PARENTING ASSOCIATED WITH SCHOOL READINESS 1

Parenting Factors Associated with School Readiness during Early Childhood:

A Theoretical Review

Mary Rose Dawson

HDFS 7040: Family Processes

Mallory Lucier-Greer

Auburn University

October 25, 2018

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Parenting Factors Associated with School Readiness during Early Childhood:

A Review of the Theory

It is widely accepted that parental involvement is a positive factor related to school-

related outcomes especially in early to middle childhood (Hill & Taylor, 2004). As with any

building process, children need a strong foundation of school readiness to be able to continue

mastering new skills and improving existing ones. Some of the skills needed to build a strong

academic foundation are general cognitive skills like oral language and conceptual ability,

concepts of numbers, letter recognition, task persistence, self-regulation and executive

functioning (Duncan et al., 2007). Another group of integral skills that influence school-

readiness and functioning are related to emotional intelligence, emotional regulation and social

competence as well as prosociality (Garner, 2006). It is now more vital than ever for individual

prosperity in the Western world to be able to master these skills and to continue to build a strong

foundation for a successful academic future.

School readiness and academic achievement are becoming more expected of children and

of parents. On average, parents are feeling this pressure of expectation and are adjusting their

early education plans and expectations of their children accordingly. Recent research has noted

that four out of five high school graduates will need some form of postsecondary education in

order to be financially self-sufficient and able to navigate the waters of the changing cultural,

social and political scene—the disparity in income of those who do not complete postsecondary

education was also noted (Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges, & Hayek, 2006). If a child is not

prepared for school at a young age they will need remediation in order to master academic skills

—the lack of readiness sets them behind before they are even started. If not remedied, this lack

of readiness can continue to set the young student behind in elementary, middle and high school
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and possibly in their postsecondary education as well which makes the increasingly popular topic

of school readiness in early childhood even more crucial for the future prosperity.

As previously noted, parental involvement in school-related functions are influential on a

child’s school-related outcomes that not only predict their academic success, but also their

financial status in society as well. School-readiness has vast implications in encompassing life

success, thus showing a relationship with parental involvement in school-related functions and

encompassing life success. Because parental involvement is so crucial to future prosperity it is

imperative that research expands and reaches out to the world to help prepare parents to better

equip their children for school. This research is also an integral piece of knowledge for social

policy makers in early childhood development and early education as well as those who

implement parenting curriculum. For the purpose of this review school readiness will be defined

by any and all factors that contribute to a child’s ability to function and learn in a classroom; for

example: controlling their emotions, persistence, sitting (relatively) still, listening, letter and

number recognition, oral language and conceptual ability, etc. (Meuwissen & Carlson, 2018).

Parental involvement will be referred to in a range of parenting practices, warmth/acceptance vs.

hostility, support/lack of support, etc. For the purpose of this literature review future prosperity

will relate to the future aptitude necessary to live a self-sufficient, relatively comfortable life.

This review will focus on relevant literature of parenting practices related to school-

readiness and skills previously noted as integral pieces of school readiness as a whole. This

review will begin by explaining methodological reasoning and subsequently analyzing the

primarily utilized theories and their illustrative empirical studies. Empirical studies will be

grouped by theory comprising studies that were explicitly stated following with studies that were

non-explicit, but could have an implied theoretical framework. Then, a discussion on relevant
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studies without explicit theoretical framework. In analyzing this body of literature specific

parental processes will be shown to be of paramount importance in the development of children

during their early school years.

Methodological Approach

In order to gather information on the topic I conducted a thorough review of the literature

using academic search databases, such as Academic Search Premier and Google Scholar,

originally looking at factors related to school readiness and narrowing my search results to the

parenting factors associated with school readiness during the early childhood years. There is a

plethora of research, approximately 19,000 results that are relevant to the search phrase

“parenting factors associated with school readiness”, but less that has been conducted on the

specific parenting styles that have effects on school readiness. So I narrowed my results further

to more specific parenting processes that are associated with school readiness in early childhood.

After including key terms like “maternal,” and “paternal” approximately 100 search results

remained. At that point studies were excluded if they were not conducted in the Western

hemisphere. Also excluded were studies that looked solely at populations of immigrants because

my interest is in a diverse sample of parenting populations so more generalizable conclusions can

be inferred. These studies were excluded because of what we know about different cultures

parenting with drastically different styles and because more than one style can be effective and

successful when it is based in different cultures. For example, we know that “tiger parenting” has

been successful in Chinese families and that in low socioeconomic status (SES) African

American families authoritarian parenting has been shown to be successful despite authoritarian

parenting not being successful overall. Studies were excluded based on specific populations of
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people for this reason. Studies were also excluded by publication date to better provide more

recent research which left 77 studies for review.

For the final exclusion, an overview of the 77 studies left was conducted to exclude those

that were not directly representative of the question at hand - after this process there were 14

remaining studies. Five of the remaining studies were conducted with explicit theoretical

methodology in mind and eight were non-explicit, although theory can be inferred from some of

the studies which were theoretically non-explicit. Some of the studies that were theoretically

informed utilized more than one theory as is represented in the quantitative review of theoretical

use, therefore, the percentages do not sum to 100% because they are representative of studies

which used more than one theoretical framework. Of the studies, three utilized Attachment

Theory (n = 3, 20%); two used Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System’s Theory (1979 & 1994) (n

= 2, 13%); two used Scaffolding Theory (n = 2, 13%); one used Social Learning Theory (n = 1,

6%); one used Self Determination Theory (n= 1, 6%); one used Social Constructivist Theory (n

= 1, 6%); an overwhelming eight of 14 studies did not explicitly state a theoretical framework (n

= 8, 53.3%).

Review of Extant Literature

Attachment Theory

Attachment Theory is a primary framework for many topics related to parenting and

children. Its origin is in researching personality development through a child’s attachment with

his/her mother as well as the concept of the caregiver being the secure base from which the child

can delve into the world. The child learns from his or her mother how to interact with the world

through internal working models of habituation and resistance to change dyadic patterns because

of reciprocal expectancies built through interactions with his or her caregiver (Bretherton, 1992).
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The way the child interacts with the world and what the child expects to receive when they seek

help, nourishment, warmth, safety, etc., is learned through reciprocal interactions with their

caregiver during infancy and early childhood. It is then used as a model to base their

expectations and interactions with their subsequent relationships. Bowlby described attachment

as a “lasting psychological connectedness between human beings” (McLeod, 2017). Secure

attachment to a caregiver is vital in order to build healthy, lasting relationships in the future

which have enduring effects on peer relationships, social competence, emotional intelligence and

regulation—all are important skills that must be mastered at age appropriate stages in order to be

school ready.

A 2012 study used Attachment Theory to test attachment security and its relationship

with executive control. In particular, attachment security may play a meaningful role in young

children’s development of executive control (Bernier, Carlson, Deschênes, & Matte‐Gagné,

2012). Thus noting an important school readiness related skill this study examined—executive

function—Bernier, Carlson, Deschênes, & Matte‐Gagné (2012) suggested that parental behavior

and child attachment were related to child performance on executive functioning tasks as well as

showing that child attachment security is related to conflict-executive function (conflict-EF)

performance at age three. Multiple regression analysis was used to test if attachment security,

parenting, SES/Verbal Ability, and Prior conflict-EF significantly predicted children’s Conflict-

EF scores. The results of regression determined that the model explained 31.6% of the variance

(R2 = .32, F(5, 62) = 4.82, p < .05). Attachment Security accounted for 11.6% of the model’s

variance—a unique amount in comparison to other predictors in the model. It was found that

attachment security significantly predicted Conflict-EF ( = .41, p < .01), as well as parenting (

= .27, p < .05). This relationship depicts another implication of the critical nature of attachment
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security with a caregiver in regulatory abilities, therefore implicating attachment’s effect on

school readiness related skills.

Martin, Ryan, & Brooks-Gunn (2010) used Attachment Theory as one of their bases for

their hypothesis that the effects of fathers’ supportive parenting on children’s school readiness

are greater when mothers are least supportive. They derived results consistent with their

hypothesis—fathers’ supportive parenting behaviors were more beneficial to children who had

unsupportive mothers in terms of school readiness. They also noted that mothers were more

integral in predicting children’s academic competence, and fathers for predicting social

competence—both of which are vital skills needed to be school ready. These findings show a

positive realtionship between secure base attachment with the mother and father in different

contexts and positive child outcomes related to skills needed for school readiness.

Implied Theory

Implied Attachment Theory. Hill (2001) addressed parenting and academic

socialization and how they relate to school readiness, taking into accound the role of ethnicity

and family income. It can be implied that this study was, in some way, based in Attachment

Theory because of its focus on maternal warmth and acceptance and childhood outcomes. Hill

(2001) found that the amount teachers believed parents valued their child’s education and the

nature of the teacher-parent relationship were positively and significantly related to pre-reading

skills (Hill, 2001). These findings substantiate the call of urgency for parents to become more

present in their child’s school career.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner (1994) proposed that research could not accurately understand and

analyze human development without first taking into account the layered contexts surrounding
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the development through time. He noted that the contexts of microsystem, mesosystem,

exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem and the developing individual have a reciprocal

effect on each other. More specifically, the immediate environment of the individual, the

connections between two or more of the immediate systems surrounding the developing person,

the external settings which indirectly influence the individual, the comprehensive systems of the

environment like morals, lifestyles, culture, religion, etc., and finally the changes and

consistencies through time on the developing individual in the layers of their systems all have

reciprocal effects on the systems themselves as well as an effect on the developing individual

(Bronfenbrenner, 1994).

Parents have reciprocally influential relationships with their children as do teachers with

their pupils, and children with their peers and so on. Our noted cultural push toward academia

has a reciprocal influence on parents’ desires to prepare their children for postsecondary

education. Parental interactions also have reciprocal developmental effects on their children as

noted in (Martin, Ryan, & Brooks-Gunn, 2010). Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

was used as a framework to address proximal processes in an immediate environment like

parent-child interactions which, when done positively over time, will elicit reciprocal

relationships with the developing child and other people and objects in their environment which

will stimulate optimal development (Martin et al., 2010). For example, mother’s proximal

parent-child interactions matter more when predicting children’s academic ability and father’s

proximal parent-child interactions matter more when predicting social competence (Martin et al.,

2010). Therefore, the example shown in the preceding sentence shows proximal parent-child

interactions that can be explained through Ecological Systems Theory and show the ways that
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those proximal processes subsequently effect another level of the developing person’s ecological

systems model and will continue to do so reciprocally.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory was also used as a supportive conceptual

framework in a 2014 study to address maternal literacy practices and toddler’s budding literacy

skills (Edwards, 2014). It is now widely noted that parental language usage has a tremendous

influence on the child’s emergent word usage, thus, illustrating the importance of being

progressively aware of the ways parents can contribute to their child’s emergent literacy skills. It

is also widely acknowledged that SES, education and ethnicity influence language acquisition

(Hoff, 2003). Edwards (2014) discussed the limitations of her sample and noted that her sample

was mostly of middle-upper class income, with an average of 19 years of education. Ecological

Systems Theory is virtually a perfect theory choice for this article due to the nature of language

acquisition being solely influenced by proximal processes between individuals and objects in the

child’s environment. Edwards (2014) noted that, on average, mothers engaged in literacy

behaviors with their children during reading interactions—also noted was that some of the

behaviors exhibited by the mothers was reciprocated by the toddlers—an interesting nudge at

Ecological Systems Theory. She also noted that some of the behaviors exhibited were related to

written language awareness. This article shows strong support for the notion that parenting

factors in early childhood relate to vital school readiness skills which are notable even during the

toddler time period—often a time when children’s receptive language is starting to flourish, but

expressive language is not entirely functioning. Meaning that children at this age may be able to

understand most of what you say, but they may not be able to tell you what they are thinking or

needing yet, but are subsequently already influenced by their parental influence with skills that

will benefit them in school. Edwards (2014) chose a strong theoretical framework in Ecological
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Systems Theory as one of her conceptual frameworks because of the direct connection with

interactions between systems interacting and influencing one another bi-directionally through the

child’s microsystem (mother), macrosystem (likely the type of book chosen is influenced here),

and chronosystem (because both child and mother are interacting and changing over consecutive

data collections).

Social Constructivist Theory

Social Constructivist Theory (SCT) has been heavily influenced by Piaget, Perry and

Vygotsky, all fundamental social scientists—particularly in the study of childhood development.

Constructivists argue that all learning begins socially, but cognitivists would argue that it is

possible to separate social context and learning (Palincsar, 1998). Social Constructivist Theory

focuses on the learning that takes place within groups and the interactions made. Children are

highly social beings, in part because they cannot yet rely on themselves of sustenance, therefore

they are highly influenced by social interactions (Palincsar, 1998):

“The routine arrangements and interactions between children and their caregivers and

companions provide children with thousands of opportunities to observe and participate

in the skilled activities of their culture. Through repeated and varied experience in

supported routine and challenging situations, children become skilled practitioners in the

specific cognitive activities in their communities.”

Parents can better prepare their children for academic success by guiding them through

social processes and cultivating, stimulating, warm environments that promote growth and

interest development—subsequently. As previously noted, academic success requires mastery of

cognitive and social skills in order to navigate children’s educational futures, accordingly

learning to function socially will better facilitate optimal social learning.

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Edwards (2014) uses SCT as a supportive conceptual framework for her examination of

mothers engaging in emergent literacy behaviors with their toddlers during reading interactions.

Being able to listen, learn, and use effortful control while an adult reads is essential in school,

especially in the early years. By using qualitative and quantitative data Edwards (2014) was able

to quantify letter knowledge, book conventions (holding book, turning pages, pointing to

pictures, etc.), print conventions (points to text, indicates directionality of text, etc.) story

grammar (talks about characters, talks about story, etc.,) phonological awareness (awareness of

rhyming or words that sound similar). All toddlers exhibited at least 67% of associated behaviors

and all of the participating families scored in the highest range of HOME (37-45 points) which

measures home environment and indicates positive scores here. Edwards (2014) noted that

mothers only engaged in behaviors associated with written language and suggested that perhaps

parents were in tune with SCT and their child’s developmental capabilities because phonological

skills develop at or around preschool age. The data collected in this study relates directly to SCT

because of the opportunity for the child to observe and participate in skilled activities through a

routine arrangement of interactional reading with a parent (Palincsar, 1998).

Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory is remarkably similar to Social Constructivist Theory, but they

have their differences in emphasis. Bandura emphasized that we learn by direct experience, or

through modeling and then through reinforcement: taking in the consequences following their

behaviors. Reinforcement can be motivational or mediational which will either encourage or

discourage future repeated behaviors dependent on the feedback after the behavior took place

(Bandura, 1978). Social Learning Theory is an illustrative model to view parenting factors

related to school readiness factors through because of the processes that do not cease when
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navigating a child through the mastery of foundational school readiness skills. In order to master

a skill the process must be repeated until the task is fully grasped, therefore a child will learn

school readiness skills either through direct experience with the skill or through modeling the

skill from what they’ve seen. After receiving internal and external feedback they will either be

encouraged or discouraged from repeating and learning to master that task. This concept can able

to the entire range of noted school readiness skills from social and emotional skills to counting,

letter recognition, etc. This theory could inform parents on the processes of learning, thus,

strengthening their abilities to reinforce mastery and practice consequently improving their

child’s school readiness.

Social Learning Theory was used as a supportive theory for Prendergast & MacPhee

(2018) in their study on parental contributions to children’s persistence and school readiness. The

study found positive, significant results relating parental scaffolding to school readiness—

scaffolding was measured in terms of supportiveness—parental sensitivity, cognitive stimulation,

and positive regard. These measures of supportiveness have become strong themes throughout

the literature that relate to optimal childhood development, thus, strengthening the urgency of

parental supportiveness, etc. for future success.

Implied Theory

Implied Social Learning Theory. Gardner, Ward, Burton, & Wilson, (2003) discussed how the

mother-child relationship and spontaneous joint-play relate to conduct problems in pre-school.

The authors discuss how time spent occupied by the mother in spontaneous and consistent joint-

play activities contribute to the development of fewer conduct problems in preschool (Gardner,

Ward, Burton, & Wilson, 2003). These findings further strengthen the recommendation of
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consistent positive, warm interactions with the mother in relation to school readiness skills.

Another study also implicitly used SLT as their conceptual framework for the

examination of the prediction of prosocial and emotional competence from maternal behavior in

African American Families (Gardner et al., 2003). This was an important study to include for the

purpose of demographic breadth to better represent parental factors associated with school

readiness in terms of a representative population. Although there were some differences in

outcome related to ethnicity, maternal warmth, positivity and prosocial-related variables were

positively related to pro-social behaviors—which is extremely vital for the development of social

competence (Gardner et al., 2003).

Scaffolding Theory

Vygotsky’s Scaffolding Theory focuses on a process where instructors act as guides for

children by modeling and demonstrating problem solving, but who remove themselves and allow

the child to take the issue at hand from there. As tasks are mastered and the child enters the zone

of proximal development the child can then function independently. After the child departs the

zone of proximal development, the instructor will begin again in helping to guide the child in a

watchful, but hands-off manner until they master the next step, and so on (Jacobs, 2001). The

basis in importance for school readiness is that the child begins school with a foundation to learn

and build on. Scaffolding is also based in building on foundational learning and increasing from

there with help from guides (Jacobs, 2001). Scaffolding that takes place at school will help to

influence the child’s entire future prosperity, but if the child enters schooling not ready and/or

delayed learning by scaffolding will require remediation, leaving them behind. Again,

emphasizing the importance of parental involvement in preparing children for school-related

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skills.

Edwards (2014) also indicated scaffolding theory as a supporting conceptual framework

in her study on maternal literacy practices and their toddlers’ budding literacy skills. Scaffolding

is another strong, parallel theory for Edwards’ (2014) study—corresponding to the noted

building processes of learning and school readiness, reading also requires a strong foundation in

order to develop. The children studied were, on average, 26.73 months or approximately two

years, two months old. According to the American Speech-language Hearing Association

language milestones for children at age two are: having a word for almost everything, talks about

things not in the room, uses two to three words to talk about something, understands new words

quickly, follows 2-part directions, and understands opposites like go—stop, big—little, etc.

(Speech Development, n.d.). To apply scaffolding in attempt to better equip the child for school

a parent might plan to read 2-4 age appropriate, length appropriate and developmentally

challenging, but attainable books daily to their child in order to model the behavior until the

child reaches the zone of proximal development; at that point the books should become more

challenging in order to increase the child’s oral language and language conceptualization.

Scaffolding Theory was also used to examine Prendergast & MacPhee (2018) study on

parental contributions to children’s persistence and school readiness. The goal of the study was

to find whether parental teaching strategies are predictive of school readiness. (Prendergast &

MacPhee, 2018) had a large sample size of (N = 2977) which gave them strong statistical power

for their results. They found that persistence predicts assessment scores on school-readiness and

children who were praised for intelligence rather than effort are less persistent after failure and

do not perform as well on tasks (Prendergast & MacPhee, 2018).They found that mother’s
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education had a positive, significant relationship with warmth (r = .19, p < .0001) and warmth

had a positive, significant relationship with 24-month scaffolding (r = .37, p < .0001) which had

a positive, significant relationship with language-math school readiness (r = .23, p < .0001)

which had a positive, significant relationships with applied problem solving skills (r = .84, p < .

0001), PPVT/TVIP (r = .79, p < .0001), and letter-word recognition skills (r = .63, p < .0001);

language-math had a large group mean effect size (R2 = .218). Social-Emotional school readiness

was also a positive, significant dependent variable of both 24-month scaffolding and 36-month

persistence. Social-Emotional school readiness had positive, significant relationships with

cognitive-social skills (r = .91, p < .0001), and emotion regulation (r = .82, p < .0001). Social-

emotional had a moderate group means effect size. The study provides significant evidence that

parents play a role in school readiness through scaffolding (Prendergast & MacPhee, 2018).

Implied Theory

Implied Scaffolding Theory. Scaffolding Theory was not explicitly stated as a

conceptual framework in Ruberry, Klein, Kiff, Thompson, & Lengua, (2018), but it was used as

a predictor variable defined as “a combination of guidance/structuring, encouragement of

autonomy, and low negative/intrusive control.” In their findings they note that maternal

scaffolding moderated associations of cumulative risks with social competence and academic

readiness. Child risk was positively related to maternal negativity and negatively related to

consistent limit setting as well as scaffolding (Ruberry, Klein, Kiff, Thompson, & Lengua,

2018). They also noted that when there were higher levels of scaffolding children showed higher

levels of social competence and academic readiness. This study illustrates the themes shown

through this review that parental positivity, limit setting and support are paramount for school
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readiness skills.

Self Determination Theory

Self Determination Theory (SDT) is concerned with human motivation and personality

which emphasizes peoples’ inner resources for personality development and behavioral self-

regulation as well as innate needs that are the basis of self-motivation and personality synthesis

(Ryan & Deci, 2000). Motivation produces results, but requires energy, direction, persistence,

activation and intentionality (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Ryan & Deci (2000) noted that motivation

can be intrinsic or extrinsic and can be perceived on a continuum. There is also a process of

regulation which is perceived causally that can be intrinsic (internal), integrated (internal),

identified (somewhat internal), introjected (somewhat external), external (external), or non-

existent (impersonal). Intrinsic motivation occurs because of interest, enjoyment, and inherent

satisfaction; amotivation occurs through nonintentional, non-valuing, incompetence and lack of

control. External motivation can occur through compliance, external rewards and punishments

(related to external regulation as well), self-control, ego-involvement, internal rewards and

punishments (related to introjected regulation as well), personal importance, conscious valuing

(related to identified regulation as well), and congruence, awareness, and synthesis with self

(also related to integrated regulation).

Many concepts related to SDT have also been explicitly noted in the school readiness

related skills or would likely benefit noted skills, for example, behavioral self-regulation,

emotional regulation, task persistence, direction and intentionality would all likely be involved in

school readiness related skills due to their overlap in physiological processes. All of these

processes can be influenced by positive parenting practices in managing disinterest and

reinforcing positive behaviors, thus, strengthening the child’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivations
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and persistence. Secure parental attachment, supportiveness, and warmth are also beneficial

factors especially when related to self-regulation (Ruberry et al., 2018). The more parents

practice these processes with their children the more likely they are to be well equipped for

school in terms of task persistence, self-regulation, direction, intentionality and motivation.

It is not surprising that SDT is the central theory of Joussemet, Koestner, Lekes, &

Landry (2005) article on the relationship of maternal autonomy support in relation to children’s

adjustment and school achievement. Autonomy support is a parenting style that respects the

child’s unique attributes and gives children the right to their own agency—relative to testing the

waters of adult decision making in small steps in childhood (Weeks, 2016). SDT is also focused

on peoples’ inner resources for personality development and self-regulation which are likely the

attributes that autonomous supportive parents are trying to facilitate. In their 2005 study they

found that autonomy support was associated with greater durability in childhood adjustment

across all social and academic domains tested (Joussemet, Koestner, Lekes, & Landry, 2005).

This article provides a more straightforward parenting pattern than some of the other studies

reviewed which may better inform parents or be a more attainable process—much like the

reading interactions that were suggested after reviewing Edwards (2005) study on literacy.

Implied Theory

Implied Self Determination Theory. Meuwissen, & Carlson, (2018) focused on autonomy

support during early childhood and its relationship with later executive functioning as well as

academic skills—the authors were able to predict that children with overstimulating fathers had

lower executive functioning at age three which predicted overstimulation at five years-old and

the children who had high executive functioning at age three had higher school readiness at five

years old, they were able to relate this to lower overstimulation by the father at five years old
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(Meuwissen & Carlson, 2018). This illustrates the need for direct recommendation of fathers to

establish an appropriately stimulating environment, but also continually checking to make sure

they are not overstimulating their child in order to better prepare them and shape their school

readiness related skills.

Non-Explicit Theory

There were three studies that did not explicitly state or imply theoretical framework.

Kam, et al., (2011) examined mother’s depressive symptoms and how they negatively predicted

their child’s social preference two years later. This study is related to the importance of maternal

warmth and acceptance that was noted in other studies by showing the negative effects that occur

when mothers are unable to engage their children due to psychopathology. Another related study

examined physical punishment paired with (psychological) aggression and found that it causes

adjustment problems lower child outcomes at three-years old (Weegar, Guérin‐Marion,

Fréchette, & Romano, 2018). These two studies are related because they both emphasize the

crucial nature of the positive parental process discussed in this review by illustrating the negative

outcomes associated with negative, maladaptive parental processes. The third study that was not

explicitly theoretically informed also relates to the preceding examinations that explain the

outcomes associated with negative parental predictors—Dotterer, Iruka, & Pungello, (2012)

investigated the effects of SES on parenting—they found that when SES decreases negative

parenting factors increase which is related to low pre-academic ability. They also noted that

higher parenting quality was associated with exceptional social skills as well as language skills

(Weegar et al., 2018). An interesting theme within this group of non-explicitly stated theoretical

studies is that they primarily focused on the outcomes of negative parenting practices or less than
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SES rather than the primary focus of the mostly positive predictors of parenting and their

outcomes in their children in the 12 studies that were explicitly stated.

Discussion

The extant literature reviewed illustrates influential, compelling themes over the topic of

parental factors associated with school readiness for early childhood. Some major themes noted

were that negative/intrusive parenting was associated with lower academic readiness (Dotterer,

Iruka, & Pungello, 2012). In comparison, one of the most widely noted important findings which

spanned eight of the 14 articles in review in some way or another, had to do with parental

warmth and acceptance in their parent-child interactions. Warmth and acceptance were positively

related to higher academic readiness in terms of social and cognitive skills, not to mention

socialization factors being of the upmost importance as noted in Hill, (2001), Edwards, (2014),

etc. thus, showing overarching themes of significant findings and important practical

implications for parenting and school readiness. Another overarching theme was autonomy

support which spanned multiple articles and has been discussed at length in (Meuwissen &

Carlson, 2018) as well as it’s later executive function implications which are vital for school

success. The literature that focused on the differences of outcomes for paternal-child and

maternal-child interactions and how mothers were implicated more in child academic readiness

where fathers were implicated in social competence—also an important skill for school

readiness, as well as fathers being implicated more when the mother scored below the mean on

supportiveness were also encompassing concepts (Martin et al., 2010). The final, and widely

noted theme of the literature reviewed was the importance of a secure attachment for school
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readiness and especially in the development of executive control, overall school readiness, etc.

(Bernier et al., 2012).

There are some apparent limitations of the current literature on the topic of parenting

factors related to school readiness mainly regarding a need for a more representative samples in

demographics and SES backgrounds, as well as a need for more specific daily parent-child

interactions to be tested in their relation to school readiness in order to better inform the

parenting population about what specific, tangible resources and activities should be sought out

in order to better prepare children for their imminent school lives. A glaring limitation of the

extant literature is the lack of use of explicit theory, of my sample, 8 out of 15 (53.3%) did not

explicitly implicate a theoretical framework in their study—of those at least five had implicit

connections to theoretical frameworks. So 12 out of 15 (80%) were either explicitly or implicitly

informed by theory, but only 46.7% of the students utilized an explicitly stated theory.

Research can improve by: becoming more informed by theory and explicitly stating it—

thus, guiding the research in a more constructive and informed manner; the selection of a more

representative sample in terms of demographics, SES, etc. to better represent the larger

population and to subsequently inform the field and community in a way that represents the

population of interest (i.e., parents and children). As stated above, they should also be

examinations of daily parent-child interactions in their relation to school readiness, thus, better

informing the parenting population about what specific, tangible resources and activities should

be sought out in order to better prepare children for their academic careers.

Children in early childhood are profoundly influenced by their environment, context,

relationships, and essentially all of the systems surrounding their developmental processes which

was shown through the emphasis on theoretical application in the review of current literature.
PARENTING ASSOCIATED WITH SCHOOL READINESS 21

Because school achievement has become and is continuing to become increasingly crucial for

future prosperity research needs to provide parents and caregivers with the information to learn

to better prepare their children for school by strengthening their school readiness related skills.
PARENTING ASSOCIATED WITH SCHOOL READINESS 22

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