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Adolescent Brain
Human Studies
Susan F. Tapert, Ph.D., Lisa Caldwell, and Christina Burke, M.A.
Many people begin to drink alcohol during adolescence and young adulthood. Alcohol
consumption during this developmental period may have profound effects on brain structure
and function. Heavy drinking has been shown to affect the neuropsychological performance
(e.g., memory functions) of young people and may impair the growth and integrity of certain
brain structures. Furthermore, alcohol consumption during adolescence may alter measures of
brain functioning, such as blood flow in certain brain regions and electrical brain activities. Not
all adolescents and young adults are equally sensitive to the effects of alcohol consumption,
however. Moderating factors—such as family history of alcohol and other drug use disorders,
gender, age at onset of drinking, drinking patterns, use of other drugs, and cooccurring
psychiatric disorders—may influence the extent to which alcohol consumption interferes with
an adolescent’s normal brain development and functioning. KEY WORDS: young adult; adolescent;
heavy drinking; alcohol use disorder; brain function; AODR (alcohol and other drug related) structural
brain damage; AODR neuropsychological disorder; cognitive development; cognitive ability; cognitive
and memory disorder; risk factors; sensitization; causes of AODU (alcohol and other drug use); family
AODU history; gender differences; AOD use pattern; age of AODU onset; comorbidity
S
everal decades of research have on longterm brain function. Consistent
SUSAN F. TAPERT, PH.D., is an associate
shown that chronic heavy drinking with this assumption, animal studies professor in the Department of Psychiatry
is associated with adverse effects have demonstrated that alcohol exposure at the University of California, and
on the central nervous system and have during adolescence and young adult program director of the Substance Abuse
revealed some of the processes that give hood can significantly interfere with an Mental Illness program, VA San Diego
rise to these effects. Yet it remains unclear animal’s normal brain development and Healthcare System, both positions in
when in the course of a person’s “drink function (for a review, see the accompa San Diego, California.
ing career” these central nervous system nying article by HillerSturmhöfel and
changes may emerge. Recent research Swartzwelder). Second, young adulthood LISA CALDWELL is a research assistant
suggests that heavy drinking may already is a period when most people make at the Veterans Medical Research
affect brain functioning in early adoles critical educational, occupational, and Foundation, San Diego, California.
cence, even in physically healthy youths. social decisions, and impaired cognitive
This issue is important and interesting functioning at this time could substan CHRISTINA BURKE, M.A., is a senior
for at least two reasons. First, the brain tially affect their futures. research assistant in the Department of
continues to develop throughout ado Questions regarding alcohol’s influence Psychiatry at the University of California,
lescence and into young adulthood, on brain development and function San Diego, and at the Veterans Medical
and insults to the brain during this during adolescence are especially perti Research Foundation, San Diego,
period therefore could have an impact nent because heavy drinking is quite California.
Vol. 28, No. 4, 2004/2005 205
common among young people. For after 3 weeks of abstinence. The inves year followup, however, the abstinent
example, in one survey, 36 percent of tigators found that the alcoholdependent and active abusers performed worse
19 to 28yearolds reported having adolescents performed worse on tests of than the nonabusers on attention tasks,
consumed five or more drinks in a row verbal and nonverbal memory than the with the active abusers exhibiting the
in the preceding 2 weeks (Johnston et control adolescents. They also found worst performance. In addition, partic
al. 2003). Another survey determined that alcoholdependent adolescents who ipants who reported more withdrawal
that 7 percent of 18 to 25yearolds reported a greater number of alcohol symptoms during the previous 3 months
meet the diagnostic criteria for alcohol withdrawal symptoms demonstrated showed poorer visuospatial abilities,
dependence (Substance Abuse and poorer visuospatial functioning. even when gender, history of head
Mental Health Services Administration These findings were supported by a injury, history of a learning disability,
[SAMHSA] 2003). Thus, a substantial longterm study of 115 adolescents with number of grades completed, and
number of adolescents and young adults AOD use disorders2 (Tapert and Brown socioeconomic status were considered.
could be at risk for alcoholrelated 1999). The participants, ages 13 to 18 This latter observation suggests that the
impairment of brain development and (average age, 16) at the beginning of the number of different alcohol withdrawal
brain function. study, were recruited after completing symptoms may be an important indi
This article reviews research on the inpatient treatment for AOD use disor cator of the degree of later alcohol
impact of alcohol on the brains of young ders and were initially followed for 4 related cognitive impairment, at least
adults. It discusses several areas of brain years. At the 4year followup, the par among AODdependent young adults.
function and development that appear ticipants were divided into three groups Alcohol withdrawal symptoms were
to be affected, describes the extent of based on their AOD use at followup: equally predictive of neuropsychologi
the harm observed as well as the factors cal problems in alcoholdependent as
that appear to moderate alcohol’s effects, • Nonabusers (N = 32) who had well as otherdrugdependent youths
and identifies highrisk groups of youths experienced no further AOD (although almost all drugdependent
who are most likely to incur alcohol related problems after the initial youths were also alcohol dependent).
related brain impairment. treatment. A continuation of this study evalu
ated participants 8 years after initial
• Abstinent abusers (N = 38) who recruitment into the study (Tapert et
Effects on had resumed harmful AOD use al. 2002a). These analyses confirmed
Neuropsychological after treatment but had been that lifetime history of alcohol with
Performance abstinent for the 28 days prior drawal symptoms predicted cognitive
to followup (or longer). performance, especially on visuospatial
One aspect of brain functioning that is tests—that is, young people who had
commonly studied in youths as well as • Active abusers (N = 45) who had experienced a greater number of with
older adults is neuropsychological per resumed harmful AOD use after drawal symptoms performed worse
formance,1 which includes memory treatment and had used AODs in on visuospatial tasks than did young
function, attention, visuospatial skills, the 28 days prior to followup. people who had had fewer withdrawal
and executive functioning (e.g., plan symptoms.
ning, abstract reasoning, and goal The three groups were similar with Although these studies clearly have
directed behavior). Several studies have respect to demographic characteristics demonstrated that heavy alcohol use
suggested that heavy alcohol use in young (e.g., age, ethnicity, and family history during adolescence and young adulthood
people appears to be associated with of AOD problems), except that the active is associated with poorer neuropsycho
potentially longterm deleterious effects abuser group included more males. logical functioning, these impairments
on neuropsychological functioning. In addition to drinking and drug in young adults with alcohol use disor
Brown and colleagues (2000) studied use behavior, the investigators assessed ders (AUDs) (i.e., alcohol abuse and
33 alcoholdependent adolescents, ages the number of different withdrawal dependence) appear to be generally mild.
15 and 16, who were in treatment for symptoms reported by the participants For example, Eckardt and colleagues
dependence on alcohol but not on other at the 4year followup. Abstinent abusers (1995) assessed neuropsychological
drugs. These teens had used alcohol (i.e., those who had been abstinent for functioning in 101 males, ages 18 to
an average of 753 times in their lives. the 28 days prior to assessment) reported 35, with AUDs. This study found
A control group (N = 24) who had no an average of 1.4 different withdrawal
history of alcohol and other drug symptoms, compared with an average 1
The term “neuropsychological performance” refers to
(AOD) problems were matched with of 3.1 different withdrawal symptoms performance on standardized tests of thinking and mem
the alcoholdependent adolescents on reported by active abusers. ory skills.
age, gender, socioeconomic status, edu Directly after recruitment into the 2
All participants met the diagnostic criteria established in
cation, and family history of AOD study, the groups had shown no signifi the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
Third Edition, Revised (DSM–III–R) (American Psychiatric
problems. Both groups of participants cant differences on any of the neuropsy Association [APA] 1987) for abuse of or dependence on
were given neuropsychological tests chological measures assessed. At the 4 alcohol and at least one other drug.
206 Alcohol Research & Health
Alcohol and the Adolescent Brain: Human Studies
Vol. 28, No. 4, 2004/2005 207
and memory formation, may lead to more ity promoting heavy alcohol use, which In this study, participants looking at
severe impairment of memory function. then could lead to additional alter a series of pictures depicting a common
Other studies that have looked at ations in brain structure. To date, it is event (in this case, safe driving) inter
the effect of alcohol on the structure not known whether either of these pro spersed with pictures of a rare or “odd
of white matter have identified subtle cesses takes precedence over the other ball” event (e.g., an accident scene)
differences between youths with and had to respond when the oddball event
without AUDs. In one preliminary occurred. Participants performed the
study, Tapert and colleagues (2003)
used a type of MRI technique, diffusion
Although it is clear task both under the influence of a
sedative drug (benzodiazepine) and
tensor imaging, to study the integrity that heavy alcohol use after taking an inactive substance (i.e.,
of the white matter in the corpus callo placebo). The analyses revealed that
sum. This study determined that in can lead to changes in under both conditions the P300 wave
youths with AUDs, whitematter integrity
was reduced in the portion of the cor
brain structure which took longer to appear (i.e., had greater
latency) in heavydrinking young adults
pus callosum that is located toward the can affect brain than in demographically comparable
back of the brain (i.e., the splenium). light drinkers. This result suggests that
Moreover, in these young people, functioning, the some information processing deficits exist
whitematter integrity tended to be
reduced in the rest of the corpus callo
reverse process that are related to heavy drinking and
could represent an early stage along a
sum as well, although the reductions also is plausible. continuum of alcoholrelated brain
were not statistically significant. The damage.
study also found that decreased white The fMRI technique determines the
matter integrity was significantly related or to what extent the processes co activity in a brain region by detecting
to longer duration of heavy alcohol use, occur in one person. This issue could the amount of oxygen in the blood,
greater number of past alcohol with be critically important to understand which indicates the extent to which
drawal symptoms, and recent con ing the development of alcohol depen the brain region receives the oxygen it
sumption of large amounts of alcohol. dence in adolescents and young adults needs for nerve cell activity. If an fMRI
Taken together, these imaging studies and to devising methods to prevent is performed while the subject is engaged
indicate that youths with AUDs may dependence, and therefore should be in a mental task, the level of activity in
have some subtle abnormalities in hip examined in future research that fol the brain regions involved can be iden
pocampal volume and whitematter lows highrisk youths over time. tified. Tapert and colleagues (2004)
integrity compared with demographically used this approach to investigate brain
similar young people without AUDs. response during a spatial working mem
Even these subtle alterations could lead Effects on Physiologic ory task in 15 adolescents with AUDs
to disturbances in brain function that Brain Functioning and 19 adolescents without AUDs (all
may have a longlasting influence on ages 15 to 17). The participants were
subsequent performance of thinking The term “brain functioning” refers to shown different abstract figures appear
and memory tasks. Similar impairment measures of the brain’s response (i.e., ing one at a time in different locations
of hippocampal function and memory chemical and electrical processes) to on the screen, and were asked to press
function resulting from alcohol exposure thinking and memory tasks. Researchers a button when a figure appeared in a
during adolescence has been demon have attempted to determine whether and repeat location. Youths with AUDs
strated in animal models, further sup how heavy alcohol use by adolescents performed well on the task but showed
porting the critical role of alcohol’s and young adults relates to abnormalities greater blood oxygen levels in parietal
detrimental effects on this brain structure in brain functioning. These approaches regions and less response in some frontal
(for more information, see the accom have used such techniques as measur and cerebellar areas compared with
panying article by HillerSturmhöfel ing eventrelated potentials (ERPs) and youths without AUDs. In a study of 10
and Swartzwelder). performing functional MRIs (fMRIs). alcoholdependent young women ages
Although it is clear that heavy alco Nichols and Martin (1993) exam 18 to 25 with longer histories of AUDs
hol use can lead to changes in brain ined physiological brain functioning and 10 matched control women, how
structure which can affect brain func in young adult heavy drinkers by mea ever, the investigators found lower blood
tioning, the reverse process—that an suring ERPs—brain waves that occur oxygen levels in many regions of the
abnormality existing prior to alcohol in response to a sudden stimulus or cerebral cortex in the alcoholdependent
exposure may predispose a person to unexpected event. In particular, the women than in the control women
alcohol use and the development of an researchers studied a brain wave called (Tapert et al. 2001). This decreased
AUD—also is plausible. In fact, both P300, which typically occurs 300 mil response, which signifies reduced brain
processes could occur in the same per liseconds after a stimulus and serves as activity, corresponded with poorer per
son, with a preexisting brain abnormal a measure of information processing. formance on the task, particularly as
208 Alcohol Research & Health
Alcohol and the Adolescent Brain: Human Studies
Vol. 28, No. 4, 2004/2005 209
on language tasks than did those female control subjects on various neuro heavy drinking is not necessarily more
without such a family history, psychological tasks (Moss et al. 1994). detrimental to brain functioning than
suggesting that genetic factors, or This study found that alcoholabusing late onset.
possibly family environment, may males outperformed male control subjects
contribute to lower language skills on a problemsolving task, whereas
Drinking Patterns
in some adolescents. females with AUDs performed worse
than the female control subjects. The Numerous studies have demonstrated
• Among adolescents without a family investigators postulated that alcohol that the effects of alcohol depend not
history of alcohol use disorders, those may affect frontal lobe functioning, only on the amount of alcohol consumed
who were AOD dependent per which is required for these problem but also on the pattern of consumption.
formed worse on attention tasks solving tasks, more readily in females In general, drinking moderate alcohol
than did those who were not AOD than in males. amounts (one or two glasses of alcohol)
dependent, suggesting that heavy almost every day appears to be less
AOD use may interfere with atten harmful than consuming the same total
Age at Onset of AUD
tion skills. amount (that is, 7 to 14 glasses) on just
Because the brain continues to mature one or two occasions per week—a pat
• Performance levels on language throughout adolescence, it is reasonable tern known as binge drinking or heavy
and attention tasks were similar to speculate that the effects of heavy episodic drinking. Heavy episodic drink
for AODdependent adolescents drinking on the brain may differ depend ing, which often is associated with hang
without a family history and for ing on the age at which an adolescent over or mild withdrawal symptoms, is
those who did not abuse AODs developed an AUD. A neuropsycholog particularly common in adolescents
but had a family history of alcohol ical study investigating cognitive deficits and young adults, among whom this
use disorders. as a function of age at onset and duration drinking pattern appears to be related
of an AUD found that participants with to cognitive impairment. For example,
Hill and Shen (2002) also have earlyonset alcoholism (i.e., before age in their 8year followup study of ado
assessed the influence of family history 35) showed the greatest degree of cog lescents with AUDs (see the earlier
using ERP studies. These investigators nitive impairment (Pishkin et al. 1985). section, “Effects on Neuropsychological
found that children of alcoholics may Other researchers have examined Performance”), Tapert and colleagues
be somewhat delayed in developing the effects of age at onset of alcoholism (2002a) found that having more hang
normal P300 patterns, yet appear to using imaging techniques. Demir and over or alcohol withdrawal symptoms
“catch up” to the levels seen in control colleagues (2002) used single photon (which indicates a pattern of heavy
subjects by young adulthood. emission computed tomography episodic drinking) predicted poorer
Taken together, these findings suggest (SPECT) to measure blood flow through visuospatial functioning in young adult
that AOD dependence and family his various brain regions. This regional hood. This relationship was observed
tory of AUDs are distinct risk factors cerebral blood flow (rCBF) is a measure even after controlling for visuospatial
for decrements in neuropsychological of brain activity in those regions. functioning at the beginning of the study,
performance, and these factors appear Participants in this study were male AOD use, and practice effects from
to impact different areas of neuropsy alcoholics with earlyonset (before age the previous administration of the neuro
chological functioning. 20) and lateonset (after age 20) alco psychological tests.
holism as well as nonalcoholic control Other studies, both in humans and
subjects. The investigators found that in animal models, also have associated
Gender Differences both earlyonset and lateonset alco heavy episodic drinking patterns, as
Research with older adults has repeat holics showed impaired neuropsycho opposed to daily drinking patterns,
edly suggested that women are more logical functioning and abnormal with detrimental effects on cognitive
vulnerable to some effects of alcohol. rCBF when compared with control functioning. These analyses also found
For example, women appear to develop subjects. Both groups of alcoholics had that adolescents or young adults who
liver damage after lower overall alcohol decreased rCBF in the left superior are heavy episodic drinkers may be more
consumption than men (Department frontal regions compared with control sensitive to alcohol’s harmful effects on
of Health and Human Services 1997). participants. Lateonset alcoholics also neurocognition than those who drink
Women also are more vulnerable to showed decreased blood flow in the less or in a more consistent pattern.
alcohol’s toxic effects on the brain right superior frontal region. However, Weissenborn and Duka (2003) studied
(Hommer et al. 2001; Schweinsburg et earlyonset and lateonset alcoholics 95 participants ages 18 to 34, catego
al. 2003). However, only a few studies did not differ on most measures of rizing them as nonepisodic drinkers or
have analyzed gender differences among rCBF and neuropsychological perfor heavy episodic drinkers, which are defined
young adults with AUDs. One study mance. In contrast to the study by as men who consume five drinks or
compared male and female adolescents Pishkin and colleagues (1985), these more per occasion and women who
with AUDs to nonabusing male and findings suggest that earlier onset of consume four drinks or more. Half of
210 Alcohol Research & Health
Alcohol and the Adolescent Brain: Human Studies
Vol. 28, No. 4, 2004/2005 211
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