18 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

Topic Learning Outcomes

18 Alternating current circuits Candidates should be able to
18.1 Alternating current through a resistor
(a) explain the concept of the r.m.s. value of an
alternating current, and calculate its value for
the sinusoidal case only;
(b) derive an expression for the current from
V =V0 sinωt
(c) explain the phase difference between the
current and voltage for a pure resistor;
(d) derive and use the formula for the power in an
alternating current circuit which consists only
of a pure resistor;
(e) derive an expression for the current from
V =V0 sinωt
18.2 Alternating current through an (f) explain the phase difference between the
inductor current and voltage for a pure inductor;
(g) define the reactance of a pure inductor;
(h) use the formula X =ωL
(i) derive and use the formula for the power in an
alternating current circuit which consists only
of a pure inductor;
(j) derive an expression for the current from
V =V0 sinωt ;
18.3 Alternating current through a (k) explain the phase difference between the
capacitor current and voltage for a pure capacitor;
(l) define the reactance of a pure capacitor;
1
(m) use the formula 𝑋𝑐 = 𝜔𝐶

(n) derive and use the formula for the power in an

alternating current circuit which consists only
of a pure capacitor;
(o) define impedance;

(p) use the formula 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )2

18.4 R-C and R-L circuits in series
(q) sketch the phasor diagrams of R-C and R-L
circuits.
Introduction
1. Direct current (d.c.) is an electrical current that flows in one direction only.
2. Alternate current (a.c.) is an electrical current that flows in a direction which changes periodically.

3. Alternate current is supplied to our house for domestic usage and to factory for commercial usage.
4. For this chapter, we will assume
a) a resistor as a pure resistor having no capacitive or inductive effect. A pure resistor will have only
resistance effect.
b) an inductor as a pure inductor having zero resistance and no capacitive effect. A pure inductor will have
only inductive effect.
c) a capacitor as a pure capacitor having zero resistance and no inductive effect. A pure capacitor will only
have capacitive effect.

18.1 Alternating Current through a Resistor

1. A sinusoidal a.c. is represented by the equation,
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡
where 𝐼0 : peak current/maximum value of current, 𝜔𝑡: phase
Also, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓, where f : a.c. frequency.

1
2. The period, 𝑇 =
𝑓

3. When an a.c. flows through a resistor of resistance R, the potential difference across the resistor,
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
= (𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡)𝑅
= 𝐼0 𝑅 sin 𝜔𝑡
= 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Where 𝑉0 = 𝐼0 𝑅 = the peak voltage
4. Since both current and voltage reach their respective peak values at the same time, I and V are in phase.

I, V

I0 I

V0 V I I0
V0
V

5. The phasor diagram for V and I are represented by the above figure.
Note:
a) A phasor is a vector whose length is proportional to the maximum value of the variable it represents
(V0 for voltage and I0 for current)
b) It rotates counter-clockwise at an angular speed equal to the angular frequency associated with the
variable.
c) The projection of the phasor onto the vertical axis represents the instantaneous value of the voltage
and current.
d) The phase relationships among currents and voltages can be represented as vector additions of
phasors, using vector addition techniques.

Power Dissipated from a Pure Resistor

1. The power dissipated in a resistor,
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
= (𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡)(𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡)
= 𝐼0 𝑉0 sin2 𝜔𝑡

2. Mean power dissipated in a resistor,

𝑃̅ = mean of 𝐼0 𝑉0 sin2 𝜔𝑡
= 𝐼0 𝑉0 mean of sin2 𝜔𝑡
 1
= 𝐼0 𝑉0 mean of [ (1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡)]
2
1
= 𝐼0 𝑉0
2
1
= 𝐼0 2 𝑅
2
1 𝑉0 2
=
2 𝑅
1
= Peak power
2
3. The power is dissipated as heat per second and not recoverable.

Root-Mean Square Current (𝐈r.m.s. )

1. The root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value of an alternating current is the value of the steady direct current
that produces the same power as the mean power of the a.c. supply in the same resistor.
2.
𝐼 2 r.m.s. 𝑅 = Mean power
1
= 𝐼0 2 𝑅
2
𝐼0
𝐼r.m.s. =
√2

3.
𝑉 2 r.m.s.
= Mean power
𝑅
1 𝑉0 2
=
2 𝑅
𝑉0
𝑉r.m.s. =
√2

4. When electrical device is labelled “240 V, 1000 W”, this implies that under normal usage, the r.m.s.
potential difference is 240 V and the power output is 1000 W.
5. AC ammeters and voltmeters are designed to read r.m.s. values.

Example 1

A power source produces an alternating voltage V is given by 𝑉 = 156 sin 120𝜋𝑡, where V is in volts
and t in seconds.
(a) Determine the frequency of the alternating voltage.
(b) Define r.m.s. voltage.
(c) Determine the r.m.s. voltage.

Solution:
(a) ω = 120 π

f 
2
120
f   60 Hz
2

(b) – r.m.s. voltage is equivalent to the direct current voltage that produces the same
power as the mean power of the a.c. supply in the same resistor.

Vo
(c) Vrms 
2
156
Vrms 
2
= 110 V

18.2 Alternating Current Through an Inductor

1. Let the a.c. in the inductor,

𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡

2. The back e.m.f. induced in the inductor,

 𝑑𝐼
𝐸 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
= −𝐿 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
= −𝜔𝐿𝐼0 cos 𝜔𝑡

3. In order to sustain the flow of current, the applied voltage V must be of the same magnitude but in the
opposite direction of the back e.m.f.,
𝑉 = −𝐸
= 𝜔𝐿𝐼0 cos 𝜔𝑡
= 𝑉0 cos 𝜔𝑡
Where 𝑉0 = 𝜔𝐿𝐼0

𝜋
4. When a.c. flows through an inductor, the voltage V leads the current I by 2
radians.

5. The phasor diagram is shown below.

I0 I

V0 V
V0

t
T

I0

6. From 𝑉0 = 𝜔𝐿𝐼0 ,
𝑉0
Inductive Reactance, 𝑋𝐿 =
𝐼0
 𝑉r.m.s.
=
𝐼r.m.s.
= 𝜔𝐿
The reactance of a pure inductor is a measure of the opposition to alternating current by the inductor. The
unit of reactance = Ω.

7. Also,𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿, hence the inductive reactance increases as the frequency increases. This is consistent
with Faraday’s law—the greater the rate of change of current in the inductor, the larger is the back emf. The
larger back emf translates to an increase in the reactance and a decrease in the current.

Power In a Pure Inductor Circuit

1. The instantaneous Power, 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
= (𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡)(𝑉0 cos 𝜔𝑡)
= 𝐼0 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
1
= 𝐼0 𝑉0 sin 2𝜔𝑡
2
= 𝐼r.m.s. 𝑉r.m.s. sin 2𝜔𝑡
2. Mean power over a complete cycle,
𝑃̅ = mean of 𝐼r.m.s. 𝑉r.m.s. sin 2𝜔𝑡
=0
3. When alternate current flows in an inductor, no power is dissipated as heat. The energy stored in the first
quarter of the cycle is returned to the source in the second quarter. Energy is recoverable.

Example 2

(a) Derive an expression for the reactance XL of a pure inductor in terms of its inductance L and its
frequency f of a source of current supplied. [Assume that the expression of the source of current
supplied is 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡.]
(b) An a.c. circuit contains a pure inductor of inductance 0.470 mH. It is operated by a power supply
with peak voltages of 120 V and a frequency of 90.3 MHz. Determine
(i) The peak current of the inductor,
(ii) The peak power in the inductor.

Solution:
dI
(a) VL  L
dt
d
 L ( I 0 sin 2 ft )
dt

 2 f LI 0 cos 2 ft

Amplitude of the voltage is 2 fLI 0

𝑉0 = 2 fLI 0

 XL = 2 fL

(b) (i) When turned at resonance fsupply = fradio

V0 V
 I0   0
X L 2 fL

120

2 (90.3  106 )0.47  103

= 4.50  104 A

I 0V0
(ii) P0 
2

4.5  104  120


2
= 0.027 W
18.3 Alternating Current Through a Capacitor

1. Let the a.c. voltage,

𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
2. The charge stored in the capacitor,
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
= 𝐶𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
3. The current in the capacitor circuit,
𝑑𝑄
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
= 𝐶𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
= 𝜔𝐶𝑉0 cos 𝜔𝑡
= 𝐼0 cos 𝜔𝑡

Where 𝐼0 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉0

𝜋
Current I leads voltage V by 2
radians.
4. The phasor diagram is shown below,

I0
I0

V0 V0
I
t
T

Example 3
Solution:
𝜋
In capacitor, current I leads voltage V by radians.
2

Answer: D

5. From 𝐼0 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉0,
𝑉0
The capacitive reactance, 𝑋𝐶 =
𝐼0
1
=
𝜔𝐶
1
6. Also, 𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶

As the frequency approaches zero, the capacitive reactance approaches infinity, and hence the current
approaches zero. This makes sense because the circuit approaches direct current conditions as 𝜔 approaches
zero, and the capacitor represents an open circuit.

Power in a Pure Capacitor Circuit

1. The instantaneous power, 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 Note:
= (𝐼0 cos 𝜔𝑡)(𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡) 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 is not in use as 𝐼 and 𝑉 are not in phase
= 𝐼0 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
1
= 𝐼0 𝑉0 sin 2𝜔𝑡
2
= 𝐼r.m.s. 𝑉r.m.s. sin 2𝜔𝑡
2. Mean power over a complete cycle,
𝑃̅ = mean of 𝐼r.m.s. 𝑉r.m.s. sin 2𝜔𝑡
=0
3. When alternate current flows in capacitor, no power is dissipated as heat. The energy stored in the first
quarter of the cycle is returned to the source in the second quarter. Energy is recoverable.

18.4 R-C and R-L Circuits in Series

R-C Circuits

VR=IR

1. Let 𝑉𝑅 , and 𝑉𝐶 represent the voltage across each element at a given instant time; and 𝑉𝑅0 , and 𝑉𝐶0
represent the peak values of these voltages.
2. At any instant, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶 . However, 𝑉0 ≠ 𝑉𝑅0 + 𝑉𝐶0.
3. From the above phasor diagram, we conclude that
a) The currents in each element are the same.
𝜋
b) 𝑉𝑅 is in phase with current but 𝑉𝐶 lags current by 2
radians.

4.
𝑉 2 = 𝑉𝑅 2 + 𝑉𝐶 2
(𝐼𝑍)2 = (𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐶 )2
𝑍 2 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 2
2 2
1 2
𝑍 =𝑅 +( )
𝜔𝐶
 1 2
𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + ( )
𝜔𝐶
where Z: Impedance

Impedance is a quantity that measures the total opposition of a circuit to the flow of alternating current.

Also,
𝑉0
𝑍=
𝐼0
𝑉r.m.s.
=
𝐼r.m.s

5. The phase angle ∅ between the applied voltage, V and the current, I is given by
𝑉𝐶
tan ∅ =
𝑉𝑅
𝑋𝐶
=
𝑅
Note: Phase angle is the angle by which the voltage lags or leads the current

6. At very low frequency, the capacitor dominates the impedance and current reduces tremendously. When
the frequency is zero/d.c., the capacitor blocks the d.c.
Example 4

Solution:
(a) Quantity that measure the opposition of a circuit to the flow of current.

Vo
(b) (i) Vr.m.s. 
2

340
Vr .m.s. 
2

 240 V

dQ
(ii) I
dt
d
 (CV )
dt
d
 220  106  340 (sin 314t )
dt

 220  106  340  314 cos314t

 23.5 cos 314t

1
(iii) XC 
C
1

314  220 106

 14.5 
 V
(iv) I
Z
240
2.4 
Z
Z  100 

Z 2  X C 2  R2

1002  14.52  R2
R  98.9 

VC X C
(v) tan   
VR R

14.5
tan  
98.9

  8.34o or
I
φ

R-L Circuits

1. At any instant, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶 . However, 𝑉0 ≠ 𝑉𝑅0 + 𝑉𝐶0.

2. From the above phasor diagram, we conclude that
a) The currents in each element are in phase with each other.
𝜋
b) 𝑉𝑅 is in phase with current but 𝑉𝐿 leads current by 2
radians.
4.
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑅 2 + 𝑉𝐿 2
(𝐼𝑍)2 = (𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2
𝑍2 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2
𝑍2 = 𝑅 2 + (𝜔𝐿)2

𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (𝜔𝐿)2

5. The phase angle ∅ between the applied voltage, V and the current, I is given by
𝑉𝐿
tan ∅ =
𝑉𝑅
𝜔𝐿
=
𝑅

Example 5

(a) State the difference between the power in resistor and pure inductor in an alternating circuit.
(b) A coil of wire with inductance 0.125 H and resistance 25.0 Ω is connected to an alternating source of
120 V, 50.0 Hz.
(i) Determine the impedance in the circuit.
(ii) Calculate the phase angle between the current and the voltage. State whether the current
leads or lags the voltage.

Solution:
(a) Resistive power is dissipated as heat per second where the power is lost and cannot be recovered

Resistive power – the energy is recover able. The energy is stored in the first quarter of the cycle and
returned to the source in the next quarter cycle.

(b) (i) Impedance Z  R2  X L2

Where, XL = ω L = 2fL

 Z  252  (2 (50)0.125) 2

= 46.6 
  L 
(ii) Phase angle  = tan 1  
 R 

= 57.5
V

57.5
I

V leads I by 57.5