DRI400 Combustion Gas Turbines

400 Combustion Gas Turbines
Abstract
This section reviews the theory of combustion gas turbine (CGT) operation and
related heat recovery cycles. It describes the types of turbines as well as their perfor-
mance characteristics, emissions, and auxiliary systems. The section also contains
information on how to properly select, apply, uprate, and inspect CGTs.
Contents Page
410 Engineering Principles 400-4

411 General Principles
412 Complex Cycles Using Gas Turbines
413 Rating CGTs
414 Gas Turbine Types and Performance Characteristics
420 Machine Components, Arrangements, and Materials 400-16
421 Air Compressor
422 Combustor
423 Turbine
424 Rotor Constructions
425 Casings
430 Application Considerations 400-30
431 Performance
432 Maintenance
433 Reliability
434 Economics
435 Package Weights and Areas
436 Emissions Controls
437 Fuel Composition and Quality
438 Load and Speed
Chevron Corporation 400-1 March 1996

400 Combustion Gas Turbines Driver Manual
440 Auxiliary Systems Considerations 400-38

441 Mounting and Enclosures
442 Startup Sequencing
443 Shutdown Sequencing
444 Fuel Systems
445 Cooling Systems
446 Starting Driver Systems
447 Fire Protection
448 Laydown Areas and Maintenance Considerations
449 Lubrication Systems
450 Inlet Air Treatment 400-48
451 Types of Harmful Contaminants
452 Determining Site Needs
453 Staged Filtration
454 Self-Cleaning Filters
455 Evaporative Cooling
456 Filter Construction
457 Anti-icing Systems
458 Noise Silencer and Inlet Plenum
460 Compressor Cleaning 400-61
461 Offline Compressor Cleaning
462 Online Compressor Cleaning
470 Exhaust Systems 400-63
471 Exhaust Schemes
472 Performance Effects
473 Construction
474 Noise Silencing
480 Emissions Controls 400-65
481 Dry NOx Control
482 Wet NOx Control
483 Selective Catalytic Reduction
484 CO Catalyst Systems
485 SOx Emissions
March 1996 400-2 Chevron Corporation

Driver Manual 400 Combustion Gas Turbines
486 Particulate Emissions

487 Emissions Testing
490 Control and Instrumentation 400-71
491 CGT Controls
492 Speed Governors
493 Bearing Temperature and Vibration Monitoring
494 Rerates and Maintenance

410 Engineering Principles

History
In the 1930’s, British and German engineers independently developed the first
useful combustion gas turbine (CGT). Pressurized air was heated by burning a fuel
and passing it through a turbine. Motivated by World War II, CGT development
moved rapidly. The hot gas energy was converted to shaft power to drive the inlet
air compressor, and then exhausted through a nozzle which propelled aircraft.
During the late 1940’s, another class of gas turbines evolved, parallel to the aircraft
CGTs. These extracted all available gas energy in the turbine as shaft power for
industrial mechanical drives and electrical generators. Small flight engines also
extracted most of the energy as shaft power for turboprops. Later, shaft power was
used for ducted or bypass fan jets.
Today, CGTs power most commercial and military aircraft, as well as several types
of ships and military tanks. They drive generators for major electric power grids
and isolated remote systems. The oil, gas, and chemical industries also use them to
drive pipeline and process compressors and pumps.
411 General Principles

The CGT thermodynamically operates on the four-step Brayton Cycle (see
Figure 400-1):
Step 1: Air is adiabatically compressed from the ambient inlet to between 60 and
400 psig.
Step 2: The compressed air is further heated with fuel, raising the bulk air tempera-
ture to a range of 1800 to 2300°F. The combustion consumes only 25% of the inlet
air oxygen.
Step 3: The hot air energy is converted to shaft work (power) through a turbine
section. Approximately 60% of the work is consumed by the inlet compressor,
leaving about 40% to perform useful work at the output shaft.
Step 4: The cycle is completed by exhausting the air and its residual heat to the
atmosphere.
The equations for power and efficiency of an ideal cycle are:
W = (3.927 × 10-4)(ηT)(mf)(LHV)
(Eq. 400-1)

and,
η t T 3 – T1 r ( k – 1 ⁄ k ) ⁄ ηc
η t = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
T3 – T 1 – T1 ( r ( k – 1 ⁄ k ) – 1 ) ⁄ ηc
1
× 1 – ---------------------
r(k – 1) ⁄ k
(Eq. 400-2)
where:
W = horsepower
mf = fuel rate, lbs/hr
LHV = fuel lower heating value, BTU/lb
ηT = thermal efficiency overall
ηc = compressor component efficiency
ηt = turbine (expander) component efficiency
r = pressure ratio of compressor (psiaout/psiain)
k = ratio of specific heats, Cp/Cv (cycle average)
T1 = compressor inlet temperature, °R
T3 = turbine inlet temperature, °R
The dashed lines in Figure 400-1 represent actual performance due to internal leak-
ages, friction, heat losses, internal cooling, and miscellaneous parasitic losses. The
area contained by the P-V curve (solid line, top) represents the net power produced
by the cycle.
There are many similarities between the Brayton Cycle and the reciprocating gas
engine’s Otto cycle discussed in Section 300 and shown in Figure 400-2. Their only
primary difference is that the Brayton Cycle adds heat at a constant pressure while
a non-turbocharged Otto cycle does it at a constant volume. This affords the recipro-
cating gas engine a slight efficiency advantage. But it also permits a significantly
higher air flow through the gas turbine for an equivalently rated machine. The addi-
tional air increases the mass flow, enabling the gas turbine to burn more fuel and
supply high horsepower outputs from relatively small, lightweight units.
Efficiency
Ideal gas turbine efficiency depends totally on compression ratio and the turbine
inlet temperature as shown in Figure 400-3 and Equation 400-2. Generally, higher
temperatures and pressures yield higher efficiency. The compression ratio affects
the cost and overall complexity of a CGT, but does not typically limit its efficiency.
The turbine section metal temperatures and corresponding metallurgical factors,
such as blade and nozzle creep strengths, usually set the critical design limits.

Fig. 400-1 The Brayton Cycle (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
During the last two decades engine builders have achieved major advances by
increasing the typical continuous turbine inlet temperatures from 1600°F to nearly
2300°F. This has largely been due to material improvements and better cooling
designs. The manufacturers have also steadily reduced the aerodynamic and
internal leakage losses. These efforts have produced several industrial turbines in
the 33% to 34% efficiency range and aircraft engines which are nearing 40%.
CGT efficiency is normally expressed as a heat rate. It is measured in units such as
BTU/kW-hr or BTU/HP-hr which can be directly converted to efficiency since
these are effectively unitless terms.

Fig. 400-2 Brayton Cycle vs. Otto Cycle (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fig. 400-3 Gas-Turbine Efficiency vs. Compression Ratio and Firing Temperature

3413
Efficiency (%) = ---------------------------------
BTU ⁄ kW–hr
2547
= -----------------------------
BTU/HP–hr
(Eq. 400-3)
This assumes the BTUs are measured by the Lower Heating Value (LHV) of the
fuel. Users are often confused by the different expressions of fuel heating values.
Most CGT manufacturers state their performances in terms of LHV, although a few
use Higher Heating Value (HHV). The difference is that HHV includes heat of
condensation from the water produced during combustion and LHV does not. LHV
is the more representative of a gas turbine’s use of a given fuel, but HHV is easier
to accurately measure in a calorimeter.
The approximate conversion from HHV to LHV using BTU units is:
1050 ( lbs H 2 O )
LHV = HHV – -------------------------------------
lbs fuel
(Eq. 400-4)
For most natural gases, the HHV is about 1000 BTU/SCF (Standard Cubic Foot)
and the LHV is about 900 BTU/SCF. Typical diesel oils measure around 19,500
BTU/LB (HHV) and 18,300 BTU/LB (LHV).
A CGT efficiency is rated at a standard set of conditions, optimum design speed,
and full load (see Sub-section 414). Any variation will usually be less efficient.
Partial load often significantly reduces efficiency (increases heat rate) as shown in
Figure 400-4.
Fig. 400-4 Part-Load CGT Performance (Courtesy of the General Electric Company)
CGT output and efficiency are always reduced by various types of deterioration.
The most common is compressor fouling from dirty inlet air. Dust particles, salt
crystals, hydrocarbons, and other contaminants adhere to the compressor vanes and

blades and roughen their surface finishes. The resulting compressor losses reduce
air flow and power capability as well as lower the cycle efficiency. Periodic
compressor cleaning reclaims most of the lost power. See Sub-section 450 for more
details on cleaning.
Mechanical wear inside the turbine also steadily reduces power and efficiency.
Progressive erosion, corrosion, opening running clearances, and metal warpage
relate to the operating loads, fuel and air qualities, number of starts, and running
hours. This deterioration can only be restored by an overhaul.
412 Complex Cycles Using Gas Turbines

The CGT can be supplemented with other equipment to provide higher overall ther-
modynamic efficiencies through cycles such as:
Cogeneration (Figure 400-5) uses the CGT’s shaft power while extracting part of
the exhaust gas heat for another process. The use of the cogeneration cycle has been
popular within the Company and with many other petrochemical companies who
cogenerate, simultaneously producing electrical power and steam. The overall
thermodynamic cycle efficiency can be as high as 80%. Refer to the Fired Heater
and Waste Heat Recovery Manual for more information on cogeneration.
Fig. 400-5 Cogeneration Cycle
Regeneration (Figure 400-6) uses exhaust energy to preheat the compressor

discharge air prior to combustion. Typical cycle efficiencies are 40% to 50%. As
compression ratios and corresponding compressor discharge temperatures increase
in modern CGTs, the benefits of regeneration decrease. The Company has regenera-
tion cycles on small production field CGTs and on five CGT-driven ships.

Combined Cycle (Figure 400-7) uses cogenerated steam to drive a separate steam
turbine and generate additional electricity. With a condensing steam turbine the
overall cycle efficiency is typically in a range of 50% to 60%.
Power Augmentation by Steam Injection is another form of cogeneration which
boosts shaft power output and accommodates variable power and steam require-
ments. Its cycle efficiency is slightly less than a comparable cogeneration plant
without the augmented steam injection. The steam is injected either into the
compressor discharge air ahead of the combustor or into the dilution air bypassing
the combustor (see Sub-section 420).
Fig. 400-6 Regenerative Cycle
Fig. 400-7 Combined Cycle

413 Rating CGTs

Gas turbines are rated at International Standards Organization (ISO) ambient condi-
tions. These are:
• 14.696 psia (sea level)
• 15°C (or 59°F)
• 60% relative humidity
• Zero air inlet pressure losses
• Zero exhaust backpressure losses
Corrections must be applied to the ISO rating by taking into account local site
conditions. The corrected rating is referred to as the “site rating.” These corrections
consider local ambient conditions and air intake/exhaust system pressure losses.
Performance deviations of each CGT due to site corrections are similar, but do vary.
Even models within a manufacturer’s line may differ. The manufacturer’s sizing
procedure and data should always be used. Comparisons between competing CGTs
are done on a “site rating” basis. Do not use the ISO rating for detailed compari-
sons. Also note ISO ratings are at a rated load and speed. Often actual applications
operate at less than rated load and varying speeds. See Sub-section 430 for details.
414 Gas Turbine Types and Performance Characteristics

There are four basic types of combustion gas turbines used in the petrochemical
industry:
• Industrial
• Aero-derivative
• Small industrial
• Hybrid
See Figure 400-8 for their typical uses. This discussion will not specifically include
CGTs less than 1000 HP since they are seldom purchased by the Company and can
have unique constructions.
Industrial Gas Turbines

Heavy duty industrial CGTs (Figure 400-9) have been developed with long-term
reliability as the primary goal. These units are installed in applications where
continuous runs of two to three years are needed. Size, weight, and sometimes even
efficiency are secondary considerations. They run at lower firing temperatures,
lower speeds, and can operate on a broad range of fuels. Models range from 10,000
to 270,000 HP. On a purchase cost per output basis, modern industrials are less
expensive than comparable aero-derivatives, although they are more expensive to
install.
The industrial turbine is usually built into a heavy cast casing which is axially split.
It is designed for in-place maintenance. Major overhauls occur about every three
years and take three to four weeks.

Fig. 400-8 Typical Applications of Four Gas Turbine Types
Fig. 400-9 Heavy-Duty Industrial Type Gas Turbine (Courtesy of Westinghouse Electric Corp.)
The unit mounts on its base similarly to a steam turbine. One end is fixed and the
opposite end absorbs thermal growth through mechanisms such as keyed slots or
wobble plates. Most models drive loads from the hot or turbine end of the CGT.
Their auxiliaries are located on the cold or compressor inlet end. Hydrodynamic,
sleeve-type bearings are used as with other major industrial turbomachinery.
Most industrial CGTs sold in the United States are manufactured by:
• General Electric (and manufacturing affiliates)
• Westinghouse
• Asea Brown Boveri

Aero-derivative Gas Turbines

Aero-derivatives, as the name implies, were originally designed for aircraft propul-
sion. With derates and minor modifications they have gained growing acceptance in
several industrial and marine applications. They are available in a range of 4,000 to
45,000 HP.
Aero-derivatives (Figure 400-10) are built for small space requirements, high
power-to-weight ratios, and high efficiency. They are built in mostly radially split
sections (Figure 400-11) which are suspension mounted and can be rapidly
removed. The bearings are rolling element type. Normally the units must be
shipped to and overhauled by approved repair facilities, although some field repairs
are possible.
Fig. 400-10 Aero-Derivative Type Gas Turbine (Courtesy of Cooper-Rolls)
Aircraft CGTs must be able to withstand numerous thermal cycles from frequent
starts and variable power demands. They obtain their high efficiencies through high
compression ratios and firing temperatures. They also exceed allowable continuous
firing temperatures for short periods during takeoffs to generate a significant boost
in power. These factors cause wear and deterioration which require overhauls every
3000 to 5000 hours of operation.
By derating the continuous firing temperature and the consequential turbine output,
aero-derivatives have proven reliable enough to run up to two years without an over-
haul.
Maintenance costs are twice as expensive as a comparable industrial model. Repair
shops require about two months to complete a rebuild. Replacement engines are
often available on a lease basis during the shop repair. With a lease engine arrange-
ment, aero-derivatives would have a higher availability than industrials because of
their quick replacement capability.
Aero-derivative engines are near the leading edge of gas turbine technology since
their development base is funded by high volume military, civilian airline, and aero-
space sales. The resulting price, however, can be 50% to 100% more than indus-

Fig. 400-11 Aero-derivative Type Modular Construction (Courtesy Cooper-Rolls)
trials. Varying portions of that premium are recaptured through their cheaper
packaging and installation costs. Where construction costs are high, such as on
offshore platforms, the aero-derivative’s total installed cost can be less than its
industrial counterpart.
These CGTs have limited fuel flexibility since they were originally designed for
only jet fuel (kerosene). Their high takeoff shaft torque ratings suit aero-derivatives
particularly for power augmentation with steam injection. One manufacturer has
demonstrated a continuous 65,000 HP by steam injecting a CGT normally rated at
45,000 HP.
Most aero-derivatives are supplied by:
• General Electric
• Rolls Royce
• Allison (General Motors)
• Pratt & Whitney (United Technologies)
Small Industrial Gas Turbines

Small industrial CGTs have design characteristics of both industrial and aero-deriva-
tive types. Most small industrials are built by Solar and Ruston (Figure 400-12).
One model built by Dresser-Rand also fits this type. All of them use compact, radi-
ally split designs (like aero-derivatives), but employ firing temperatures and bear-
ings more typical of the heavy duty industrial.

In addition to general electrical generation services, small industrial CGTs use

centers around applications for offshore platforms, pipelines, and other remote loca-
tions where they provide a cost-effective compromise. Small industrial units are
available in the range of 1,000 to 20,000 HP. Their repair frequency falls between
the industrial and aero-derivative CGTs, although parts costs per horsepower are
similar to those of the heavy duty industrials.
Fig. 400-12 Small Industrial-type Gas Turbine
Hybrid Gas Turbines

The hybrid gas turbine uses the gas generating sections of an aero-derivative CGT
(Figure 400-13). This includes the compressor, the combustors, and the turbine
stages needed to drive the compressor. The gas generator is mated to an industrial-
type power turbine which converts the remaining gas energy to power on a second
shaft. (Further discussion of two shaft turbines is given in Sub-section 420.)
Examples of matched and mated components sold in the United States are Cooper
Energy’s power turbines with Rolls Royce gas generators, and Dresser-Rand’s
power turbines with Allison, GE and Rolls Royce gas generators.
Originally developed for the mechanical drives of compressors, hybrid gas turbines
have also lately been used for electrical generation. Hybrids are built up to the
limits of aero-derivatives: 45,000 HP dry and 65,000 HP with augmented steam
injection.

Fig. 400-13 Aero-gas Generator Mated to Industrial Power Turbine (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
420 Machine Components, Arrangements, and Materials

Basic Configuration
CGTs have three main sections:
• Air Compressor
• Combustor
• Turbine
CGTs are built in one-, two-, or three-shaft configurations. In two (dual) shaft units,
the turbine section is further divided into the compressor drive stage(s) and the
power output stage(s). The drive stage turns the air compressor on one shaft while
the power output turbine stage provides torque to the coupled load through the
other shaft.
More complex three-shaft arrangements are available on modern aircraft engines.
Two such models are now offered for stationary application, but current Company
experience is limited to single- and double-shaft machines.
421 Air Compressor

The CGTs compressor is usually an axial flow type, similar in appearance to a
steam turbine (Figure 400-14). Axials are normally preferred because they are well
suited for large volumes and produce compression efficiencies of 85% to 90%.
There are a few smaller machines up to about 6000 HP which use radial flow
centrifugal impellers instead (shown in Figure 400-15).
Surge can damage axial compressors, so designers employ finely developed combi-
nations of air bleed and variable stator vane control to prevent it. These are only
needed during startup, shutdown, and low loads, which is when the machine is

Fig. 400-14 Axial-Flow Type Compressor (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fig. 400-15 Radial-Flow Type Compressor (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
likely to pass through a surge range. Refer to the Compressor Manual for more
discussion on surge.
The bleed valves operate automatically on either speed or compressor pressure
control to release air from one or more intermediate stages. The variable inlet stator
guide vanes (VIGV) are similarly controlled through an electric, hydraulic, or pneu-
matic actuator. The actuator rotates a ring which simultaneously positions each of
the individual stator vanes at an angle best aligned with the reduced air flow. Vari-

able stators have been applied on CGTs anywhere from the inlet stage only to
nearly all stages in the compressor.
First stage variable inlet guide vanes can also be used to either maintain efficiency
or boost the exhaust gas temperature at part loads. They do this by reducing the air
flow to better match it with the inlet conditions and CGT load. Not all manufac-
turers, however, will permit this type of control since the air flow is critical to the
cooling of parts in the hot turbine section.
Compressor stators and rotating blades are typically made from a high strength
material such as 12% chrome steel. The rotating blades must be designed to avoid
natural frequency resonances which co-exist with known vibration excitation
sources. Where it is not possible to avoid such conflicts, the blades must be suffi-
ciently damped so fatigue stresses are not exceeded.
Initial compressor stage(s) are often protected with a coating to resist moisture
corrosion and particle erosion. The coatings also improve the compressor’s compo-
nent efficiency by providing smoother aerodynamic surfaces.
The first two or three stages of any CGT compressor in service are inevitably
fouled or eroded by contaminants that manage to pass through the inlet filtration
system. These deteriorate the aerodynamic performance by changing the airfoil
shapes and finish. Since axial compressors work on a pyramid-like stage-to-stage
compression ratio basis, initial stage losses have the greatest impact on the overall
compressor output. That is why compressor cleaning is periodically necessary on
nearly every CGT. The pertinent air compressor performance approximation equa-
tions are:
0.2806
---------------- 
 ηc 
W = ( 5.76 × 10 –3 )m a T 1 r –1
(Eq. 400-5)
 0.2806
---------------- 
 ηc 
T2 = T1 r
(Eq. 400-6)
The term  ----------------  is an exponent to r in both equations.
0.2806
Note
 ηc 
where:
W = compressor power demand, HP
ma = air flow rate, lbs/min
T1 = air inlet temperature, °R
r = compression ratio
ηc = compressor polytropic efficiency

T2 = compressor discharge temperature, °R

Refer to Section 100 of the Compressor Manual for definitions of compression
ratio and polytropic efficiency.
Assuming a typical ηc of 85%, these become:
W = (5.76 × 10-3)maT1 (r0.33 - 1)

(Eq. 400-7)
T2 = T1 r0.33
(Eq. 400-8)
422 Combustor
The purpose of the CGT combustion section is to burn fuel and increase the temper-
ature of the air passing through the machine. Typically the compressor produces air
with three to four times the oxygen required for stoichiometric combustion.
Stoichiometric conditions exist when there is precisely the right amount of oxygen
present to completely burn the fuel. The excessively high air flow serves two
purposes:
1. Provides additional gaseous mass to the thermodynamic Brayton Cycle,
increasing the net power output.
2. Dilutes and cools the 3500 to 4000°F combustion flame temperatures down to
the nominal 1600 to 1800°F maximum metal temperatures permitted by
modern metallurgy.
Combustors, sometimes referred to as cans or liners, are sophisticated sheet metal
fabrications which require extensive empirical development. They are fabricated
from a high-temperature alloy such as Hastelloy X and are thoroughly ported for
cooling and dilution. New designs, and new fuels in old designs, are thoroughly
tested to verify that the flame pattern is adequately contained and that allowable
combustor metal temperatures are not exceeded. Some modern combustor designs
include a ceramic “barrier” coating to insulate the interior surfaces.
Combustor configurations divide into three basic types:
• Canular
• Can-annular
• Annular
The canular configuration has one or two external cans as shown in Figure 400-16.
These are particularly useful for burning a wide variety of gaseous and liquid fuels
due to the large space needed for variable flame geometries. The long combustor
residence time, however, can make NOx emissions suppression more difficult.
The can-annular combustor, depicted in Figure 400-17, is the most common
design. It burns the fuel in a given number of cans arranged around the engine
centerline. The outlets of these cans are shaped into a partial annular section which

Fig. 400-16 External Canular Type Combustor (Courtesy of ABB)
aligns with the turbine nozzles. Most designs also connect the cans with crossfiring
tubes for ignition and flame reliability purposes.
Fig. 400-17 Can-annular Type Combustor (Courtesy of the General Electric Company)
The annular combustor has several fuel nozzles firing into a single annulus-shaped
chamber, as seen in Figure 400-18. This is the most difficult configuration to design
and develop because of flow interaction between nozzles. Some designs point the
nozzles directly downstream and others in a skew direction which produces a swirl

around the annulus. Annular combustors are most commonly found in more
modern aero-derivative CGTs because they require minimal space and are light-
weight. Some small industrial models now use them as well.
Fig. 400-18 Annular Type Combustor (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Combustor fuel nozzles are provided to:

1. Mix the fuel and air together with flow velocities and geometries which form a
stable flame.
2. Support complete combustion.
3. Create a compact flame pattern that will not overheat the combustor or down-
stream turbine materials.
4. Minimize NOx generation (see Sub-sections 436 and 480).
5. Provide NOx suppression through steam or water injection into the flame zone.
6. Provide fuel flexibility through combinations of gaseous and liquid fuel
systems.
The single fuel gas nozzle is the simplest configuration. It usually consists of
several tangentially drilled gas holes which inject fuel into a swirling air stream.
The swirl effect is intended to maximize air/fuel mixing for quick and complete
stoichiometric combustion, limiting the flame front to as small an area as possible.
Liquid fuels are injected through smaller, spray-type nozzles. Thorough atomiza-
tion is the key to tight, complete combustion. The fuel can be mechanically atom-
ized through a nozzle requiring between 600 to 1000 psig. In other designs, the
liquid is air atomized through a nozzle which requires fuel at about 600 psig and a

separately injected high-pressure air source. Dual fuel arrangements

(Figure 400-19) are commonly available which integrate the gas and liquid nozzles
into one assembly.
Fig. 400-19 Duel Fuel Nozzle with Water Injection (Courtesy of the General Electric
Company)
When steam is added for NOx suppression, it is either injected with the gas fuel or
injected directly into the flame pattern through a separate nozzle. CGT designers
frequently use the liquid nozzle to inject water into gas fuel combustion for NOx
suppression. When burning liquid fuel, the water is either mixed with the fuel ahead
of the spray nozzle or injected through separate means (Figure 400-19).
Nozzle/combustor combinations are developed for specific fuels with relatively
constant gravities and heating values. A gas nozzle intended for natural gas is
limited to an LHV variation of no more than 200 BTU/SCF. Greater variations alter
flame patterns and begin to compromise combustor and turbine lives. Similarly,
liquid nozzle performance is sensitive to the viscosity and gravity of the fuel. Check
with the manufacturers for specific limitations on each type of fuel.
Combustors rarely have the space to handle more than two sets of fuel nozzles. This
is particularly true when environmental regulations require steam or water injection
for NOx control.
Startup ignition in the combustors is usually provided by a spark plug type arcing
device. Most units have one or two, and some automatically retract from the hot
space after the start. Others use a torch arrangement which has an arcing device at
the cool end of a tube that injects pilot gas. Can-annular combustors spread the
ignited flame to the other cans via the cross-firing tubes.
Since most turbines are fired to their maximum allowable temperatures, even fuel
flows from the nozzles become critically important. The Company has experienced

turbine damage in as little as four hours due to incorrectly matched nozzles. All
nozzles should be tested and flow matched prior to operation.
CGT manufacturers measure and average the gas temperatures downstream of the
combustion section at several circumferential locations. The average is limited to
prevent rapid overall deterioration of the turbine parts. Temperature differences
(spreads) between the individual thermocouples and the overall average readings
are monitored. Maximum spread limits are set for alarm and shutdown to prevent
localized hot spots due to uneven firing or poor fuel flow distribution.
423 Turbine
The turbine section of a CGT produces the shaft power which drives the air
compressor and the external load. In single-shaft arrangements (Figure 400-20),
these two duties are combined in a set of one or more adjacent turbine stages. In a
dual-shaft engine (Figure 400-21), the turbine is divided. The first stage(s) drive
only the compressor, completing the section known as the gas generator. The
remaining hot gas energy is extracted in remaining stage(s) known as the free
power turbine, which drives the load. The power turbine has an independent shaft
with its own bearing system that typically runs at a lower speed than the gas gener-
ator. The gas generator turbine section is also referred to as the high-pressure (HP)
turbine and the power turbine is called the low-pressure (LP) turbine.
Fig. 400-20 Single-Shaft Gas Turbine (Courtesy of the Fig. 400-21 Dual-Shaft Gas Turbine (Courtesy of the
General Electric Company) General Electric Company)
Single-shaft CGTs lose a significant amount of efficiency when they deviate from
their design speed or load. They are also limited by compressor surge margins
which often occur as high as 80% of full speed. Single-shaft CGTs work best at one
speed and with the turbine inlet temperature at the rated maximum (base loaded).
Most electric generator drive applications are therefore single shafts. Because of
their simplicity, the majority of industrial CGTs sold have a single shaft arrange-
ment.

Dual-shaft machines have the advantage of separating the gas generator’s

compressor operation from the power turbine’s output speed and power. The
compressor can operate at its most efficient speed for the inlet conditions and fuel
input. Meanwhile the power turbine, which is only aerodynamically coupled to the
gas generator, can operate at whatever speed the load demands. This configuration
maximizes the efficiency over a much broader range of operation than the single
shaft. It also permits the matching of different power turbines to a gas generator (as
applications may require). The disadvantages of a dual shaft are that it’s slightly
more expensive to buy and maintain and sometimes more complicated to control.
Dual shafts normally drive mechanical loads such as compressors and pumps which
require variable speeds and loads.
Hot gases enter the turbine section by first passing through turbine nozzles. Much
like the guide vanes in the compressor, their purpose is to convert part of the gas
heat and pressure energy to velocity, optimally directed at the rotating turbine
blades. A few dual-shaft CGTs can vary the angle of the LP nozzles to more effi-
ciently match variable loads and speeds.
Turbine nozzle material selections are based on the temperature and stress levels
they are likely to experience. The first stages are made of a cast cobalt or nickel
based superalloy. Refer to Appendix C for examples of CGT materials. At gas
temperatures higher than 1800°F, various cooling configurations are incorporated
into the design.
The principal turbine nozzle wear mechanisms are:
• Hot oxidation
• Thermal, low cycle fatigue cracking
• Creep
• Foreign object damage
The rotating blades are made of materials similar to the nozzles, but have much
more demanding design criteria relating to cooling, high centrifugal stresses, and
potentially high vibratory stresses. Vibration stresses and temperature limits usually
control the material selection and blade design.
The blade designer’s primary vibration control objective is to avoid coincidences
between the natural frequencies at running speed and the potential excitation
frequencies of the blade. Like the compressor blades, the most common exciters are
the pulses which occur each time the rotating turbine blade passes a stationary
nozzle and the consequent multiple frequencies. Frequencies relating to shaft
turning speed must also be avoided. Since these limits are not always attainable,
particularly with variable speed machines, a secondary design objective is to
dampen vibrations so that stresses never exceed endurance limits. Testing and
proven experience are very important with each blade design or redesign. The
consequence of any type of blade failure, turbine or compressor, is major damage to
the downstream parts.
In the 1970’s, increasing industrial CGT firing temperatures began to exceed allow-
able metal temperature limits, so nozzle and blade cooling became necessary.

Aircraft engines had already been addressing this problem for some time and
several of their design concepts were adapted to the industrial models.
Initially, hollow blades were built which had internal convective cells to transfer
heat from the hotter locations at the end of the rotating blade to the cooler areas
near the center of the shaft. Later, various forced convective internal cooling
approaches were incorporated. “Cool” compressor discharge air up to 700°F was
routed through rotating seals to the rotor and into the bases of the turbine blades
(Figure 400-22). Stationary turbine nozzles were similarly cooled.
As turbine inlet gas temperatures progressed past 2000°F, convective cooling alone
was not enough. Boundary layer cooling is now frequently used to provide a thin
insulating layer of air between the hot gases and the metal. This technique requires
extensive design and testing development work for each turbine blade and nozzle
configuration and size. The boundary layer is formed by blowing cooling air
through precisely located, sized, and directed holes in the airfoil (Figure 400-23).
The necessary accuracy and small hole size, nominally about 0.5 millimeter diam-
eter, originally restricted the use of boundary layer cooling. Manufacturers had to
develop new chemical and laser techniques to drill the holes properly.
Fig. 400-22 Force Cooled Blade with Firtree Attach- Fig. 400-23 Boundary Layer Cooling (Courtesy of the
ment (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand) General Electric Company)
The most recent evolution in cooling techniques is the use of thermal barrier coat-
ings. These are thin ceramic based materials. Although their insulation effect can
reduce metal temperatures 200 to 300°F, their reliability is not yet widely proven.
The challenge is to get a ceramic material to adhere to what is relatively a much
more flexible metal throughout the operating stresses and thermal cycles.
Turbine nozzles and blades are frequently coated with various types of corrosion
resistant materials. Although most modern turbine materials resist oxidation at
design temperatures, other elements in the fuel and inlet air can be corrosive. The
most common form of attack is the synergistic effect of sulfur and sodium or potas-
sium. These elements are not particularly harmful by themselves. However, hot
sodium and potassium sulfides are quite corrosive to superalloys. The usual source

of sulfur is the fuel. Airborne sodium is common in areas near the ocean or alkaline
deserts.
In liquid fuel fired CGTs, heavy metals can also be a source of hot corrosion. The
most active metal is vanadium, commonly found in crude oil and its distillates. Oils
containing high heavy metals must be thoroughly water washed prior to burning.
424 Rotor Constructions

CGT rotor designs present several unique challenges relating to the large tempera-
ture gradients and transients experienced during operation. Consistent balance,
interference fits, and running clearances are difficult to maintain. Aero-derivative
rotors must also be designed for minimal weight.
Many manufacturers mount the compressor and turbine blades on the periphery of
disks which are either fitted or splined onto a shaft (refer back to Figure 400-10).
The disks are also frequently fitted to each other to hold relative position. Alterna-
tively, a few aero-derivative designs use a hollow barrel configuration to save
weight (Figure 400-24).
Another common design involves disks which are stacked and fitted together with a
centering device such as a curvic coupling (Figure 400-25). The stack is then
secured with axial tiebolts to hold all the fits in compression (Figure 400-26). Stub
shafts are bolted to each end to provide sealing surfaces and bearing journals.
One manufacturer uses either partially or completely solid rotors, sometimes built
with a welded construction (Figure 400-27). In such cases, the blades mount
directly on the rotor.
Blades are held on the disks or rotors by dovetailed or firtree fits, similar to those
used on steam turbines (see Figure 400-22). These can slide into either tangential or
axial grooves. Every manufacturer has its own individual design for locking the
blades in place.
Rotor bearings differ significantly between industrial and aero-derivative type
turbines. Industrials use hydrodynamic sleeve bearings, much like those on other
petrochemical turbomachinery. Often there are bearings at the hot turbine end, espe-
cially in two-shaft CGTs, which must be kept cool. This is done with various
isolating seals and air or oil cooling. After shutdown, these bearings must continue
to be cooled to prevent a heat soak that may melt the babbitt. The shutdown oil flow
is controlled at a reduced rate to prevent bypassing labyrinths which no longer have
sealing air.
Aero-derivatives employ rolling element bearings because they can withstand
greater vibration, higher temperatures, and do not rely on gravity to establish stable
lubrication and rotordynamics. The penalty, however, is finite bearing lives. The
bearings are sometimes built with “squeeze film damping” (Figure 400-28) to limit
vibration amplitudes. This is simply an oil cushion between the outer bearing race
and its housing.

Fig. 400-24 Hollow Barrel Rotor (Courtesy of Allison Engine Company)
Fig. 400-25 Curvic Coupling (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fig. 400-26 Stacked and Tiebolted Rotor (Courtesy of Allison Engine Company)

Fig. 400-27 Solid Welded Rotor (Courtesy of ABB)
Fig. 400-28 Squeeze Film Damped Bearing (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)

Refer to the General Machinery Manual for more information on bearings and
lubrication.
425 Casings
Industrial and aero-derivative CGTs differ significantly in casing designs. The
industrial uses a heavy cast frame which is firmly secured to its base. Axial growth
is accommodated by a slide key or a wobble plate, usually located on the turbine
end of the machine.
In contrast, the weight conscious aero-derivative employs a very flexible casing
which is hung or propped on hinged struts. Since the aero-derivative has this
freedom, it expends much of its vibrational energy by moving the entire lightweight
engine casing in space rather than resisting movement at the bearings. This permits
relatively smaller bearings than the industrials. It also permits aero-manufacturers
to set higher vibration limits than comparable industrials. Packagers, however, must
take care not to subject less tolerant auxiliary systems and piping to these vibra-
tions. High vibrations may impair the reliability of nearby piping, instruments, and
electrical components.
Another fundamental difference between the two types are the casing disassembly
configurations. Aero-derivatives are built in modular, radially split sections which
are generally shop repaired. Industrials have axially split cases that are opened and
overhauled in place. Refer to Figures 400-9 and 400-11.
430 Application Considerations

A number of factors influence the selection of a CGT driver. Each will affect the
project economics or operational acceptability. Most of these factors should be thor-
oughly understood prior to selecting CGT vendors and specific models for a formal
bid.
431 Performance
The factors shown in Figure 400-29 affect a CGT’s power output and heat rate.
Remember that a higher heat rate means lower CGT efficiency (refer to
Sub-section 410).
432 Maintenance
CGTs are often advertised in terms of their “availability.” This represents the manu-
facturer’s prediction of downtime for scheduled inspection and maintenance.
Unless it is based on verifiable field experience, the availability percentage does not
include predictions of any of the unscheduled downtime. Most CGTs today are
capable of at least 95% average availability.
Inspection and maintenance recommendations differ between manufacturers. Indus-
trial models typically allow longer intervals than aero-derivatives. Aero-derivatives,

Fig. 400-29 CGT Performance Factors

Increasing Parameter Power Output Heat Rate
Ambient Temperature Lower Higher
Humidity Lower Little change
Altitude Lower Little change
Turbine Inlet Temperature Higher Lower
Air Compression Ratio Higher Lower
Inlet Pressure Losses Lower Little change
Exhaust Backpressure Lower Little change
Steam Injection Higher Lower
Water Injection Higher Higher
Air Extraction Lower Higher
Liquid Fuels (instead of gas) Lower Higher
however, have the advantage of rapid changeout and lease-engine sparing while
industrials are usually down two to four weeks if the casing is opened.
Inspections/overhauls divide into three general categories:
1. Minimal disassembly inspections typically involve one- to three-day shut-
downs. Emphasis is placed on the hot gas path. Critical parts are viewed
through borescope ports and ducting accesses. On some machines, fuel nozzles
are also removed to provide combustor access. The intent is to identify and
track deterioration rather than perform any significant repair work. These
inspections are usually recommended at six months and one year after startup,
and then once every non-overhaul year thereafter.
2. Hot gas path overhauls involve enough disassembly for full access to and
inspection of potentially wearing combustor and turbine parts. Repairs or part
replacements are provided as necessary. The most commonly repaired parts are
fuel nozzles, combustion liners, transition sections, and first stage turbine
nozzles. This overhaul takes about two weeks for industrial turbines and is
done every two to three years.
Many aero-derivatives are arranged so that the hot gas modules can be pulled
and replaced with leased or exchange units. Alternatively, the entire engine is
changed out. Aero-derivative repair shops require an average of 60 days for an
overhaul and rebuild. The frequency is typically two years or less due to the
higher firing temperatures and rapid efficiency losses. Some manufacturers
advertise three years between overhauls, but users generally report less time.
3. Major overhauls involve exposing most parts of the machine for inspection
and necessary repair. Roughly every second overhaul can be described as
major. The amount of work and associated costs tend to increase as the
machine ages. CGT manufacturers generally recommend replacing turbine

blades, for example, between 50,000 and 100,000 running hours. Downtime
for industrials is about four weeks. The same timing and procedures apply for
aero-derivative majors as described for the hot gas path overhaul stated above.
Most operators develop a level of confidence which lets them establish their own
inspection and overhaul frequencies as they get to know their machine.
CGT wear and tear are influenced by many other factors that are not as easily
measured as running hours. Many of them are related to the harshness and steadi-
ness of firing. A unit operating at its rated load or higher will not last as long as one
that is running at 75% load with a cooler firing temperature. Likewise, one which
endures numerous thermal cycles due to frequent starts or abrupt load changes will
fatigue metal more quickly than one that runs continuously at a steady load. Emer-
gency stops cause even more thermal fatigue. An industrial manufacturer deter-
mined that one emergency stop causes thermal fatigue damage equivalent to ten
normal stops.
Inlet air quality can have a major impact on engine performance. Contaminants
cause erosive and corrosive wear as well as foul the aerodynamic surfaces.
Fuel quality directly affects combustor and turbine section lives. Certain contami-
nants accelerate hot corrosion. Liquid mists and slugs in gaseous fuels may also
cause fuel nozzle coking or localized, severe overheating.
Lube- and hydraulic-oil quality also affects component lives. Water, hydrogen
sulfide, miscellaneous chemicals, and particulate contamination can all potentially
damage lubricated surfaces.
433 Reliability
Some reliability factors to consider are:
1. Fuel supply and pressure security: Gas turbines will trip offline when the fuel
pressure is too low to overcome the combustion pressure and control losses.
Multiple fuels and system complexities will always lower reliability.
2. Driven equipment and exhaust heat recovery: A large percentage of emergency
trips are externally initiated. Examples are:
– Generator load controlling or switching problems
– Driven compressor surge or other difficulties
– Loss of boiler steam drum level
– High levels in gaseous fuel knockout drums
3. Quality of fuel, air, and lube-oil: Left unchecked, slowly developing problems
in these areas can become critical, causing inadvertent shutdowns.
4. Level of instrumentation and control redundancy: Multiple transducers, control-
lers, processors, and the like can increase reliability when built into voting
logic systems.

5. Adequate vibration monitoring: Standard vibration system monitors are some-

times inadequate to alert the operators to growing vibration levels before
damage and/or unexpected shutdowns occur.
6. Minimizing automatic shutdowns: Some manufacturers build their control
systems for automatic unattended operation. These include certain trips which
would be unnecessary if the unit was attended by a properly trained operator.
7. Operator and mechanic training: There is always the risk of trips due to human
error. The better the personnel training, the more frequent the refreshers, the
higher the qualification standards, the greater the CGT reliability will be.
8. Preventive/predictive maintenance programs: As the name implies, preventive
maintenance reduces the number of condition-related, online failures.
Operators must anticipate a lower reliability than normal in the first few weeks and
months after unit commissioning. Unexpected outages will occur as bugs are found,
procedures are refined, and personnel build experience. These events can be mini-
mized by careful design and installation, extensive precommissioning checks, good
training, and well-defined operating procedures.
434 Economics
Every CGT application has its own unique set of objectives and corresponding
economics. Primary economic considerations are the:
• Number of units
• Efficiency or fuel cost
• Emissions requirements
• Maintenance
Since there is usually economy in scale, the fewer and larger the units, the better the
payout. However, this generalization is often countered by:
1. In the event of process, steam, or power outages related to unexpected CGT
trip scenarios, fewer units means greater operating impact.
2. CGTs are designed for specific outputs. Installing one for use at less than its
rating wastes energy and capital investment.
3. Variable load requirements (off-design conditions), means loss of CGTs
optimum efficiency.
4. Larger gas turbines require the purchase of more backup (or standby) power
capacity. Smaller units require less.
CGT efficiency is a popular subject during project evaluations. Usually higher effi-
ciency CGTs cost more. However the efficiency contribution to a project’s payout
can vary from great to negligible. When an engine is installed with no exhaust heat
recovery or recuperation, the efficiency is directly related to fuel use and therefore
to operating costs. If the project is primarily shaft power based, but has supplemen-

tary heat recovery, efficiency has much less value. The overall cycle efficiency
becomes more important than the CGT component efficiency.
If a project is primarily sized for the exhaust heat recovery and the shaft power is a
secondary issue, then CGT efficiency is worth very little. In fact, exhaust heat
oriented installations payout best with inefficient, high air flow machines. Expen-
sive, very efficient aero-derivative CGTs are usually inappropriate choices for these
types of applications.
Emissions requirements always have a significant impact on CGT installation
economics. In some locations, such as California, the lengthy environmental permit-
ting processes force early commitments to a specific manufacturer and model.
Steam injected units have to account for the cost of producing the steam and the
loss of the treated water. Water injected units require facilities to remove nearly all
the dissolved solids. Normally these techniques will lower nitrogen oxide (NOx)
emissions to around 42 ppm. The amounts of steam and water will sometimes vary
widely between engines.
If further nitrogen oxide reductions are required, facilities and operating costs must
be included in the economics for catalytic conversion of the exhaust. This is usually
integrally built into the heat recovery equipment for proper temperature control.
CGT manufacturers will quote guidelines for annual maintenance costs which can
be used as rough estimates. For more precise information, contact one or two repre-
sentative users of the same model. Generally aero-derivatives will be more expen-
sive to maintain (cost per output basis) than industrials.
435 Package Weights and Areas

Refer to Figure 400-30 for representative weights and footprint areas of CGT gener-
ator drive packages.

Emissions controls are discussed further in Sub-section 480.
Emissions controls may have a significant effect on equipment selection and project
economics. Turbine design, manufacturer experience, fuels, and local regulations
all enter into decisions surrounding emissions. Pollutants involved are:
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Sulfur oxides (SOx)
• Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC)
• Particulates
NOx and CO are usually the primary concerns. SOx is a function of sulfur in the
fuel and is controlled with quality limits. UHC and particulates are only problems
when burning heavy liquid fuels.

Fig. 400-30 CGT Package Weights and Footprint Areas vs. Power Output
CGTs make proportionally more NOx than other fuel burning devices due to their
high flame temperatures and combustion pressures. Typically, the higher perfor-
mance machines such as modern aero-derivatives are worse offenders than older,
lower temperature industrials. Large canular combustors can produce more NOx
than the smaller can-annular combustors because of longer residence time at high
temperature. Also, chemically bound nitrogen in a liquid fuel will increase the NOx
output.

NOx generation and suppression are described in more detail in Sub-section 480,
but the basic control approaches are:
1. Injection of flame cooling steam or water into the combustion zone. This can
lower the NOx to at least 42 ppmv (parts per million volume) dry, 15% oxygen.
Every gas turbine the Company has installed in California since 1985 has used
steam or water injection.
2. “Low NOx” combustor designs which stage the combustion in non-stoichio-
metric fuel mixtures. Not many of these designs exist yet, but the manufac-
turers claim they are capable of down to 25 ppmv.
3. Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) of the exhaust gases. This has demon-
strated 5 to 10 ppmv NOx when it was used in conjunction with steam injection
on the El Segundo Cogeneration Project.
CO is usually very low from CGTs operating on gas fuels and at stable, full loads.
Liquid fuels tend to slightly increase the CO output. Part loads also increase it.
However, CO is normally only a factor when located in an EPA nonattainment area.
The problem is that steam and especially water injection NOx controls significantly
increase CO production. These effects become pronounced at part loads when the
lower flame temperature also inhibits complete combustion.
The only CO control available is catalytic oxidation of the exhaust gas. A typical
design and regulatory objective is a 90% reduction of CO across the oxidizer.
CGT manufacturers will guarantee maximum emissions output from a new engine.
Shop and/or field acceptance tests are now frequent appendices to purchase orders
since the operating facility must in turn guarantee results to the local permitting
agencies. See Section 800 for more on testing.
One should seek the advice of local and Company experts about emissions regula-
tions before concluding the study phase of any CGT project. Similarly, manufac-
turers and CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering specialists should be
consulted about proven, state-of-the-art emissions control technologies.
437 Fuel Composition and Quality

Fuel selection is an economical and often logistical factor in CGT applications. In
some cases such as refinery fuel gas applications, it is the driving element behind
the project. In remote locations such as pipelines and producing fields, produced
gas or crude oil may be the only practically available fuels. On offshore platforms,
produced gas may be burned with only minimal treatment.
Gas turbines are very flexible machines in that they can be designed to burn a wide
variety of fuels. Once the fuel is selected, however, its gravity and heating value are
restricted to limited ranges due to fuel nozzle, combustor, and control valve
designs. Manufacturers use the Wobbe Index as one generalized measure of fuel
variation. It is calculated for gaseous fuels as:

LHV
WI = ----------------------------
0.5
-
 MW gas 
 ------------------
 MW air 
(Eq. 400-9)
where:
WI = Wobbe Index, BTU/SCF
LHV = lower heating value, BTU/SCF
MW = molecular weight of fuel gas or air
Although this value is not truly unitless, it is treated as such. A standard combustor
design, in one manufacturer’s estimation, is capable of 100 change in the Wobbe
Index without adjustment. See Figure 400-31.
Fig. 400-31 Wobbe Index Variations
Dew point is another important parameter to control in gaseous fuels. Liquids, even
in mist form, can damage nozzles and combustors burning fuel gases. Therefore
proper knockout vessels, pipe sloping, and heat tracing facilities must be added
when there is a possibility of condensation. These should be installed whenever the
gas temperature will fall within 50°F of the dew point.
Heavier liquid fuels such as fuel oils and crude oils often require preparation prior
to burning. Desalting may be necessary when compounds of vanadium, sodium,
potassium, or calcium exceed acceptable levels. Asphaltene and wax particles must
be filtered if they tend to plug fuel systems. Sand and other free solids must also be
removed. Finally, preheating may be required for viscosity control and proper
nozzle performance. One must work closely with the CGT manufacturer when
designing preparation systems for heavy liquid fuels.

438 Load and Speed

Variations of the driven equipment load and speed requirements must be well under-
stood. One must know if the load will be constant, variable, or intermittent. Like-
wise, establish if the speed will be constant or variable. Turndown is generally
limited to about 70% of maximum design speed. These factors enter into the
support system decisions as well as the original CGT model selection. They will
affect the fuel controls, compressor inlet guide vane operation, bleed air surge
control, emissions controls, and interactive operation with other machines in
parallel.
When selecting a CGT, always remember that it will provide considerably less
power in the heat of summer than in the dense cold air of winter (see
Sub-section 410).
440 Auxiliary Systems Considerations

CGTs require a complex set of support systems. Most of the equipment is provided
by the packager, but there are usually a number of interfaces which must be coordi-
nated with the suppliers of the remaining facilities. The following lists major appli-
cation topics which must be reviewed when planning a new CGT installation or
revising an existing one.
441 Mounting and Enclosures

Nearly every CGT is packaged on a fabricated steel base with some or all of its
auxiliary systems. Driven equipment is installed either on the same base or attached
bases. When enclosures are specified, they are also commonly supported by the
base.
The primary concerns in base and enclosure design are:
1. Protection from the elements
2. Lifting weight limits and base handling rigidity
3. Installed weight and space
4. Maintenance and operating access
5. Noise attenuation
6. Fire protection
When designing offshore platform installations, all of the above are important, but
weight and space take a high priority. In addition to adequate clearance and access,
the spacing must accommodate lifting mechanisms and eventual removal/replace-
ment of various package components. Aero-derivatives are therefore very popular
offshore, due to their relatively small size (see Figure 400-30) and modular compo-
nent construction.

Offshore installations must also give extra attention to prevailing winds and nearby
equipment. The air inlets must be strategically located away from other exhausts,
hydrocarbon vents, and potentially fouling discharges.
442 Startup Sequencing

CGTs are equipped with an automatic or semi-automatic sequencer which activates
the engine and all of its auxiliary systems on a programmed schedule for proper
starting management. If desired, this may be so completely automated that it can be
activated from a remote location.
A typical startup chronology includes:
1. Checking for permissive conditions in all critical systems. Examples would be
lube-oil temperature and fuel supply pressure.
2. Activating lube/hydraulic pumps and enclosure cooling fans.
3. Activating the starting driver and rotating the CGT at cranking speed.
4. Purging the exhaust ducting and heat recovery of any hydrocarbons.
5. Accelerating the CGT with the starting driver to a speed where fuel is intro-
duced and ignited.
6. Protecting the compressor section from surge throughout the acceleration
periods with control of blowoff valves and variable guide vanes.
7. Continuing accelerating the CGT at a prescribed ramp rate to a self-sustaining
speed where the starting driver disengages and shuts down.
8. Finishing the acceleration up to full speed and idle load.
9. Checking for expected turbine inlet or exhaust temperatures during the light-
off and accelerations. Any significant deviations would indicate a failed flame
and abort the start.
10. Pausing at the idle load for a specified time to heat soak the engine and mini-
mize thermal shocks.
11. Energizing the exciter in the case of an electrical generation service.
12. Signifying the CGT is ready for load.
13. Synchronizing with the electrical grid in the case of an electrical generator.
14. Gradually ramping the load up to the desired amount to avoid thermal shock
wear. Initiate steam or water injection for NOx suppression at the minimum
acceptable load.
15. Monitoring all system parameters throughout the start for unacceptable devia-
tions and abort the start if necessary.

443 Shutdown Sequencing

Shutdowns are classified as either normal or emergency:
Normal shutdowns are manually initiated, but automatically executed. They imme-
diately unload the engine and run it at idle for a short period to reduce thermal
stresses. Certain CGTs, particularly larger ones, may operate for a while on the
starting driver to further soften the thermal transients. Units from about 40,000 HP
and up will have a ratcheting mechanism to continue rotation at one or two RPM
for several cooldown hours to prevent the rotor from taking a thermal bow. The
auxiliary lube-oil pump will continue running to lubricate and remove heat from the
bearings and gears. When all time and temperature limits are satisfied, the controls
will then allow a complete stop.
Emergency shutdowns or trips are typically automatically initiated. There are also
“panic” buttons on the control panel and sometimes near the unit which operators
can use to manually trip the machine. These events are automatically sequenced
much like a normal shutdown. However they do not include cooldown delays since
the primary objective is to bring the machine to a complete stop as soon as possible.
In the event of an emergency trip caused by a compartment fire sensor, all lube-oil
pumps will be automatically turned off after the rotor rolls to a stop. This elimi-
nates the possibility of pumping additional hydrocarbon to fuel the fire. Many oper-
ators object to this particular step since it increases the possibility of heat soak
damage to the bearings. It is normally only necessary for unattended operation.
444 Fuel Systems

Fuel Gas Compression
Fuel gas supply to a CGT must be adequate to overcome control and piping losses,
fuel nozzle pressure drop, and combustion pressure. This varies from 150 to 500
psig, depending primarily on the individual CGTs compressor discharge pressure.
When supplemental fuel gas compression is required, most installations select recip-
rocating compressors. In spite of their inherent maintenance costs and necessary
sparing, they have the best performance fits in the areas of flow versus pressure and
capacity turndown. Centrifugals are not often used because of the low flow rate and
their limited turndown capability.
Flooded screw compressors have recently become more popular, but there is
currently limited experience at the higher discharge pressures above 300 psig.
There are some user experiences of oil-mist carrying over with the gas and causing
coke blockage in the fuel nozzles. Check with a specialist in the CRTC Materials
and Equipment Engineering Unit before selecting this type of machine.
Fuel gas systems should include liquid knockout and dual (primary and spare) fine
filtration facilities either next to or on the CGT skid. The gas must be maintained at
least 50°F above its dew point prior to entering the fuel control system. The piping
must be sloped back to the knockout vessel and not have any low points or dead
legs which might collect condensation.

Liquid Fuel Systems

The key to well controlled liquid fuel burning is good atomization, requiring clean
nozzles supplied with the required pressure. Some manufacturers mechanically
atomize using supply pressures between 900 and 1200 psig. Others supplement
lower pressure nozzles, 600 to 900 psig, with atomizing air. The CGT packager
supplies the appropriate high-pressure pump and atomizing compressor as an auxil-
iary on the skid. Most liquid systems are fed by an offplot transfer and circulating
pump which maintains a consistent suction pressure to the on-skid high-pressure
fuel pump.
More difficult fuels such as heavy fuel oils, refinery residuum blends, and crude
oils may require pre-treatment as described in Sub-section 430.
Liquid petroleum gases (LPG) are usually vaporized and superheated prior to
burning. A few vendors do have limited experience burning LPG as a liquid, but it
is difficult, hazardous, and not recommended.
445 Cooling Systems

Most CGT packages have self-sufficient air cooling systems. Some direct cool with
air and others use a closed circulating water system between the heat source and the
air coolers.
The only significant CGT cooling load is the lube- and hydraulic-oil. These are
normally cooled to 130 to 140°F. Package enclosures are maintained at acceptable
temperatures with spared, flow-through fan ventilation. When totally enclosed
water-to-air cooled (TEWAC) enclosures are selected for generator applications,
significant cooling capacity is added to a closed loop water system.
The CGT requires cooling to maintain operation, so redundancies are often
installed. This is done with air coolers which have two fans, each capable of 100%
load at the warmest ambient temperature. Most users prefer spared shell and tube
water-to-oil exchangers if a closed loop water system is involved.
446 Starting Driver Systems

Starting system selections are a function of the available utilities and the options a
packager offers. Some are more reliable than others, so the user should select with
care. At the same time, the need for “black start” capability must be considered
when outside power is unavailable or unreliable.
Generally there are fundamental differences between the starting driver arrange-
ments of aero-derivative and industrial CGTs. Aero-derivatives normally have a
small hydraulic or pneumatic motor attached to the front of the air compressor
section casing, similar to how they are installed on aircraft engines. This drives the
main rotor through a right angle gear and clutch arrangement. The motors are
provided with drive fluid from a pump or compressor located elsewhere on the skid.
Industrials are usually driven through the main load gear or an auxiliary gearbox.
Auxiliary gears are most common since they also provide drive extensions for other

utilities such as lube- and fuel-oil pumps. The following starting drivers have been
used:
• Diesel engines
• Hydraulic motors
• Gas expanders, air or natural gas driven
• Induction motors, sometimes with fluid couplings
• Steam turbines
At least one manufacturer of CGT-generator packages uses the generator itself as
the starter. The generator is temporarily converted to a synchronous motor and
powered through an adjustable speed controller.
447 Fire Protection

Gas turbine packages, particularly those in enclosures, have all the elements for
serious fires or explosions: fuel, oxygen, hot surfaces, and sometimes electric
arcing instrumentation. The typical design would handle a fire hazard in the
following order:
1. A fire or fuel gas leak is sensed inside the enclosure.
2. The turbine is immediately tripped and all fuel supplies secured.
3. Alarms are sounded inside the enclosure and in the control room.
4. The enclosure ventilation fans are shut down and associated louvers are closed.
5. A smothering gas, either carbon dioxide or Halon (a DuPont product), is
released into the enclosure.
6. Lube-oil circulation is shut off.
7. A charge of makeup smothering gas is slowly released into the enclosure to
maintain an effective concentration for a specified duration.
Fire sensing elements can be one or a combination of:
• Optical devices which look for specific light bands commonly emitted by
hydrocarbon flames. Some sensors are less reliable than others, particularly
when exposed to sunshine, welding arcs, or X-rays.
• Temperature sensors such as thermocouples or RTDs which indicate if the
enclosure is getting too warm.
• Temperature rate-of-change logic which recognizes an unusual rise. Occasion-
ally this method has falsely alarmed when an enclosure door was opened.
• Ion (smoke) detectors, similar in principle to those used in the home.
• Gas detectors which sniff for hydrocarbons around fuel piping and at the venti-
lation air outlet.
Fire system designs vary widely, depending on:

• Packager preferences
• User preferences
• CGT selection
• Criticality and nature of driven machine
• Enclosure design
• Fuel(s)
• Electrical area classification
When selecting a smothering gas, the decision between carbon dioxide and Halon
must consider the benefits and disadvantages of each. CO2 is inexpensive, but must
be used in larger volumes and can be hazardous if personnel are inside the enclo-
sure.
Halon is very expensive but is very effective at isolating a flame from oxygen. It
also allows personnel some time to escape without harmful effects. The long-term
future of Halon is uncertain, however, since it is a fluorocarbon and has been
declared harmful to the earth’s ozone layer. Consult a fire protection specialist for
assistance.
448 Laydown Areas and Maintenance Considerations

Maintenance space and facility requirements differ between industrials and aero-
derivatives. Adequate space, at least twice the width of the enclosure, should be
allowed next to an industrial package. This will permit crane access and provide
space to laydown casing tops and rotors.
Aero-derivatives are usually packaged with lift facilities built into the enclosure, so
only enough space is needed to pull the unit out the side and carry it away. Nearly
all engine disassembly and repair must be done at a qualified shop.
CGTs, like most complex machines, require special tooling and parts inventory
control. One must consider where and how parts and tools will be protected and
handled at the installation site. Finally, all lifting needs must be thought out in
advance of a CGT installation. Assume that every component of the CGT package
will be removed at some time and provide for adequate facilities accordingly.
449 Lubrication Systems

Industrial and aero-derivative-type CGTs use fundamentally different lubrication
systems. This is primarily due to their differences in bearings and available space as
detailed below. Small industrial types with hydrodynamic bearings (see
Sub-section 414) have features and limitations similar to industrials.
Industrial Type Models

Industrial models have hydrodynamic bearings which use mineral oils such as
Chevron GST 32. Schematically, their lubrication systems are very similar to other
petrochemical turbomachinery built to API 614, Lubrication, Shaft Sealing, and
Control-Oil Systems for Special-Purpose Application. Refer to Figure 400-32 and

the Compressor Manual. However CGT manufacturers and packagers take excep-
tion to numerous construction features mandated by API 614. Some of these excep-
tions can be eliminated when buying the manufacturer’s optional extras. But many
API 614 features are not feasible without creating prohibitively expensive and often
unproven redesigns of the basic package.
Fig. 400-32 Example of Mineral Oil Lubrication System (Courtesy of Stewart Stevenson Services, Inc.)
CGT packagers use the open space between the structural members of the baseplate
to construct the lube-oil reservoir. In some cases, heat exchangers and piping are
built directly into these reservoirs. This obviously offers cost, portability, and space
saving advantages. A user must also recognize and evaluate the deviations from
API 614 these designs generate. Some examples are:
1. The reservoir cannot be built from stainless steel unless the manufacturer
constructs a complete, independent box within or outside the baseplate struc-
ture.
2. Reservoirs cannot always comply with various construction features such as
sloped bottoms due to their low heights.
3. The reservoir residence time cannot always comply with specified minimums
due to the physical confines of the baseplate.
4. Drain return lines to the reservoir cannot always meet minimum slopes due to
elevations and limited layout. Note, however, that low point liquid traps or
negative (backflowing) slopes should never be accepted in drain lines.

Most CGT reservoir vents emit visible lube-oil plumes. Not only is this a loss of
oil, but it also may be unacceptable in most air pollution control districts. Three
devices packagers commonly use to control the vent, in order of increasing effec-
tiveness and cost, are:
1. Porous element breather caps. These seldom prevent plumes and tend to cause
backpressure oil leaks at bearing seals when the porous breather element plugs.
2. Mechanical centrifuging device. It is moderately effective if properly sized.
3. Electrostatic precipitator. These are very effective, but tend to require the most
maintenance.
If visible plumes are a concern, check the packager’s experience with whatever
recovery method is proposed.
Another approach used has been to route the vent to the exhaust heat recovery
section or directly to the stack. Extreme care is necessary in evaluating the back-
pressures involved. Tying vents from more than one source together is not recom-
mended. CGT users have found that multiple vents never have the same pressures,
and one often backflows another. One operator filled a generator with bearing oil
this way.
Main lube-oil pumps are usually shaft-driven from either an accessory gearbox or a
main load gear. These are supplemented by an auxiliary AC motor-driven pump to
provide lubrication during startup, shutdown, and emergency conditions. A loss of
lube-oil pressure starts the auxiliary pump and trips the turbine. Some manufac-
turers will reluctantly allow the turbine to remain online with only the auxiliary
pump running, but others refuse to even consider it. One must consider the turbine
risks versus the related potential process risks when evaluating this issue.
Most CGT installations also have low volume DC motor-driven lube-oil pumps
which protect the hydrodynamic bearings in the event of a simultaneous trip and
loss of AC power. These are powered by rechargeable batteries. They are designed
to continue cooling the bearings after shutdown and prevent heat soak damage.
On small industrial models, the DC pumps may be normally used for pre-lube.
They also may have hand operated pumps for backup.
CGT lube-oil is pumped through filter and cooler arrangements similar to other
turbomachinery systems. Duplex filters should be rated at a maximum of 10
microns (absolute) and must not have any bypassing mechanisms such as high
differential pressure relief valves. Otherwise, dirty oil may be fed to the bearings
without the operator’s knowledge. The differential pressure must be monitored and
alarmed.
Duplex filters should be switchable with a six port continuous flow transfer valve,
not ganged multiple valves. These valves should reside at a baseplate location
which is convenient and safe for the operator to access. Refer to Section 400 of the
General Machinery Manual for more guidance on lube-oil system layout.

Some packagers locate the lube-oil coolers integrally inside the baseplate, severely
limiting their options and cooling capacities. Others put them on the baseplate or
even outside the package altogether. Oil-to-water exchangers use either locally
available cooling water or water from a closed-loop system which is dedicated to
the installation. Closed systems thereafter reject the heat from the water through air
cooled exchangers. Alternatively, the oil may be directly cooled in air-to-oil
exchangers. Summer ambient conditions at most locations using air-cooled systems
result in minimum lube-oil supply temperatures between 130 and 140°F.
Stainless steel piping is recommended for the lube-oil supply between the filters
and bearings. Packagers usually offer it as an extra. Complete stainless steel piping
systems are much more expensive and should be justified on individual site needs.
Facilities along the Gulf of Mexico coast, for example, need 100% stainless steel
systems due to frequent high humidity ambient conditions which wet the lube-oil.
This may not be necessary at dryer locations.
Despite user preferences to the contrary, flexible hoses are often unavoidable in
lube-oil and particularly control-oil piping systems. Some hoses are debatably used
for ease of assembly purposes, but others are necessary due to the thermal move-
ments of the turbine. Stainless steel hoses with braided armor jackets and aircraft
quality connectors should be required as a minimum.
Control systems use the same type of oil as the lube systems. Some have a common
reservoir and others use a separate one which slowly exchanges oil with the main
lube-oil reservoir. The systems have their own set of pumps and filters similar to the
lube-oil arrangement, including DC pumping capability in the event of lost power.
Control systems often require finer filtration down to as low as one or two microns
(nominal rating). Heat exchangers are usually not required unless the system is
common with a hydraulic starting system.
Large industrial CGT rotors might experience thermal bowing as they cool down if
left in one position. Therefore, ratcheting devices are usually installed to roll them
over at one or two RPM for a specified cooling time after a shutdown. Most of
these are hydraulically operated and powered by their own DC motor-driven pump.
A few large units also provide pumps which pressure the bearing through a port in
the bottom to hydrostatically lift the shaft off the babbitt. This provides sufficient
starting oil film for heavy rotors and prevents bearing damage during startup.
Aero-derivative Type Models

Aero-derivative anti-friction bearings may operate 50° to 100°F hotter than the
corresponding hydrodynamic bearings in industrial units. Conventional mineral oils
cannot continuously withstand these temperatures without rapid breakdown, so
synthetic lubricants have been formulated to do the job. These are usually ester and
di-ester based fluids supplied by a number of oil and chemical companies. Gas
turbine manufacturers list which ones are acceptable for their equipment. The
Company does not currently market a product of this type for aero-derivative gas
turbines, although Caltex does outside the USA.

Aero-derivative designs for aircraft service may operate at many different attitudes
and therefore cannot rely on gravity oil drainage. That was one reason why rolling
element bearings are used. Their oil reservoirs are relatively small and their lube
pumps are quite compact.
The lube supply pump usually is shaft driven through a right-angle gear attachment
located near the compressor entrance. Hydraulic engine controls receive oil from
the same source. The drain of each shaft bearing is pressured directly to its own
scavenging pump. All pumps are tandem mounted in the same accessory casing
(see Figure 400-33). Auxiliary pumps are not provided because the anti-friction
bearings can lose oil pressure, coast to a stop, and withstand the heat soak without
damage.
Fig. 400-33 Lube and Scavenge Pump (Courtesy of Stewart Stevenson Services, Inc.)
When an aero-derivative is packaged for stationary use (see Figure 400-34), the
same supply and scavenging pumps are used. Normally a larger reservoir and
duplex filters replace their aircraft counterparts and are located on the baseplate
rather than the engine. The piping is all stainless steel. Compatible materials must

be carefully selected for the synthetic oils (see Figure 400-35). Many elastomers,
paints, and plastics are subject to synthetic oil attack and should be avoided in the
lube system.
Fig. 400-34 Typical Aero-derivative Lube-oil System (Courtesy of Stewart Stevenson Services, Inc.)
Aero-derivatives will consume oil. Most of it is lost through the bearing and reser-
voir vent(s), and the remainder passes the bearing seals to be burned in the engine.
Refer to a gas turbine’s operating manual to predict operating costs and determine
how much leakage is considered normal. Typically it will be in the range of a few
quarts per day.
Hybrid arrangements of an aero-derivative gas generator and an industrial power
turbine will have two lube-oil systems. The gas generator will operator on a
synthetic oil as described above. The power turbine and driven load will use a sepa-
rate mineral oil system closely aligned with API 614.
450 Inlet Air Treatment

Originally CGTs were not thought to need much inlet air treatment. However, CGT
experience has progressively revealed that there are significant economic penalties
related to air contaminants. Power output and efficiency deterioration, as well as
maintenance costs, justified better filtration. As the air compression ratios and
firing temperatures increased, so did the benefits of cleaner inlet air.

Fig. 400-35 Guide for Materials Compatible with Synthetic Lubricants

Acceptable Metallics Unacceptable Metallics
Steels:
M50 & 52100 Bearings Copper
9310 Gears Lead
300 Series Stainless Zinc
400 Series Stainless Cadmium
4340 Steel Bearing Cages Brass
Aluminum Base Magnesium (over 250°F)
Nickel Base Steel Pipe
Titanium Base
Cobalt Base
Silver
Chrome
Beryllium
Fe-Si-Bronze Cages
Acceptable Non-metallics Unacceptable Non-metallics
Fluorocarbons: Silicones
Viton Fluorosilicones
Fluorel Nitrile Rubber (over 200°F)
Poly-tetrafluoroethylene Neoprene
Carbon-Graphite Natural Rubber
Polyimide
Assembly Lubricant
Soft Petrolatum
Polypropylene Polymer Assembly Fluid
This section addresses the basics of CGT air filtration. It also includes the related
systems which complete the job of inlet air treatment. These are evaporative
cooling, compressor cleaning, and silencing.
451 Types of Harmful Contaminants

The harmful effects of airborne contaminants can be categorized as:
• Fouling
• Erosion
• Corrosion

• Water related
Fouling occurs when contaminants adhere to the aerodynamic surfaces of the CGT
compressor. The offenders are fine dust, salts, hydrocarbons, certain biological
materials, and other sticky substances. Collecting on the guide vane and blade
airfoils, these contaminants slightly alter surface finishes and shapes. This disrupts
the streamlined aerodynamic flow paths, thereby decreasing air mass flow and effi-
ciency. Reduced air mass flow directly reduces overall CGT output.
Most fouling can be removed by cleaning. It is primarily caused by particles less
than 10 microns (millionths of a meter), particularly those in the sub-micron size
range.
Erosion, a mechanical removal of metal, is due to airfoil contact with particles
larger than 5 to 10 microns. Smaller particles lack the momentum to penetrate the
viscous boundary effects surrounding the airfoil. The ones that do penetrate do not
have enough relative velocity left to do much erosive damage.
Erosion deteriorates performance like fouling, but requires coating the airfoil or
total replacement to correct. These particles are relatively easy to collect with an
inlet filter, but they can rapidly plug elements in very dusty environments.
Corrosion is a chemical attack on the compressor or turbine airfoils. The most
common form is pitting caused by a fouling compound such as sea salt, which is
present in coastal and offshore environments. Other less evident, dilute contami-
nants such as chlorine, acids, and cooling tower drift can also corrode the CGT
internals.
Corrosion damage can be controlled by applying selective coatings to both new and
rebuilt parts. Once the damage reaches base metal, however, an unacceptably
corroded part must be replaced. This is particularly true for highly stressed rotating
blades where corrosion pits may act as stress concentrators. Pitted blades often
justify replacement before performance deterioration is ever noticed.
Water, by itself in the liquid phase, is not a serious contaminant to a running gas
turbine. But it does synergistically participate in fouling and corrosion caused by
other contaminants. It can also saturate the inlet air filter and carry previously
captured soluble salts through the elements and into the compressor.
Water in the form of ice has devastating effects. It can both blind the filter elements
and cause major foreign object type damage to the compressor section. Moisture
due to rain and fog can enter and freeze on the surfaces of the inlet plenum or
compressor bellmouth. Alternatively, it can sublimate from vapor to ice if the right
combination of velocities and water vapor/air conditions exist.
452 Determining Site Needs

Figure 400-36 presents typical airborne contaminant data for various generalized
sites. Most major inlet air filter manufacturers offer specific on-site testing for dust
loading and particle size distribution. However, these tests provide a very limited
snapshot of the selection data necessary to best match the equipment with the appli-

Fig. 400-36 Typical Airborne Contaminants (From “Possibilities of Gas Turbine Intake Air Filtration” by Reinhardt and
Sievert, 1987. Courtesy of Firma Carl Frudenberg)

cation. One must assume that the site test is done during a relatively short time
period which may not accurately represent the average annual conditions of actual
filter operation.
The major air condition factors to evaluate are:
• Average and extreme meteorological conditions of temperature, precipitation,
humidity, and wind direction/velocity combinations. Particularly evaluate the
frequency of heavy mist or ice fogs
• Elevation above grade of air intake and the associated effects of weather and
dust
• Proximity to the ocean and the likelihood of frequent wind-blown spray. Sea
spray aerosols have been found as far as five miles inland at some locations
• Drift from nearby upwind cooling towers. The drift aerosols usually carry
dissolved solids
• Likelihood of continuous or intermittent hydrocarbon and chemical aerosol
releases from upwind processing facilities. Problems from lube-oil reservoir
vents and diesel engine exhausts are typical examples. Nearby heavy industrial
operations, airports, and major highways are also potential sources
• Upwind construction or agricultural activities which generate dust and/or chem-
ical spray carryover
• Seasonal concentrations of natural airborne contaminants such as insects,
pollen, fibers, and leaves
• Heaviest dust concentrations during windstorms at arid locations
Filter manufacturers typically overstate element efficiencies. These claims are often
confusing and not always based on comparable test methods. Furthermore, they are
of secondary importance. The primary issue is selecting the best basic filtration
system design for the environment after evaluating factors such as those listed
above. Once that is accomplished, one can experiment with competitive replace-
ment elements in actual service to fine tune the filtration effectiveness.
The user must choose between staged filtration, self-cleaning filters, or some
combination of the two. If staged filtration is selected, the next decision concerns
the number of stages, element design, and element materials. The following
discusses some basic information about these options.
453 Staged Filtration

Staged filtration is designed around the principle of capturing the largest particles
first and the smallest last. Each stage extends the life of subsequent stages. Since
the majority of airborne contaminant weight is contained in the larger particles, the
initial stage(s) are either self purging or easy and inexpensive to clean or replace.
Conventional filtration configurations are either “two stage” or “three stage.” For
the purpose of this discussion, a “stage” is defined as a step which collects a

progressively smaller particle from the airborne contaminants. A debris screen or

simple rain louver would not be considered a stage, but a high efficiency mist elimi-
nator typically would be.
There are complex systems which have even more than three stages. Conversely,
Caltex successfully operates gas turbines with rain louvers and insect screens, but
no filtration, in the pristine jungle air of Sumatra, Indonesia. The typical modern
three-stage system (Figure 400-37) would be designed as follows:
Fig. 400-37 Example of Three-stage Filtration (Courtesy of Stewart Stevenson Services, Inc.)
Stage 1 is the inertial step. Large particles, 10 microns and greater, are separated
by either centrifugal force in cyclones (Figure 400-38) or by abrupt path direction
changes (Figure 400-39). Large particle removal efficiency is above 95%. In
cleaner, low dust environments, this is the stage normally eliminated to make a two-
stage filtration arrangement.
Stage 2 is referred to as the pre-filter. This stage filters with two mechanisms, iner-
tial impaction (Figure 400-40) and direct interception (Figure 400-41). Inertial
impaction occurs when particles tend to continue in a straight line and impact the
filter media rather than flow around the fibers with the air. Direct interception
occurs when the particle tries to follow the air path but is trapped because its diam-
eter is larger than the passageway between the fibers.
Pre-filter media are most effective on particles between 1 and 10 microns. The filter
elements are usually made from inexpensive cellulose or cotton and are generally

Fig. 400-38 Centrifugal Inertial Separator
Fig. 400-39 Louver Type Inertial Separator Fig. 400-40 Inertial Impaction (Courtesy of Pall Well
Technology)

replaceable while the turbine is operating. Typical life is about six months before
they need to be changed due to excessive pressure drop.
Stage 3 is called the final or barrier filter. This stage is intended to stop sub-
micron particles. Such particles are too small to be collected by impaction or inter-
ception. Instead, the particles’ random Brownian motion contacts them with the
filter media and they adhere to it. This is known as diffusional interception
(Figure 400-42). It requires an element made of dense, randomly oriented fibrous
materials such as cellulose, fiberglass, or polymer synthetics.
Fig. 400-41 Direct Interception (Courtesy of Pall Well Fig. 400-42 Diffusional Interception (Courtesy of Pall
Technology) Well Technology)
The barrier filter element costs about five times as much as the pre-filter and is typi-
cally replaced about every two years. A shutdown is recommended when replacing
a barrier filter element since it is possible to draw loose parts into the compressor
inlet while making the change.
See Figure 400-43 for sample particle size removal efficiencies of each of the
stages. “Oil bath” type filters shown in the figure are seldom used with CGTs and
will not be discussed here.
In wet environments, Stage 1 might be replaced or augmented with a mist elimi-
nator. Mist eliminators also use twisted path inertial techniques (Figure 400-44) to
separate droplets. Water is collected by various self-draining trap configurations.
Where filter wetting is a possibility, the proposed media should be evaluated for its
water holding capacity. Less capacity is better. Synthetic polymer or fiberglass
fibers, both low in water holding capacity, are preferred to cellulose. Wetting a filter

Fig. 400-43 Efficiency vs. Particle Size
Fig. 400-44 Mist Eliminator Cross Section (Courtesy of the Munters Corp., Ft. Meyers, FL)
can foul a CGT by dissolving previously captured salts and carrying them on into
the compressor inlet.
Face velocity plays an important role in a filter stage’s effectiveness. It is calculated
as:

Air Flow Rate

Velocity = ---------------------------------------
Filter Face Area
(Eq. 400-10)
Inertial stages require high velocities around 10 feet per second (fps) to throw the
particles out of the air stream. Barrier filters are limited to two to three fps for
reasonable compromises between effectiveness and pressure drop. Canister and
pocket shapes are frequently used to obtain low face velocities while economizing
on space.
A good rule of thumb for pressure drop through filtration systems is a 1-inch water
column (w.c.) for each stage in its dirty condition. Gas turbine manufacturers gener-
ally derate their units’ power output 0.5% to 1.0% per inch w.c. of inlet loss.
454 Self-Cleaning Filters

Pulse-type, self-cleaning filters use a single stage, canister shaped barrier element
in place of the two- or three-stage configurations (Figure 400-45). Controls monitor
the filter pressure loss and start a cleaning cycle at preset maximum pressure drop
setpoints. Pulsed jets of air are momentarily backflowed through a few canisters at
a time to blow the particles off their outside surfaces.
Fig. 400-45 Self-Cleaning Filter (Courtesy of Donaldson Company, Inc.)
Between 90 and 100 psig air is needed for the cleaning cycle. Lower pressure is
ineffectual and higher pressure becomes unacceptably noisy. CGT compressor

section air could be cooled and used for this service if other dry utility air is not
available.
Self-cleaning elements require a very low maximum face velocity of two to three
feet per minute (fpm). This builds a superficial filtrate layer which tends to prevent
the particles from lodging deeply in the fibers. Therefore they are easy to blow off.
This low velocity also minimizes re-entrainment of dust each time a canister is
pulsed.
Like the staged elements, the self-cleaning design filters more efficiently as it
slowly and irreversibly plugs with mostly sub-micron particles which cannot be
blown off. The elements last one to two years before requiring replacement.
Self-cleaning filters were originally developed for Middle Eastern sandstorm condi-
tions where conventional staged filters plugged in hours or even minutes. In dry,
dusty environments they are far superior to two-stage and better than three-stage
designs. They have also worked quite well in ice fog conditions in Alaska due to
their ability to blow off ice layers.
However, self-cleaning units are NOT the best selection for every application. They
have performed poorly in damp offshore or seaside locations, particularly on and
around the North Sea. Similarly, operators in the Gulf of Mexico have experienced
moisture and salt carryover fouling. Correcting these problems involved changing
from cellulose to synthetic media elements which are removed and washed
frequently.
Self-cleaning filters are poor choices in certain processing plant, industrial, and agri-
cultural environments that contain sticky hydrocarbon and chemical aerosols. Tena-
cious fibers are also a problem. These contaminants will not always readily
dislodge from the filter element. Self-cleaning filters were once thought to be the
answer to all gas turbine filtration needs. It is now known that they too have their
weaknesses and must be applied with discretion.
Good self-cleaning designs and appropriate applications are built from extensive
lab development and field experience. Several manufacturers now offer these
designs, but only a few of them have sufficient experience. One must carefully scru-
tinize and prequalify a filter company’s operating experience background before
allowing it to bid. Contact the CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering Unit
for information on various manufacturers and additional guidance.
455 Evaporative Cooling

One way to boost a gas turbine’s output and efficiency in hot weather is to cool the
inlet air. A few filter houses have been built with refrigeration coils, but this is
usually too expensive and energy intensive to be economical.
Where the climate has a low humidity, evaporative water coolers provide a very
inexpensive way to pre-cool the air. Air can be evaporative-cooled up to a limit of
about 98 to 99% humidity. As an example, 90°F air with a 40% relative humidity
(RH) can be cooled to about 72°F and 98% RH at sea level. Depending on the CGT
model, the lower temperature will increase output by 4 to 8%. This is offset by an

output penalty of only 1% loss for the humid, thereby less dense, air. Efficiency is
also usually improved. In this way, evaporative coolers can inexpensively provide
adequate capacity on a hot day without increasing the CGT size selection.
Evaporative coolers work by directing the inlet air through a wetted, porous cellu-
lose media. The water distribution system must wet all the media area to limit air
bypassing and maximize cooler effectiveness. Over-wetting and air channeling
must be avoided to limit water carryover. Coolers should always be complemented
with downstream mist eliminators to minimize the amount of liquid entering the
gas turbine. The Company has had several experiences of water carryover when
mist eliminators were not installed, in spite of the cooler manufacturer’s guarantees
to the contrary.
The appropriate water quality is always a subject of debate with evaporative
coolers. From the CGT perspective, the water should be as free of total dissolved
solids (TDS) as possible. However, pure water tends to leach inorganics out of the
cellulose evaporative media and shorten its life. A compromise is a water which is
low in TDS, typically <100 ppm, and installing an effective downstream mist elimi-
nator.
The cooler and mist eliminator housing should be built from austenitic stainless
steel since it will always be wetted. The ducting must have online access or, as a
minimum, windows with lights to observe wetting distributions and potential water
carryover. Pay attention to drains and seal legs and their possibilities for plugging
and overflow.
The cooler system reservoir and piping must also be made from stainless steel.
There must be a continuous or periodic blowdown system to limit TDS buildup in
the water if a recirculating system is used. Also, there must be a high level switch
and an overflow connection on the reservoir to avoid flooding the filter housing.
456 Filter Construction

Filter manufacturers’ standard construction coats the housings with a zinc-based
primer and epoxy paint inside and out. This is satisfactory for many land-based
installations, assuming that the paint is properly applied. In some offshore and sea
coast environments, galvanized or even total stainless steel construction may be
justified. Review prior experience at the site to evaluate. In no case should any
galvanized construction be painted because flaking is likely to occur.
The filter housing is a structure and must be constructed for wind and seismic load-
ings in accordance with local building standards. The housings must also be
designed and built so the potential for foreign object damage to the CGT
compressor is very low. Intermittent (stitch) welds must not be permitted inside the
housing since they can trap weld slag and other debris. They also may provide leak
paths for unfiltered air. Intermittent welds outside the housing should be minimized
and caulked to avoid corrosion traps. Fasteners and other loose metal parts are not
permitted inside the filter housing unless welded in place. Designs encouraging
online access and maintenance downstream of the last filtering stage should not be
permitted.

Implosion relief doors are not recommended because they always become leak
points for unfiltered air. It is better to install reliable differential pressure indicating
switches across the filter stages to give the operator warning and an opportunity to
act. If action is not taken, then the CGT should automatically shut down at six to
eight inches w.c. to avoid structural damage or element collapse. Exceptions
allowing implosion doors might be appropriate at either an unattended installation
or one where dust could quickly blind the filter.
457 Anti-icing Systems

As mentioned above, cold weather icing must be anticipated and designed for at
sites which experience ice fogs, blowing snow, or freezing rains. Self-cleaning
elements perform well in these conditions and should be considered.
Ice can form through sublimation on the inlet plenum surfaces at certain conditions
with compressor inlet temperatures less than 40°F and greater than 70°F relative
humidity. Unless there are viewing windows or special icing instrumentation, this is
usually not recognized until pieces of ice break loose and damage the compressor
blades. Similar damage has occurred when access or implosion doors were opened
to relieve an ice plugged filter. The ice then forms around the compressor inlet
rather than on the filter face.
Normally inlet air temperatures need to be increased 5°F to 10°F to avoid ice
forming conditions. Anti-icing systems position piping grids in front of the filter
inlet. These blow either hot compressor discharge bleed air, steam, or turbine
exhaust to boost the temperature. Conservative operators run the system between
20°F and 40°F ambient temperatures in locales where icing is expected.
458 Noise Silencer and Inlet Plenum

The inlet side of a CGT emits the characteristic high-frequency “turbine whine”
normally associated with jet aircraft. This is relatively easy to attenuate through
low-pressure drop tubular or baffled silencers packed with fiberglass absorptive
material. Filter manufacturers usually sell an inlet silencer as part of their scope of
supply.
The CGT packager designs and supplies a plenum which transitions from the rect-
angular filter/silencer housing to the circular compressor inlet. Close coordination
is required between the packager and filter manufacturer to streamline and
distribute the accelerating air flow as smoothly as possible. Discontinuous or abrupt
direction changes may generate back swirls and unevenly distributed flows. These
must be avoided because they can cause aerodynamically induced and potentially
destructive vibrations or localized overloads of the compressor blades.

460 Compressor Cleaning
461 Offline Compressor Cleaning

When a CGT compressor becomes unacceptably fouled, the most effective cleaning
technique is an offline wash. With most contaminants, the performance can be
almost totally recovered. The cleaning frequency varies widely because it depends
on specific site contaminants, filtration effectiveness, and the use of online washing.
These offline wash cycles typically require the unit to be shut down for about four
to eight hours.
The compressor cannot be washed until all CGT metal temperatures have cooled to
less than 200°F. This can be expedited by turning the rotor on the starting device to
provide continuous cooling air. Check that the starting system is rated for extended
operation before using this procedure.
Once cooled, the rotor is turned at crank speed (typically 10% to 20% of running
speed) while a water/detergent mix is sprayed into the compressor inlet. The water
dissolves the salts and other solubles while the detergent cleans the hydrocarbons
and other organics. The typical wash lasts 10 to 15 minutes at 20 to 30 gpm for a
25,000 HP turbine, followed by a water rinse.
The wash is sprayed through a set of nozzles built into the inlet plenum near the
compressor inlet. Casing drains in the turbine must be opened to completely
remove the accumulated fluids prior to startup. Each operating location must select
its detergents carefully for effectiveness and waste disposal considerations.
A few industrial CGTs which burn heavy fuel oil are also outfitted with a set of
turbine wash nozzles. These remove the turbine section ash buildup if it occurs.
462 Online Compressor Cleaning

Downtime during offline washing causes production and generating losses which
motivate operators to find a way to clean the CGT compressor section on-line.
There are usually significant economic benefits in maintaining full performance
without frequent shutdowns.
Dry cleaning methods have been and still are used very effectively. An abrasive
material such as ground walnut shells or rice hulls is fed through a lock hopper
directly into the inlet plenum. These remove most types of fouling from the
compressor airfoils and are then harmlessly burned in the combustor. However,
many modern CGT manufacturers recommend against dry cleaning because it tends
to remove protective airfoil coatings. They are also concerned about the solids plug-
ging the critical tiny cooling passages in hollow blades and boundary layer cooling
holes.
Beginning around 1980, after-market vendors began offering online washing retro-
fits for compressors. These require a separate set of nozzles which spray a lower
flow, higher velocity, more evenly distributed detergent/water mix. The water must

be demineralized and the detergent completely combustible. Plenum windows and

lights are required to watch for correct spray patterns and plugged nozzles.
Effective online washing must first be used with a clean compressor and repeated
on a frequent, sometimes daily, basis. Each operating location experiments with the
available detergents, the wash volume and concentration, and the frequency to learn
what works best on their particular site contaminants. No two locations do it alike.
As of January 1989, the Company has had very little experience with online
washing of CGTs. However the system at the El Segundo Cogeneration Plant has
shown promising results.
Online washing is never as effective as offline, so there will be a gradual perfor-
mance deterioration as shown in Figure 400-46. It is a method which postpones
offline washing shutdowns rather than replacing them. It may, however, delay the
washes to more convenient times such as scheduled inspection shutdowns.
Fig. 400-46 CGT Performance Losses and Effects of Online/Offline Washing
CGT manufacturers were slow to accept online washing. Until recently, many main-
tained its use would void their warrantee. They were primarily concerned that the
contaminants washed off the initial stages would redeposit on later stages as heat of
compression evaporated the water. Such fouling might be harmful since some of
these stages are more susceptible to surge.
Some downstream deposition has been observed by CGT owners, but there have not
been any reports of it causing surge or other damage to date. Fouling of initial axial
compressor stages has a much greater impact on performance than it does in the

later stages. This is due to the stage-to-stage compression ratio stackup effect. Dete-
rioration in early stages is multiplied throughout the entire compressor while down-
stream stages have a proportionately much lower impact.
Most CGT manufacturers have recognized the generally good field experience and
will now accept certain qualified online wash systems. Operators continue to enthu-
siastically use this method because they are convinced it makes money. Supporting
empirical data is still being developed.
470 Exhaust Systems

CGT exhaust systems must satisfy the following objectives:
1. Safely discharge gases, typically up to 1000°F, to the atmosphere.
2. Minimize gas turbine backpressure which causes performance losses.
3. Adjust to large thermal expansions in the ducting.
4. Attenuate noise to locally required limits.
5. Accommodate heat recovery and auxiliary firing equipment for recuperated,
cogeneration, and combined cycles.
6. Accommodate emissions control equipment when required.
Emissions control systems are discussed in Sub-section 480. Heat recovery and
auxiliary firing equipment are beyond the scope of this manual (refer to the Fired
Heaters and Waste Heat Recovery Manual for limited guidance). Further assistance
is also available from a heat recovery equipment manufacturer.
471 Exhaust Schemes

Exhaust gases are ducted directly to a low backpressure stack on simple cycle instal-
lations. When heat recovery is involved, numerous configurations have been
devised to achieve a wide range of operating objectives. One example of this would
be a controlled exhaust gas split to two individual boilers. However, the most reli-
able systems route the gases through the downstream equipment without any flow
diversions or controls. Each time there is an attempt to build such flexibility into
the system, one or more diverting valves must be included in the ducting.
Diverting valves in 1000°F gas service are very troublesome. Operators consistently
have problems with the limited operability and high maintenance costs of these
devices. More importantly, they often are the single most unreliable factor influ-
encing a CGT’s availability. Diverting valves should be avoided wherever possible.
A startup bypass stack between the CGT and the heat recovery equipment once was
a standard provision of packagers and contractors. The associated diverter valves
would not operate repeatedly with tight clearances, yet they would leak signifi-
cantly with operable clearances. The leaks lost useful heat and added another emis-
sions control point. Subsequently, recent Company projects have eliminated bypass
stacks in favor of adequate purge of the entire exhaust system. Purge air is provided

by the CGT cranking on its starting device, prior to firing. The Company’s common
procedure is to displace at least seven volumes before introducing fuel. This purge
could take up to 20 to 30 minutes on the larger exhaust systems.
472 Performance Effects

Calculating CGT exhaust backpressure performance losses is complicated and does
not lend itself to generic equations suitable for all turbines. But for rough esti-
mating purposes, assume each 1-inch w.c. of loss reduces the CGT shaft output
approximately 0.25%. More precise estimates should be obtained from individual
manufacturers.
Typical total system backpressures are:
CGT only to stack 3 in. w.c.
CGT with heat recovery 10 in. w.c.
CGT with heat recovery and
emissions reduction catalysts 10 to 15 in. w.c.
Since velocity head is a major component of the exhaust gas pressure loss, it should
be clearly understood if the manufacturer’s rating is based on static or total back-
pressure.
473 Construction
Due to the high exhaust gas velocities, avoid abrupt transitions in duct designs and
use turning vanes at short radius corners. Failure to do so will not only increase
backpressure and decrease performance, but may also unevenly distribute flows to
the heat recovery section. Where feasible, limit transition section walls to a
maximum of 15 degrees deviation from centerline. It is likewise recommended to
eliminate dead spaces where explosive hydrocarbons might accumulate and elude
pre-startup purges.
Exhaust ducting may grow several inches from shutdown to hot operating condi-
tion. The design must accommodate this growth so it neither damages the duct nor
exerts forces and moments on the turbine. This is done primarily with one or two
expansion joints, built of either a bellows or slip configuration. The slip joint with a
shielded, temperature-resistant fabric seal is the most common type. Packagers
often provide the first expansion joint between the turbine exhaust nozzle and the
short duct section which exits the CGT enclosure. Close coordination between the
CGT packager and the heat recovery manufacturer is always necessary.
Since the ducts are usually rectangular, sealing of bolted joints is frequently a
problem. The flanges must be designed to resist warpage and should use high
temperature gasket materials which maintain some resiliency. Avoid locating instru-
ments, wiring, and other sensitive materials where they would be exposed to poten-
tial flange leaks.

474 Noise Silencing

Exhaust system noise emanates from the stack exit point and radiates from ducting
walls. Both sources must be addressed to have a quiet unit. The stack has more of
an effect on the far field noise levels which affect nearby communities. The ducting
design is more concerned with the near field noise levels and related operating
personnel protection.
Stack noise is attenuated with an inline silencer similar in concept to the inlet air
silencer (see Sub-section 450). It is constructed from stainless steel and mineral
wool absorptive material to withstand the 1000°F gases. Heat recovery equipment,
when used, may sufficiently attenuate the turbine noise and eliminate the need for a
silencer. In such cases, the heat recovery manufacturer should assume responsibility
for stack noise levels.
Ducting wall noise emissions is limited by combinations of structural stiffening,
internal insulation, and external lagging. It should be evaluated along with the
enclosure noise design. The lagging also provides personnel protection from hot
surfaces.
Expansion joints are noise points deserving special consideration. Slip type joints
are normally packed with mineral wool or ceramic fiber between the sliding
surfaces to absorb noise as well as protect the fabric seal from the heat. Recent
Company experience has found that mineral wool tends to pack and develop leaks,
whereas ceramic fiber has worked much more reliably.

Sub-section 430 discusses pollutants and general control options. This section
expands on the techniques in use today. Refer to Section 300 for additional informa-
tion on emissions regulations and where to obtain guidance. Always consult the
local, CRTC, and Company experts concerning requirements for specific installa-
tions.
CGT emissions are controlled by one of three means:
1. Suppression—prevention by not creating the emissions.
2. Conversion—changing the emissions to a harmless form.
3. Collection and Removal—very uneconomical and not often used with gas
turbines. Not included in the scope of this manual.
481 Dry NOx Control

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) formation is primarily the function of the actual flame
temperature in the combustor. Maximum temperatures are controlled with air dilu-
tion at the flame zone and in the balance of the combustor. Higher pressures and
longer residence times at these elevated temperatures also increase NOx. Older
CGTs operate at lower firing temperatures and compression ratios which generate
NOx in the 100 to 150 ppmv (parts per million by volume, dry, 15% oxygen) range.

Most of the modern, more efficient standard designs with the higher temperatures
and pressures produce 200 to 300 ppmv NOx.
The type of fuel and its associated flame temperature are also important to NOx
generation. Flame temperature generally increases as the fuel’s carbon content
increases. Natural gas (methane) is the cleanest burning hydrocarbon. Diesel fuel
burns hot enough to produce up to twice as much NOx as natural gas. Pure
hydrogen, sometimes a major component in refinery fuel gas, burns even hotter
than the hydrocarbon fuels and produces the most NOx per BTU consumed.
Inversely, low-BTU gases are essentially pre-diluted and generate very little NOx.
Nitrogen, when it is chemically bound to liquid fuels, will convert to NOx in a CGT
combustor. The conversion has little relationship to flame temperature, but it is
more complete when the nitrogen is less than 0.5% of the fuel by weight.
Extensive research has been done in the last 10 years on “dry NOx” combustors
which reduce emissions without the aid of water or steam injection. These designs
universally involve some form of staged, non-stoichiometric combustion. Non-
stoichiometric burning produces cooler effective flame temperatures through the
dilution effects of either excess fuel or excess air. Cooler flames make less NOx.
The stages are created by establishing primary and secondary burning zones
through various combustor nozzling and air admission port arrangements. The
primary stage burns a fuel-rich mixture quickly, and then mixes it with excess air in
the secondary zone to complete the stoichiometric reaction. Fuel bound nitrogen
also converts less readily to NOx if burned in a rich mixture.
Problems with dry NOx combustor designs center around flame stability and
compromises of additional carbon monoxide (CO) formation. There are proven
production designs currently available with larger industrial models which emit
only 70 to 80 ppmv on natural gas. There are some claims of successes down to 30
to 40 ppmv and most companies have ongoing research towards the target of 10
ppmv. The dry NOx combustor will most certainly grow in effectiveness and popu-
larity over the next few years.
482 Wet NOx Control

A well-proven method which reduces NOx formation is injecting water, either as
liquid or steam, into the combustor. This “wet NOx” approach creates a quenching
mechanism which lowers the effective flame temperature. As a secondary benefit,
the added mass flow also increases the gas turbine output up to about 8%.
Wet NOx control methods can be effective down to 30 to 40 ppmv NOx. Further
reduction risks flame instability problems. These control methods can generally
only be used above about 40 to 50% load for the same reason. Some smaller CGTs
will accept injections as low as 20% load. Wet NOx injection also tends to increase
CO formation, particularly with water at partial loads.
As a liquid, water is sprayed into the center of the flame pattern up to a water-to-
fuel mass ratio of 0.8:1. Water has limited effectiveness with hotter burning fuels
such as hydrogen or diesel. Steam is injected at a mass ratio between 1.0:1 and

2.0:1, depending on the combustor design and type of fuel. Higher rates are used on
some turbines, but the additional steam is introduced outside the combustor for
power augmentation purposes only.
Steam injection improves the apparent CGT efficiency since it receives “free”
gaseous energy supplied at combustion pressure. Water reduces efficiency because
of the evaporation energy it extracts from the combustion gases.
Water, and to a lesser degree steam, causes combustion reaction disassociation
which slightly increases CO formation. At part loads, the lower combustor effi-
ciency accentuates the effect. While the CO emissions are very dilute, local air
quality regulations may require facilities to convert the CO to CO2.
The injected steam or water quality is extremely important. The Total Dissolved
Solids (TDS) contained in those streams can potentially foul or corrode the turbine
section of the CGT.
Water injection usually requires a mixed bed demineralizer type of water treatment.
Typical CGT water purity requirements are:
• The sum total of dissolved sodium, potassium, lead, vanadium, lithium, and
silica shall not exceed 0.1 ppm.
• Total ionizable solids, both dissolved and undissolved, shall not exceed 5 ppm.
• The pH shall be between 6.5 and 7.5.
• The water shall not contain more than 10 milligrams of solid contaminants per
gallon and the maximum size shall not exceed 20 microns absolute.
Injection water purity can be readily measured with conductivity meters. The injec-
tion tanks, piping, pumps, and valves must not contribute metallic ions to the water.
Normally the tanks are made of fiberglass or internally lined steel. The rest of the
system is generally austenitic stainless steel.
Water injection, improperly designed, can have other adverse effects. Its turbulent
evaporation can cause pressure pulsations which prematurely fatigue and fail the
combustor. Such pulsations must be measured during a manufacturer’s CGT devel-
opment and limited to a few psi. Also, any poor distribution of the water which
delays total evaporation may rapidly accelerate combustor and turbine nozzle corro-
sion. Therefore, adequate development and field experience must be carefully
considered before selecting a turbine manufacturer’s water injected design.
Steam purity is a function of steam drum carryover and boiler feedwater (BFW)
treatment. Regardless of actual steam pressure, normally the BFW must be deminer-
alized to a quality level needed for 600 psig steam production.
One should investigate a CGT model’s experience with wet NOx control before
selecting water versus steam. It is advisable to only buy units with good field experi-
ence on the method selected.

Given a choice, CGT users typically prefer steam over water injection when the
clean steam is available. Steam avoids the demineralization and extra maintenance
costs which commonly occur with water injection.
483 Selective Catalytic Reduction

In areas requiring the greatest possible reduction such as California, NOx can be
reduced to 5 to 10 ppmv using steam injection followed by the process of Selective
Catalytic Reduction (SCR).
In an SCR, ammonia is injected into the exhaust stream upstream of a catalyst bed.
The catalyst’s chemical formulation varies between suppliers and is usually propri-
etary. Most of these catalysts are based on some form of a noble metal, such as plat-
inum or titanium, applied to a ceramic substrate. The ammonia reacts with NOx to
form nitrogen and water:
4NH3 + 6NO → 5N2 + 6H2O
8NH3 + 6NO2 → 7N2 + 12H2O
4NH3 + 4NO + O2 → N2 + 6H2O
4NH3 + 2NO2 + O2 → 3N2 + 6H2O
Any SO3 in the exhaust will have a side reaction with NH3 and water. This forms
ammonium bisulfate which can foul downstream boiler tubes and precipitate out in
the stack or cooler sections of the boiler. Therefore the fuel’s sulfur content should
be held to a minimum when using an SCR.
The above reactions take place in a rather narrow temperature window (see
Figure 400-47). Below about 600°F, catalyst efficiency begins to slack and below
500°F it stops reacting completely. Above about 850°F the catalyst begins to
decompose. Thus the heat recovery supplier must carefully locate the catalyst bed
within his equipment to operate under all anticipated loads and conditions.
SCR performance also depends on the amount of injected ammonia. An injection
ratio of 1.1:1 NH3 to NOx (by volume) is customary. Figure 400-48 shows SCR
performance as a function of NH3 injection. NOx conversions of 80% to 90% have
been demonstrated with expected catalyst lives of two to five years.
SCR catalyst is manufactured in several forms: plate, honeycomb, and pellet. Plate
and honeycomb are the most popular for gas turbine exhaust streams. Pellet is not
used with CGTs due to its high pressure drop characteristics. Contact CRTC envi-
ronmental consultants for up-to-date information on SCR manufacturers and their
experience.
It is possible that certain inorganics may foul or poison the catalyst. This is a partic-
ular concern where aero-derivative CGTs burn small amounts of synthetic lubri-
cants containing phosphorous. Little data is available to date to quantify these
effects or even verify that they are a problem.

Fig. 400-47 SCR Effectiveness vs. Temperature
Fig. 400-48 SCR Effectiveness vs. Ammonia Injection
Typical SCR installed costs are $15,000 to $20,000 per lb/hr of NOx conversions
based on 1987 pricing. They add about 10 feet of length to the heat recovery
section plus whatever transition ducting is required. As of January 1989, the only
gas turbines the Company has operating with good SCR results are located at the El

Segundo Refinery. The Gaviota Gas Plant Cogeneration SCR has started and oper-
ated at low loads as of early 1989, but has not yet been fully demonstrated at rated
conditions.
484 CO Catalyst Systems

Steam or water injection increases the amount of carbon monoxide (CO) exhausting
from the turbine. In areas that regulate CO emissions, or where offsets are not avail-
able, CO may need to be mitigated with a catalytic process similar to that used in
automobile exhausts. Up to 90% conversion of the CO to CO2 is possible. As a side
benefit, most unburned hydrocarbons in the exhaust are also oxidized.
The catalyst, usually platinum based, is located in the heat recovery section where
gases are between 800° and 1000°F. This is where the catalyst efficiency is highest.
Some catalysts can perform down to 650°F, but with lower efficiency. Expected
catalyst lives are five to eight years.
CO oxidizers cost $10,000 to $20,000 per lb/hr of CO conversion, based on 1987
prices. Size requirements are slightly smaller than corresponding NOx units. As of
January 1989, the only Company installations operating in series with an SCR are
at El Segundo. There is also a CO oxidizer without SCR on each of the two
turbines at the Kern River Section 3 Cogeneration Plant near Bakersfield, Cali-
fornia.
485 SOx Emissions

Sulfur that enters a gas turbine in the fuel leaves in the exhaust gases as sulfur
oxides (SOx). Where this must be controlled, it is more economical to remove the
sulfur from the fuel prior to burning than to recover the SOx from the exhaust.
486 Particulate Emissions

In liquid fuels, particulate emissions (smoke) depend on the fuel’s hydrogen satura-
tion and inorganics content. Inorganics other than sulfur leave as ash. Unsaturated
hydrocarbons such as benzene ring compounds are less likely to complete combus-
tion than saturated paraffinic molecules. Some aircraft engines smoke on takeoff
due to a very rich fuel/air mixture that tends to occur at such a peak load. This is a
condition not commonly seen at stationary CGT installations.
On a relative basis, liquid fired CGT particulate emissions are usually minor.
However some local regulators choose to control them and may thereby impact the
fuel selection. Particulate emissions are not normally a significant factor with gas
fueled CGTs.
487 Emissions Testing

A few manufacturers of smaller CGTs have the capability to test a machine’s emis-
sions prior to factory acceptance. The cost of this test may be justified if it can be

done at full load on the specified fuel. Its value depends on how much leniency the
local regulatory agency will allow for field tuning.
Most gas turbines cannot be emissions tested until they are started in the field. CGT
manufacturers should be required to guarantee the predicted emissions perfor-
mance. That capability should then be demonstrated with a well controlled field test
shortly after startup. In some locations, air pollution agencies require that the tests
be conducted by a neutral third party. It is important to agree with the manufacturer
on the field test procedure preferably before purchase, but certainly before ship-
ment of a new or modified CGT.
More rigorous regulatory agencies may require continuous on-line emissions
measurements for NOx and CO. These are expensive systems which are not
covered in the scope of this manual. Contact a CRTC analyzer specialist in the
Monitoring and Control Systems Unit for further assistance.
490 Control and Instrumentation
491 CGT Controls

The basic control objectives of CGT systems are:
• Speed control for a driven mechanical load or power generation frequency
purposes.
• Megawatt control for constant speed power generation applications.
• Load control that is based on a driven load or a related process parameter.
• Turbine inlet temperature (TIT) control to prevent hot section damage. This
parameter, also known as “base load,” usually determines the maximum load a
turbine can produce at a given set of ambient conditions. It can be used to
either control to full load or limit the load when on other types of control.
• Turbine outlet temperature (TOT) control which replaces TIT when firing
temperatures are too high for reliable measurement with direct measurement
thermocouples. The control system calculates and limits TIT based on the
measured TOT and a formula which relates the two. TOT is measured between
the gas generator and power turbine on a dual shaft turbine and at the exhaust
or between turbine stages of a single-shaft unit.
• Turbine exhaust temperature (TET) control is occasionally used when the
downstream heat recovery needs to be controlled or maximized. Within certain
constraints, compressor variable inlet guide vanes or variable turbine nozzles
can operate on TET in parallel with other controls.
• Startup and shutdown sequencing of gas turbine controls, starting systems,
and auxiliary support systems as described in Sub-section 440.
• Malfunction trips related to critical conditions and systems.

Examples of additional, extended control functions are:

• Steam or water injection-to-fuel ratio controls for NOx suppression. These
might be expanded to add steam injection outside the combustor for power
augmentation.
• Generator synchronization, manual or automatic, for power generation instal-
lations.
• Multiple unit parallel coordination which may be particularly important for
power generation systems. Parameters involved could be megawatt sharing,
kilovar sharing, starting order, and load shedding order.
The preceding control schemes are usually selected and specified through mutual
agreement between the CGT packager and the end user.
Information Systems
CGT control panels display the status of critical systems and primary control param-
eters. These can be as basic as a few condition lights and analog gages to as
complex as comprehensive video displays of digital systems. Most analog systems
have alarm and shutdown annunciation lights or windows with “first out” features.
These indicate which signal first initiated a CGT trip in a rapid sequence of events.
When desired, a data logger can be added which prints out the sequence of control
and alarm events for later analysis and archiving. Digital systems have limited
memory capacity which can serve the same function. Alternatively, digital systems
can pass the data to some other monitoring computer through a communications
port.
Analog versus Digital

Until the early 1980’s, CGT controls were built almost entirely from analog printed
circuit boards. These had generally replaced the earlier unreliable relay logic and
pneumatic or hydro-mechanical CGT controls. PC board systems became increas-
ingly more sophisticated as their capabilities were expanded and their reliability
was improved. But the greater complexity also made them more difficult to diag-
nose and troubleshoot.
Most turbine analog systems have been thoroughly debugged and they are still the
standard for a few packagers. One control manufacturer dominates the sale of the
analog systems to component packagers. However, these are mature designs that
have little room for technological growth remaining. Most of them have been or
soon will be replaced by a digital system, especially on new larger CGTs. The
competitive market under 5000 HP may be slightly slower to convert, depending on
the service involved, due to the higher controls-to-package cost ratio.
Fuel control is the most difficult aspect to digitize, while the sequencing is rela-
tively easy. For that reason, a packager will occasionally match an analog fuel
control system with a digital processor which handles the balance of the controls.

Digital systems are generally preferred because they perform the same functions as
the analogs, plus they:
1. Present operating and setpoint information on a video display screen. This can
be organized in a number of “pages” in customized formats.
2. Provide memory capability which captures rapid series of events for later diag-
nosis. Some also do limited trending of historical data.
3. Provide added cost-effective reliability through redundancy. Multiple proces-
sors may be installed which communicate to vote on and filter out errant
signals. Such signals might have otherwise caused a costly false trip of the
CGT.
4. Permit easy reprogramming of optional control functions from the keyboard
rather than making expensive and time consuming analog card changes.
Access can be limited to operators, supervisors, maintenance personnel, or
manufacturers’ service representatives as necessary to protect the machine
from ill-advised changes.
5. Contain self-diagnostics and operator-initiated diagnostics to rapidly pinpoint
control system problems. Redundant systems will permit continued CGT opera-
tion while the malfunctioning component is being replaced.
6. Communicate data to outside monitoring computers via a communications
port. This gives a plant operator a view of nearly every CGT control parameter
on the plant’s master digital control (or monitoring) system. A few manufac-
turers’ systems will also accept commands via the “soft” communications link.
However, it is recommended to do this only after in-depth, due consideration of
the consequences from accidental or erroneous signals. Also as a minimum,
install a hardwired shutdown button at the operator’s console.
Digital systems are more expensive than analogs, but the added benefits usually
justify the difference. While the control processing is done digitally, most CGT
package feedback signals from the CGT originate in the analog mode. Therefore,
the control system or other equipment must transform the analog signals to digital
signals (A to D). For complete redundancy, many of the critical transducer systems
must be duplicated or triplicated.
492 Speed Governors

Today, most manufacturers offer electro-hydraulic governing systems. The shaft
speed is sensed by a magnetic pickup which counts the tooth-passing frequency of a
precision gear. Such gears are mounted on both shafts in the case of a two-shaft
turbine arrangement. Electronic speed measurement has generally replaced shaft-
mounted hydraulic pump governors.
Modern packages typically duplicate the electronic speed pickup for redundancy.
At least one manufacturer installs three pickups to create a double redundant
control system. In that example, each speed indicator works with its own digital

control computer. The three computers, in turn, compare readings and vote out one
if it is in error.
The signals are electronically compared to the setpoint when the CGT is on speed
control. An analog control signal is then generated and sent to the fuel control
valve. In most systems, it operates a hydraulic servo-valve which converts the elec-
tronic control to a hydraulic one to drive the fuel valve operator. Other types of fuel
valve operators such as stepper motors or direct electromotive coils are occasionally
used, but the majority of CGTs are supplied as described here.
CGTs which drive electrical generators are controlled either in the isochronous or
droop modes:
Isochronous mode is speed control that is precise to within 0.25%, regardless of
load. The primary objective is maintaining generator frequency. It is used for a
single generating unit which is not tied to a larger utility grid. Isochronous control
may also be slaved to a master load controller for an isolated, multiple parallel unit
installation.
Droop is a variable speed control which allows the local generator to follow the
frequency of a much larger utility grid. The primary objective is maintaining the
CGT generator’s preset megawatt output. It is a proportional setting which provides
stable interaction between the synchronized grid frequency and CGT load. The
allowable droop speed variation at full load, following disconnection from the
utility, is usually 4% (see Figure 400-49). It follows that rejection of a 75% load
setting would increase the speed to 103%, 50% load to 102% speed, and so on.
Droop is a reactive mode which may not establish a stable speed or load share once
isolated from the grid and operating in parallel with other units of similar size.
Fig. 400-49 Droop Speed Control (Courtesy of the General Electric Company)

Every CGT must have an overspeed trip mechanism to prevent runaway, high speed
destruction. This is set somewhere between 104% and 110% of maximum contin-
uous operating speed, depending on the model and application. With two-shaft
units, the power turbine is overspeed protected but not necessarily the gas gener-
ator. The gas generator air compressor horsepower roughly increases as a cube of
the speed, so it is thermodynamically improbable that it can be significantly over-
sped.
Overspeed trip mechanism designs vary. Many read the same electronic speed
sensor signal as the fuel governor. They dump the hydraulic control pressure to
block the fuel once the speed limit is exceeded. Others use the older, spring-loaded
mechanical bolt which trips a hydraulic switch once overspeed centrifugal force
pulls it far enough outward from the rotating shaft. The mechanical design is less
precise and usually less reliable than the electronic. Occasionally it is installed as a
backup to the electronic and set at a higher RPM.
493 Bearing Temperature and Vibration Monitoring

All gas turbine manufacturers developed their machines around seismic, casing-
mounted vibration monitoring to protect the rotors and bearings from severe
damage in the event of a failure or severe unbalance. Industrial models use velocity
transducers. Aero-derivatives and small industrials use either velocity transducers
or accelerometers.
After years of resistance, most industrial model manufacturers will now supplement
their standard seismic sensors with proximity probes as a user option. Axial posi-
tion probes can be installed on the thrust bearing(s) as well. Probes are similarly
available on several small industrials above 5000 HP. They can also be installed on
the industrial type power turbines which are mated to aero-derivative gas generators.
Many industrial CGT users believe the standard seismic systems are inadequate to
analyze rotor mechanical performance and to protect it from incipient failures.
They also maintain that relative bearing-to-shaft vibration measured by probes is
much more indicative of the true machine condition than a casing seismic reading.
The manufacturers generally refuse, however, to use the proximity probe informa-
tion for the sole malfunction shutdown signal. Nor will many agree to use it for
vibration acceptance criteria. Their control systems will accept trips, if so desired,
from a supplementary vibration system.
Each type of vibration transducer has its own weaknesses:
Velocity transducers measure seismic vibrations with a spring-mass moving parts
basis, so they are subject to wearing out over time. Usually they “fail happy,”
meaning that they will falsely indicate low or zero vibration. They deteriorate
rapidly at temperatures above 250°F. Velocity transducers pick up low frequency
vibrations from the CGTs baseplate structures and supports. These are often
screened out with a high-pass filter built into the signal processing equipment. Aero-
derivatives and their flexible supports are particularly subject to structure vibrations
that do not necessarily relate to the machine’s well being.

Accelerometers measure seismic vibrations through strain in a piezoelectric

crystal. They do not contain moving parts. Therefore, they have a theoretically infi-
nite life and can tolerate temperatures up to 500°F with special provisions. Their
limitation exists in the amplifier required to translate the signal generated by strain
in the crystal. Although accelerometers are available with integral amplifiers, the
electronics can only tolerate up to about 250°F. This means CGT manufacturers
either judiciously locate the accelerometer away from hot gas casing locations or
use a remote amplifier, connected by a sensitive, high impedance cable. A fault in
the cable, which occasionally occurs, would indicate full-scale vibration and cause
a turbine trip.
In addition to the same structural vibration problems as velocity transducers, accel-
erometers must also have low-pass filtering. High frequency accelerations are
common around gas turbines, although they are not necessarily informative. acceler-
ometer natural resonances may yield false amplitudes at high frequencies which
should be filtered out.
Proximity probes become unreliable above 300°F. This means they must be care-
fully situated and cooled when installed near hot turbine end bearings. Probes read
mechanical and electrical runouts of the shaft surface as real vibration, so these
errors must be minimized with special provisions for quality control. Since they
measure relative vibration at the bearing, proximity probes need not necessarily be
filtered for pertinent and reliable information.
Proximity probes are very useful with hydrodynamic bearings. But they have low
value in rolling element bearings where there is little relative motion between the
shaft and casing. One prospective exception might be the squeeze film damped bear-
ings, used on many aero-derivatives, which have a thin layer of oil between the
outer bearing race and the housing. There may be enough relative motion in such an
arrangement to provide meaningful rotor vibration information.
To date, supplementary proximity probes have not been generally feasible on aero-
derivative models. Additionally, space is seldom available in these compact designs.
See the General Machinery Manual for more details of the relative merits and disad-
vantages of the seismic and proximity probe systems.
Bearing metal temperature indications, like proximity probes, are only available on
industrial hydrodynamic bearing gas turbines. These can be installed on most radial
as well as thrust bearings. Spring-loaded elements are sometimes provided in place
of imbedded devices on radial bearings. These are generally successful if they are
located in the load zone and recessed in the bearing backing, near the babbitt. Both
RTD and thermocouple temperature elements are usually available. Most field
reports give thermocouples a slight reliability advantage over RTDs.
When available, probes and bearing metal temperature installations should be gener-
ally provided per API 670, Vibration, Axial-Position, and Bearing-Temperature
Monitoring Systems. API 670 requires that probes be replaceable while running,
which is often not feasible with gas turbines. Furthermore, some bearings and
probes cannot be accessed without a major disassembly. In such cases, consider
specifying redundant probes and temperature transducers as spares.

Standard seismic systems and their integral controls typically cannot comply with
API 670’s counterpart API 678, Accelerometer-Based Vibration Monitoring
Systems. However, redundant seismic transducers are occasionally available.
494 Rerates and Maintenance

Uprates and Retrofits
CGT manufacturers continually offer new models or uprates for old ones. These
include progressive developments directed towards one or more types of improve-
ments:
• Greater outputs
• Higher efficiencies
• Less emissions
• Longer lives
• Less frequent maintenance
These changes take advantage of recent tools and knowledge such as better mate-
rials, and improved engineering modelling techniques. They also may elect to take
credit for more precise, higher quality manufacturing as well as good field experi-
ences.
Owners of older gas turbines can sometimes justify uprating or retrofitting their
units to benefit from this advancing technology. Scopes range from simple upgrades
of improved consumable parts to modifications which represent a large percentage
of the turbine’s replacement cost. Some of the more common retrofits are:
Compressor blade aerodynamic design and manufacturing improvements which
optimize the airfoil and smooth the surface for higher efficiency.
Combustor improvements designed for higher energy density through hotter,
tighter burning patterns. They also may directionally produce less NOx and handle
broader ranges of fuels.
Turbine nozzle cooling developments which permit increasingly hotter gas inlet
temperatures well above the uncooled material limits.
Turbine blade advancements in aerodynamics, internal cooling, external boundary
layer cooling, tip sealing, vibration damping, and manufacturing techniques. Mate-
rials have continually improved towards higher creep strength, greater tensile
strength, and better corrosion resistance.
Coatings for all aerodynamic surfaces and combustion liners. These provide better
corrosion and erosion resistance, thereby extending the life of expensive blades and
nozzles. Additionally, thermal barrier coatings have recently evolved which insulate
cooled surfaces from increasingly hotter temperatures.
Controls upgrades, particularly from older analog to modern digital systems. See
Sub-section 490 for more details. These may also involve fuel valve replacements.

Vibration and bearing temperature monitoring upgrades of existing systems for

better reliability.
Inlet air filtration modernization to reduce compressor fouling and wear. Online
cleaning capabilities may also be added to obtain longer periods between shutdown
compressor washes.
Lube- and hydraulic-oil system redundancies added to improve overall package
reliability.
Third party organizations also occasionally offer upgrades and retrofits. Evaluate
these organizations with extra caution by reviewing and checking their past experi-
ence with a CGT model and the particular modification. Such organizations may
offer reliable upgrade designs and materials. However, they can make mistakes by
not having all the engineering background information that went into a gas
turbine’s development.
No matter who offers an upgrade or retrofit, experience is always an important
consideration. Some manufacturers tend to overestimate their machine’s capability
and allow the user to be the test lab. Whenever considering an improvement, a
design audit is strongly recommended. This should be done by a qualified local,
Company, or outside consultant. Sample items for an audit checklist are:
• Understand and confirm the basis of a CGT power uprate or efficiency
improvement. Was it achieved by increased firing temperatures, higher
compression, tighter clearances, or better quality control? What are the associ-
ated risks and chances of success?
• Review new hot section metal temperatures and revised stresses. How do these
relate to fatigue and creep limits? Have the metal temperatures and stresses
been confirmed by testing?
• Check how blade design and speed changes affect blade resonances, damping,
and stresses.
• Review combustor revisions for appropriate factory and field testing. Confirm
basis of predicted emissions.
• Understand the advantage and pedigree of new coatings’ selections.
• Check all component torque and horsepower ratings resulting from a power
uprate.
• Check for sufficient thrust bearing conservatism after a power upgrade. Make
sure it is adequate for rotor seal retirement clearances as well as when new.
• Re-evaluate all the rotordynamics effects of bearing redesigns, rotor modifica-
tions, or speed changes. Also review torsional resonances if train couplings or
gears are changed.
• Insure that all rotor design and cooling modifications are soundly based in
reasonable engineering principles and representative field experience.

• Determine if higher performance compressor blading justifies improved air

filtration or online wash systems.
• Thoroughly review all aspects of fuel system changes for new fuels, NOx
suppression, or reliability upgrades.
• Confirm that control upgrades cost-effectively add the desired improved reli-
ability and have extensive field experience.
Design audits clarify understandings between the user and the upgrader, as well as
lower the risks. Uprates and retrofits deserve the same amount of design consider-
ation, quality control inspection, and testing as the manufacture of the original gas
turbine. Failure to do so increases the operational risks and decreases the chance of
meeting the desired objective.
Inspection and Maintenance

Inspection and overhaul frequency is initially set by the CGT manufacturer and
should be followed during the warranty period. As they become more familiar with
their particular installations, many operators lengthen or shorten the prescribed
intervals as judged by:
• Operating performance
• Conditions during previous inspection
• Operational severity
“Severity” could be based on any parameter which has a tendency to deteriorate the
turbine’s performance or physical condition. Examples are:
• Firing temperature history
• Number of starts
• Number of emergency trips
• Inlet air quality
• Fuel type and quality
See Sub-section 430 for more discussion on these factors.
Industrial and small industrial CGTs vary, but most require inspections at 6 month
intervals for the first year, and every 12 months thereafter. Inspections for aero-
derivatives can be more frequent, such as every 6 months. Inspections are classified
as:
• Combustion (minimal disassembly)
• Hot gas path
• Major
Fired Hours
Type Hot Gas Path Major
Industrials/Hybrids 16,000 24,000 to 48,000
Aero-derivatives 12,000 to 8,000 16,000 to 24,000

Inspection Techniques. Most modern gas turbines are designed for quick inspec-
tions to minimize economic losses and operational impact. Therefore little or no
disassembly is required. Most of the inspection is done with borescoping tech-
niques. A borescope (see Figure 400-50) is an optical device which penetrates the
CGT casing through small ports situated to view critical components. During
normal operation, these ports are filled with stainless steel plugs. The unit must be
cooled down to a tolerable and safe limit for the borescope and the inspector.
Fig. 400-50 Borescope Viewing Options (Courtesy of Olympus America, Inc.)
A borescope may either be a rigid or flexible type. To achieve a wide-angle view of

the machine’s interior, the borescope provides illumination and magnification by
using lights, miniaturized lenses, prisms, and mirrors. Rigid types have the advan-
tage of highest resolution and some models come with adjustable focusing. Flex-
ible, or optical fiber type scope resolutions are limited by the number of pixels built
into the fiber bundle. Changing focus requires changing the tip. However, flexibles
can turn corners and access the more distant locations that rigid scopes are unable
to reach.
Some turbines, particularly older models, require minor disassembly for combus-
tion inspections. Typically this involves removing fuel nozzles and external can-
annular combustors. Access is also possible to the last turbine stage(s) through the
exhaust ducting. Compressor first stage guide vanes and blades may likewise be
inspected from the inlet air plenum.
Borescope and limited disassembly inspections are usually looking for:
• Fouling

• Corrosion/erosion
• Foreign object damage (FOD)
• Visible cracks
During hot gas path and major overhauls which expose the rotor and other core
components of the machine, much more extensive inspection is possible. All cycli-
cally stressed parts, particularly those enduring thermal stresses, should be checked
with dye penetrant for cracks. Hot section areas such as combustion liner fits and
turbine nozzles should be dimensionally inspected for thermal distortions and
creep. Some turbine nozzles have a tendency to lean downstream from creep
damage over time. It is also necessary to inspect blade, nozzle, and combustion
liner coatings for corrosion or spalling.
Beyond inspections unique to CGTs, the remainder of the inspection items are
typical of other turbomachinery. Examples relate to bearing and seal conditions,
rotor interference fit slippages which show as fretting corrosion, coupling condi-
tion, and coupling alignment. Auxiliary systems are inspected and overhauled as
appropriate with their prescribed maintenance and the length of the shutdown.
Complete inspection checklists should be found in a CGTs Operation and Mainte-
nance Manual.
Offline Washing. Most operators use each inspection or overhaul shutdown oppor-
tunity to offline wash their compressor sections. When economically justified, they
will take short shutdowns to recover performance through washing. See
Sub-section 450 for more details.
Life Cycle Evaluation, Repair, and Rejuvenation

Hot section parts and materials have finite lives by design. Most are very expensive
due to their superalloy composition. They also require complex manufacturing
steps such as investment casting and numerically controlled laser machining. These
parts are therefore candidates for economic life cycle evaluations as well as reliable
repair and rejuvenation techniques.
Combustors and transition sections do not have prescribed time-in-service limits,
but are repaired or replaced on an as-needed basis. Most overhauls, particularly
major ones, require some work in these areas. Combustion section parts fail either
from heavy oxidation, thermal stress cracks, or vibratory stress cracks. In many
instances, weld repair is a feasible and economic alternative to replacement.
However this must be done on a parts exchange basis since the procedures take
longer than the typical CGT overhaul.
CGT manufacturers usually apply arbitrary operating hour limits to turbine nozzles
and blades, based on past field experience. They may arbitrarily ignore or may not
have data on the many other factors which impact life such as firing temperatures
and number of starts. Operating hours limitation is a very conservative, non-
economic approach.
Life-limiting parameters for turbine nozzles and blades are:

Thermal fatigue cracks (low cycle) caused by the cumulative effect of starts,
normal stops, emergency stops, and abrupt load changes. Any blades with cracks
must be scrapped and replaced. Nozzles may be weld repairable.
Micro-structural transformation of a superalloy material, particularly blades,
over a long-time exposure to high temperatures. This lowers tensile and creep
strengths. Both low and high magnification examination by a qualified agency is
necessary. Some superalloy materials can be rejuvenated to like-new conditions.
Creep damage, an advanced stage of material transformation, creates microscopic
voids in the grain structure. These weaken the material and form tiny stress concen-
trators which participate in mechanical cracking mechanisms. Up to a certain limit,
creep voids can be closed using rejuvenation processes on some superalloys.
Mechanical fatigue (high cycle) cracks typically caused by abnormally high vibra-
tory stresses. These usually occur in blades and are not repairable.
Corrosion/erosion of all aerodynamic surfaces. If the damage is not too far
advanced, the process might be arrested with a coating appropriate for the condi-
tions.
Foreign object damage (FOD) which varies from minor impact nicks to total
shearing failure. Some FOD should simply be left alone since its effect is little
more than cosmetic. More significant damage might be blended out with grinding.
Blade tip damage caused by casing contact during thermal transients such as
starting and stopping, overfiring, and liquid carryover with gaseous fuels. Much of
this can be repaired by welding at a qualified facility. However it carries a certain
minor risk which must be measured against the economics of continued lost perfor-
mance or blade replacements. Many turbines now have abradable, replaceable
casing seals which minimize blade contact damage.
All of these factors should be considered when making a repair or replace decision.
Turbine nozzles are frequently weld repaired and then heat treated to relieve
residual thermal stresses. The risks involve physical distortions which may
adversely affect their re-assembly into the turbine. Recommended repair limits,
weld procedures, heat treatment procedures and tooling, and previous experience
on other machines should all be evaluated before deciding to repair.
Turbine blade repair or rejuvenation options only recently became available to the
CGT operator. They must be done only by a well qualified agency since the price of
misjudgments and quality errors is very high. Usually a blade failure causes exten-
sive secondary turbine damage and may be hazardous to personnel. But with
careful evaluation, reuse can save up to 70% of the cost of a new blade, and it
should be evaluated as an option.
The available blade repair/rejuvenation techniques are:
Heat treatment may relieve residual low cycle stresses and restore some or all of
the material’s micro-structure to its original condition. Time and temperature
controls are crucial to a successful process.

Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) is a high pressure, high temperature rejuvenation

procedure intended to close creep voids and casting porosity. It is performed in an
autoclave. Again, the necessary steps must be closely controlled by one of the few
existing qualified organizations. HIP is usually supplemented by before and/or after
heat treatment.
Grinding can be used to blend out FOD within the manufacturer’s limitations. Its
purpose is to smooth aerodynamic performance and eliminate stress concentrators
caused by the impact. It is also necessary prior to most weld repairs. Grinding
should not be used to correct cracks since such blades are not reusable.
Welding is generally not recommended for gas turbine blades. Potential problems
exist with quality control and thermal expansion differences between the base and
weld fill metals. The risks are not worth the gains. One exception may be the
rebuilding of tip clearances. If this is considered, carefully check the weld repair
shop’s credentials, experience with the same material and blade design, and the
happy customers.
When heat treating or HIPing, it is necessary to sacrifice a used blade for before
and after test coupons. These must be rejuvenated alongside the other blades to
check for the desired result. A creep rupture test is usually recommended along
with micro-structural examination.
When repairing or rejuvenating blades, one cannot over-emphasize the importance
of using knowledgeable evaluation personnel and qualified facilities. Contact the
CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering Unit for more details.

DRI400 Combustion Gas Turbines

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400 Combustion Gas Turbines

410 Engineering Principles 400-4

Chevron Corporation 400-1 March 1996

440 Auxiliary Systems Considerations 400-38

March 1996 400-2 Chevron Corporation

486 Particulate Emissions

Chevron Corporation 400-3 March 1996

410 Engineering Principles

411 General Principles

March 1996 400-4 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation 400-5 March 1996

Fig. 400-1 The Brayton Cycle (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)

March 1996 400-6 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 400-2 Brayton Cycle vs. Otto Cycle (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)

Chevron Corporation 400-7 March 1996

March 1996 400-8 Chevron Corporation

412 Complex Cycles Using Gas Turbines

Fig. 400-5 Cogeneration Cycle

Regeneration (Figure 400-6) uses exhaust energy to preheat the compressor

Chevron Corporation 400-9 March 1996

Fig. 400-6 Regenerative Cycle

Fig. 400-7 Combined Cycle

March 1996 400-10 Chevron Corporation

413 Rating CGTs

414 Gas Turbine Types and Performance Characteristics

Industrial Gas Turbines

Chevron Corporation 400-11 March 1996

Fig. 400-8 Typical Applications of Four Gas Turbine Types

March 1996 400-12 Chevron Corporation

Aero-derivative Gas Turbines

Fig. 400-10 Aero-Derivative Type Gas Turbine (Courtesy of Cooper-Rolls)

Chevron Corporation 400-13 March 1996

Fig. 400-11 Aero-derivative Type Modular Construction (Courtesy Cooper-Rolls)

Small Industrial Gas Turbines

March 1996 400-14 Chevron Corporation

In addition to general electrical generation services, small industrial CGTs use

Fig. 400-12 Small Industrial-type Gas Turbine

Hybrid Gas Turbines

Chevron Corporation 400-15 March 1996

420 Machine Components, Arrangements, and Materials

421 Air Compressor

March 1996 400-16 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 400-14 Axial-Flow Type Compressor (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)

Fig. 400-15 Radial-Flow Type Compressor (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)

Chevron Corporation 400-17 March 1996

March 1996 400-18 Chevron Corporation

T2 = compressor discharge temperature, °R

W = (5.76 × 10-3)maT1 (r0.33 - 1)

Chevron Corporation 400-19 March 1996

Fig. 400-16 External Canular Type Combustor (Courtesy of ABB)

March 1996 400-20 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 400-18 Annular Type Combustor (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)

Combustor fuel nozzles are provided to:

Chevron Corporation 400-21 March 1996

separately injected high-pressure air source. Dual fuel arrangements

March 1996 400-22 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation 400-23 March 1996

Dual-shaft machines have the advantage of separating the gas generator’s

March 1996 400-24 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation 400-25 March 1996

424 Rotor Constructions

March 1996 400-26 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 400-25 Curvic Coupling (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)