x0 x y0 y
+ 2 =1
a2 b
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5. Planes in three dimensions
Equation of a plane
Plane forms
The equation of a plane through P1(x1,y1,z1) and parallel
Point direction form: to directions (a1,b1,c1) and (a2,b2,c2) has equation

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = a1 b1 c1 =0
a b c
where P1(x1,y1,z1) lies in the plane, and the direction a2 b2 c2
(a,b,c) is normal to the plane.
The equation of a plane through P1(x1,y1,z1) and
General form: P2(x2,y2,z2), and parallel to direction (a,b,c), has equation

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
where direction (A,B,C) is normal to the plane. x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
Intercept form: a b c
x y z Distance
+ + =1
a b c The distance of P1(x1,y1,z1) from the plane Ax + By +
this plane passes through the points (a,0,0), (0,b,0), and Cz + D = 0 is
(0,0,c). Ax1 + By1 + Cz1
d=
Three point form A2 + B 2 + C 2
x − x3 y − y3 z − z3 Intersection
x1 − x3 y1 − y3 z1 − z3 = 0 The intersection of two planes
x2 − x3 y2 − y3 z2 − z3 A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0,
Normal form: A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0,
x cos α + y cos β + z cos γ = p is the line
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Parametric form: = = ,
a b c
x = x1 + a1 s + a2 t where
y = y1 + b1 s + b2 t B1 C1
a=
z = z1 + c1 s + c2 t B2 C2
where the directions (a1,b1,c1) and (a2,b2,c2) are
parallel to the plane. C1 A1
b=
C2 A2

Angle between two planes: A1 B1

c=
The angle between two planes: A2 B2
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0 D1 C1 D1 B1
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0 b −c
D2 C2 D2 B2
is x1 = 2 2 2
a +b +c
A1 A2 + B1 B2 + C1C2 D1 A1 D1 C1
arccos
A12 + B12 + C12 A2 2 + B2 2 + C2 2 c −c
D2 A2 D2 C2
y1 =
The planes are parallel if and only if 2
a +b +c 2 2

A1 B1 C1 D1 B1 D1 A1
= = a −b
A2 B2 C2 D2 B2 D2 A2
The planes are perpendicular if and only if z1 = 2 2 2
a +b +c
A1 A2 + B1 B2 + C1C2 = 0 If a = b = c = 0, then the planes are parallel.

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Integration Formulas
1. Common Integrals Integrals of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Indefinite Integral ∫ ln x dx = x ln x − x + C
Method of substitution
x n +1 x n +1
∫ x ln x dx =
n
ln x − +C
∫ f ( g ( x)) g ′( x)dx = ∫ f (u )du n +1 ( n + 1)
2

Integration by parts
∫e
x
dx = e x + C
∫ f ( x) g ′( x)dx = f ( x) g ( x) − ∫ g ( x) f ′( x)dx
bx
∫ b dx =
x
Integrals of Rational and Irrational Functions +C
ln b
x n +1
∫ x dx =
n
+C ∫ sinh x dx = cosh x + C
n +1
1 ∫ cosh x dx = sinh x + C
∫ x dx = ln x + C
∫ c dx = cx + C
x2
∫ xdx = 2
+C

x3
∫ x dx =
2
+C
3
1 1
∫ x2 dx = − x + C
2x x
∫ xdx =
3
+C

1
∫1+ x 2
dx = arctan x + C

1
∫ 1 − x2
dx = arcsin x + C

Integrals of Trigonometric Functions

∫ sin x dx = − cos x + C
∫ cos x dx = sin x + C
∫ tan x dx = ln sec x + C
∫ sec x dx = ln tan x + sec x + C
1
∫ sin ( x − sin x cos x ) + C
2
x dx =
2
1
∫ cos x dx = 2 ( x + sin x cos x ) + C
2

∫ tan
2
x dx = tan x − x + C

∫ sec
2
x dx = tan x + C

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2. Integrals of Rational Functions
Integrals involving ax + b

( ax + b )n + 1
n
∫ ( ax + b ) dx = a ( n + 1) ( for n ≠ −1)
1 1
∫ ax + b dx = a ln ax + b
a ( n + 1) x − b
∫ x ( ax + b )
n
dx = 2
( ax + b )n+1 ( for n ≠ −1, n ≠ −2 )
a ( n + 1)( n + 2 )
x x b
∫ ax + b dx = a − a 2 ln ax + b
x b 1
∫ ( ax + b )2 dx = a 2 ( ax + b ) + a 2 ln ax + b
x a (1 − n ) x − b
∫ ( ax + b )n dx = a 2 ( n − 1)( n − 2)( ax + b )n−1 ( for n ≠ −1, n ≠ −2 )

1  ( ax + b ) 
2
x2
∫ ax + b dx =  − 2b ( ax + b ) + b 2
ln ax + b 
a3  2 
 
x2 1  b2 
∫ ( ax + b )2 dx = 3  ax + b − 2b ln ax + b −
a 

ax + b 

x2 1  2b b2 
∫ ( ax + b )3 dx =  ln ax + b + − 
a3  ax + b 2 ( ax + b )2 
 

1  ( ax + b ) 
3−n 2− n 1−n
x2 2b ( a + b ) b2 ( ax + b )
∫ ( ax + b ) n dx = − + −  ( for n ≠ 1, 2,3)
a3  n−3 n−2 n −1 
 
1 1 ax + b
∫ x ( ax + b ) dx = − b ln x
1 1 a ax + b
∫ x 2 ( ax + b ) dx = − bx + b2 ln x

1  1 1 2 ax + b 
∫ x 2 ( ax + b )2 dx = − a  2 + 2 − 3 ln
 b ( a + xb ) ab x b x


 
Integrals involving ax2 + bx + c
1 1 x
∫ x 2 + a 2 dx = a arctg a
1 a−x
 2a ln a + x for x < a
1
∫ x2 − a 2 dx =  1 x − a
 ln for x > a
 2a x + a

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 2 2ax + b
 arctan for 4ac − b 2 > 0
2
 4ac − b 4ac − b 2

1  2 2ax + b − b 2 − 4 ac
∫ ax 2 + bx + c dx =  2 ln for 4ac − b 2 < 0
 b − 4ac 2 ax + b + b 2 − 4ac

− 2 for 4ac − b 2 = 0
 2ax + b

x 1 b dx
∫ ax 2 + bx + c dx = 2a ln ax ∫
2
+ bx + c − 2
2 a ax + bx + c
m 2 2an − bm 2ax + b
 ln ax + bx + c + arctan for 4ac − b 2 > 0
 2 a a 4ac − b 2
4ac − b 2

mx + n 
m 2an − bm 2ax + b
∫ ax 2 + bx + c dx =  2a ln ax + bx + c + a b2 − 4ac arctanh b2 − 4ac for 4ac − b < 0
2 2


m 2an − bm
 ln ax 2 + bx + c − for 4ac − b 2 = 0
 2a a ( 2 ax + b )

1 2ax + b ( 2 n − 3 ) 2a 1
∫ n
dx = n−1
+
2 ∫
( n − 1) ( 4ac − b ) ( ax 2 + bx + c )n−1
dx
( ax 2
+ bx + c ) ( n − 1) ( 4ac − b2 )( ax 2 + bx + c )
1 1 x2 b 1
∫x dx = ln 2 − ∫ 2 dx
( ax 2
+ bx + c ) 2c ax + bx + c 2c ax + bx + c

3. Integrals of Exponential Functions

ecx
∫ xe dx =
cx
( cx − 1)
c2
cx  x 2x 2 
2

∫
2 cx
x e dx = e 
 c c 2 + c3 
−
 
1 n cx n n −1 cx
∫x x e − ∫ x e dx
n cx
e dx =
c c
i
ecx ∞ cx
( )
∫ x dx = ln x + ∑ i ⋅ i!
i =1

1 cx
∫e
cx
ln xdx = e ln x + Ei ( cx )
c
ecx
∫ e sin bxdx =
cx
( c sin bx − b cos bx )
c 2 + b2
ecx
∫ e cos bxdx =
cx
( c cos bx + b sin bx )
c 2 + b2
ecx sin n −1 x n ( n − 1)
∫ e sin xdx = ∫e sin n −2 dx
cx n cx
2 2
( c sin x − n cos bx ) + 2 2
c +n c +n
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4. Integrals of Logarithmic Functions
∫ ln cxdx = x ln cx − x
b
∫ ln(ax + b)dx = x ln(ax + b) − x + a ln(ax + b)
2 2
∫ ( ln x ) dx = x ( ln x ) − 2 x ln x + 2 x
n n n −1
∫ ( ln cx ) dx = x ( ln cx ) − n∫ ( ln cx ) dx
i
dx ( )
∞ ln x

∫ ln x = ln ln x + ln x + ∑
n =2 i ⋅ i !

dx x 1 dx
∫ ( ln x )n =−
( n − 1)( ln x ) n −1
+
n − 1 ∫ ( ln x )n −1
( for n ≠ 1)

 
m +1  ln x 1

∫
m
x ln xdx = x − ( for m ≠ 1)
 m + 1 ( m + 1) 2 
 
n
n x m+1 ( ln x ) n n −1
∫ x ( ln x ) ∫
m
dx = − x m ( ln x ) dx ( for m ≠ 1)
m +1 m +1

( ln x )n ( ln x )n+1
∫ x
dx =
n +1
( for n ≠ 1)
2
ln x n ln x n ( )
∫ x dx = 2n ( for n ≠ 0 )
ln x ln x 1
∫ xm dx = − ( m − 1) xm−1 − ( m − 1)2 xm−1 ( for m ≠ 1)

( ln x )n ( ln x )n n ( ln x )n−1
∫ xm
dx = −
( m − 1) x m−1 m − 1 ∫ x m
+ dx ( for m ≠ 1)
dx
∫ x ln x = ln ln x
dx ∞
( n − 1)i ( ln x )i
∫ xn ln x = ln ln x + ∑
i
( −1)
i =1 i ⋅ i!
dx 1
∫ x ( ln x )n =−
( n − 1)( ln x )n−1
( for n ≠ 1)
x
∫ ln ( x ) ( )
+ a 2 dx = x ln x 2 + a 2 − 2 x + 2a tan −1
2
a
x
∫ sin ( ln x ) dx = 2 ( sin ( ln x ) − cos ( ln x ) )
x
∫ cos ( ln x ) dx = 2 ( sin ( ln x ) + cos ( ln x ) )

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5. Integrals of Trig. Functions
∫ sin xdx = − cos x cos x
∫ sin 2 x dx = − sin x
1

∫ cos xdx = − sin x cos 2 x x

x 1 ∫ sin x dx = ln tan 2 + cos x
∫ sin
2
xdx =
− sin 2 x
2 4
∫ cot
2
xdx = − cot x − x
x 1
∫ cos xdx = 2 + 4 sin 2 x
2
dx
∫ sin x cos x = ln tan x
1
∫ sin xdx = 3 cos x − cos x
3 3
dx 1 x π
1 3
∫ sin 2 x cos x = − sin x + ln tan  2 + 4 
∫ cos xdx = sin x − 3 sin x
3

dx 1 x
dx x ∫ sin x cos2 x = cos x + ln tan 2
∫ sin x xdx = ln tan 2 dx
dx x π ∫ sin 2 x cos2 x = tan x − cot x
∫ cos x xdx = ln tan  2 + 4  sin( m + n) x sin( m − n) x
dx
∫sin mxsin nxdx = − 2( m+ n) +
2( m − n)
m2 ≠ n2
∫ sin 2 x xdx = − cot x
cos ( m + n) x cos ( m − n) x
dx ∫sin mxcos nxdx = − 2( m + n) − m2 ≠ n2
∫ cos2 x xdx = tan x 2( m − n)
sin ( m + n) x sin ( m − n) x
dx cos x 1 x
∫ sin 3 x = − 2sin 2 x + 2 ln tan 2 ∫ cos mxcos nxdx = 2( m + n) +
2( m − n)
m2 ≠ n2

dx sin x 1 x π cos n +1 x
∫ cos3 x = 2 cos2 x + 2 ln tan  2 + 4  ∫ sin x cos xdx = −
n

n +1
1 sin n +1 x
∫ sin x cos xdx =
n
∫ sin x cos xdx = − 4 cos 2 x n +1
1 3
∫ sin x cos xdx = 3 sin x
2 ∫ arcsin xdx = x arcsin x + 1 − x2

1 ∫ arccos xdx = x arccos x − 1 − x2

∫ sin x cos xdx = − 3 cos x
2 3

1
∫ arctan xdx = x arctan x − 2 ln ( x )
2
+1
x 1
∫ sin x cos xdx = 8 − 32 sin 4 x
2 2

1
∫ arc cot xdx = x arc cot x + 2 ln ( x )
2
+1
∫ tan xdx = − ln cos x
sin x 1
∫ cos2
x
dx =
cos x
sin 2 x x π 
∫ cos x dx = ln tan  2 + 4  − sin x
∫ tan xdx = tan x − x
2

∫ cot xdx = ln sin x

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Functions Formulas
1. Exponents 3. Roots
p
a = a ⋅ a ⋅ ... ⋅ a if p ∈ N p > 0, a ∈ R Definitions:

 
p a,b: bases ( a, b ≥ 0 if n = 2 k )
0
a = 1 if a ≠ 0 n,m: powers

ar ⋅ as = ar+s Formulas:
r n
a
= a r −s ab = n a n b
as
s
n
a m b = nm a m bn
(a ) r
=a r ⋅s
a n
a
r
n = ,b≠0
(a ⋅b) = a ⋅b r r
b n
b

a ar
r n
a am
= nm ,b≠0
  = r m
b bn
b b
p
1
a−r = r
a
( ) n
am = n a mp
r n
a = a
s s r ( a)n
=a
n np
am = a mp
2. Logarithms m n
a = mn a
Definition: m
( a)n
= n am
y = log a x ⇔ a = x y
( a, x > 0, y ∈ R ) n
1 a n −1
Formulas: n
= ,a≠0
a a
log a 1 = 0
a + a2 − b a − a2 − b
log a a = 1 a± b = ±
2 2
log a mn = log a m + log a n
1 a∓ b
m =
log a = log a m − log a n a± b a−b
n
log a m n = n log a m

log a m = log b m ⋅ log a b

logb m
log a m =
logb a
1
l og a b =
logb a
ln x
l og a x = = ( l og a e ) ln x
ln a

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4. Trigonometry

Right-Triangle Definitions Sum and Difference Formulas

Opposite sin (α + β ) = sin α ⋅ cos β + sin β ⋅ cos α
sin α =
Hypotenuse sin (α − β ) = sin α ⋅ cos β − sin β ⋅ cos α
Adjacent
cos α = cos (α + β ) = cos α ⋅ cos β − sin α ⋅ sin β
Hypotenuse
Opposite cos (α − β ) = cos α ⋅ cos β + sin α ⋅ sin β
tgα =
Adjacent tan α + tan β
tan (α + β ) =
1 Hypotenuse 1 − tan α ⋅ tan β
csc α = =
sin α Opposite tan α − tan β
tan (α − β ) =
1 Adjacent 1 + tan α ⋅ tan β
cot α = =
tgα Opposite
1 Hypotenuse Double Angle and Half Angle Formulas
sec α = =
cos α Adjacent
sin ( 2α ) = 2sin α ⋅ cos α
cos ( 2α ) = cos 2 α − sin 2 α
Reduction Formulas
2tgα
sin(− x) = − sin x tan ( 2α ) =
1 − tg 2α
cos(− x) = cos x
α 1 − cos α
π sin =±
sin( − x) = cos x 2 2
2
π α 1 + cos α
cos( − x) = sin x cos =±
2 2 2
π α 1 − cos α sin α
sin( + x) = cos x tan = =
2 2 sin α 1 + cos α
π
cos( − x) = − sin x
2 Other Useful Trig Formulae
sin(π − x) = sin x Law of sines
cos(π − x) = − cos x sin α sin β sin γ
= =
sin(π + x) = − sin x a b c
Law of cosines
cos(π + x) = − cos x
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos γ
Area of triangle
Identities 1
2 2 K= ab sin γ
sin x + cos x = 1 2
1
tg 2 x + 1 =
cos 2 x
1
cot 2 x + 1 =
sin 2 x

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5. Hyperbolic functions

Inverse Hyperbolic functions

Definitions:

sinh x =
e x − e− x (
sinh −1 x = ln x + x 2 + 1 ) x ∈ ( −∞, ∞ )

x = ln ( x + x −1)
2
cosh −1 2
x ∈ [1, ∞)
x −x
e +e
cosh x = 1  1+ x 
2 tanh −1 x = ln  x ∈ ( −1,1)

e −e x −x
sinh x 2  1− x 
tanh x = =
x
e +e −x
cosh x 1  x +1
coth −1 x = ln   x ∈ ( −∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞ )
2 1 2  x −1 
csch x = x − x =
e −e sinh x  1 + 1 − x2 
2 1 sech −1 x = ln   x ∈ (0,1]
sech x = x − x =  x 
e +e cosh x  

e x + e− x cosh x 1 1 − x2 
coth x = = csch −1 x = ln  +  x ∈ ( −∞,0 ) ∪ ( 0, ∞ )
e x − e − x sinh x x x 
 
Derivates
d
sinh x = cosh x Inverse Hyperbolic derivates
dx
d 1
d sinh −1 x =
cosh x = sinh x dx x2 + 1
dx
d d 1
tanh x = sech 2 x cosh −1 x =
dx dx x2 − 1
d d 1
csch x = −cschx ⋅ coth x tanh −1 x =
dx dx 1 − x2
d d 1
sech x = −sech x ⋅ tanh x csch x = −
dx dx x 1 + x2
d
coth x = − csch 2 x d 1
dx sech −1 x = −
dx x 1 − x2
d 1
Hyperbolic identities coth −1 x =
dx 1 − x2
cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1
tanh 2 x + sech 2 x = 1
coth 2 x − csch 2 x = 1
sinh( x ± y) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y
sinh( x ± y) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y
sinh 2 x = 2 sinh x cosh x
cosh 2 x = cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x
−1 + cosh 2 x
sinh 2 x =
2
1 + cosh 2 x
cosh 2 x =
2

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