FIELD TESTS FOR CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Field testing and laboratory testing of the construction materials are key activities in the
construction process. The results of these activities are important to building officials, contractors,
concrete producer, owners, and architectural and engineering firms in determining whether the qualities
of the materials in the construction comply with contract documents. The role of field and laboratory
testing and promoting then quality of construction and protecting the public safety is receiving added
consideration, both national and international. The evaluation of testing laboratories by outside
organizations plays a vital role in providing the construction community with confidence in the quality of
testing.

I. TESTING OF COARSE AND FINE AGGREGATE:

A. DELETERIOUS MATERIALS IN COARSE MATERIALS
Deleterious tests for coarse aggregates are based on visual inspection and
require training and judgment. Deleterious substances of concern are clay lumps and
friable particles, non-durable materials, coke, iron, and chert. Coke and iron are only of
concern in slag, and no guidelines are given.

1. Clay Lumps and Friable Particles

Clay lumps and friable particles are defined as the material remaining after
decantation that may be mashed with the fingers. The test is conducted according to
AASHTO T 112.
A sample consists of material retained on the No. 4 sieve and each sieve
above the No. 4 sieve, following decantation of sieve analysis. The sample is soaked
24 hours, plus or minus 4 hours, in distilled water. After soaking, any material or
particles that may be broken by the fingers and (Figure 1) are removable by wet
sieving are classified as clay lumps or friable material. The material retained after wet
sieving is dried to constant weight and weighed.
 Figure 1: Testing of Clay Lumps and Friable particles

2. Non-Durable Materials
Non-durable materials are divided into two types:
a. Soft material as determined by ITM 206
b. Structurally weak material as determined by visual inspection
Both tests are conducted on the sample material retained on the 3/8 in. sieve and each
sieve above the No. 3/8 in. sieve. The Scratch Hardness test (Figure 2) is conducted
on gravel coarse aggregate. Each particle to be tested is subjected to a scratching
motion of a brass rod, using a 2 lbf load.
Particles are considered soft if a groove is made in the particle without deposition
of metal from the brass rod or if separate particles are detached from the rock mass. A
particle is classified as soft only if one-third or more of the volume is found to be soft.
Structurally weak materials are visually identified and include:
a. Ocher
b. Unfossilized shells
c. Conglomerates -- cemented gravels
d. Shale -- laminated rock of clay-size minerals
e. Limonite -- iron oxide, ranging from yellow-brown to black in color and is
frequently a concretion around a soft core
f. Weathered rock that is structurally weak
g. Coal, wood, and other foreign materials
h. Materials with loosely cemented grains or a weathered coating
Particles determined to be soft or structurally weak are combined and the percent by
weight of non-durable material.
 Figure 2: Scratch Hardness Tester

3. Chert
Chert is a rock of varied color, composed of glassy silica, and very fine
grained quartz, and is only picked from coarse aggregate. Unweathered chert appears
hard, dense, and brittle with a greasy texture. Weathered chert appears chalky and
dull. Chert is likely to have concave surfaces with sharp outer edges when freshly
broken.
Total chert is picked from the sample following decantation and gradation.
Chert is picked from the material retained on the 3/8 in. sieve and each sieve above
the 3/8 in. sieve for aggregate sizes 2 through 8, 43, 53, and 73. For aggregate sizes 9,
11, 12, and 91, chert is picked from the material retained on the No. 4 sieve and each
sieve above the No. 4 sieve. The procedure for determining the total chert includes:
a. All chert, including questionable chert, is picked from the sample.
b. All pieces of questionable chert are further tested by the following procedures:
i. Scratching glass. Chert pieces scratch glass.
ii. Breaking Pieces. Chert breaks into rounded surfaces with sharp edges. If
pieces do not break into rounded surfaces with sharp edges, they are added
to the soft or non-durable material.
iii. Reaction with acid. Chert does not react with 0.1 N hydrochloric acid.
iv. All material determined to be chert is weighed and the percent of total
chert.

B. SPECIFIC GRAVITY, VOID, AND ABSORPTION

 Sufficient aggregate sample is dried to constant mass. For each test, two
representative dry aggregate samples of the same material are selected for testing. One
sample is evacuated in a vacuum chamber inside a plastic bag and opened under water for
rapid saturation of the aggregate. The dry mass and submerged mass of the sample is
used for calculation of apparent specific gravity. The second sample of the same
aggregate is tested in a known volume metal pycnometer. The known mass of the
pycnometer with water, mass of the dry aggregate, and mass of the aggregate and
pycnometer filled with water is used for calculation of bulk specific gravity oven dry
(OD.) The results from the two samples tested are then used to calculate absorption, and
bulk specific gravity saturated-surface-dry (SSD.)
This test can be completed in less than 30 minutes and can be used for rapid
determination of aggregate properties in construction testing laboratories. This test can be
performed on fine, coarse and blended (combined) aggregates by using appropriate
plastic bag and pycnometer sizes.

ASTM Standards
 C29/ C29 M, Standard Test Method for Bulk Density (Unit Weight) and Voids in
Aggregate
 C 127, Standard Test method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity),
and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate
 C128, Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity), and
Absorption of Fine Aggregate

C. SOUNDNESS
The soundness test determines an aggregate’s resistance to disintegration by
weathering and, in particular, freeze-thaw cycles. Aggregates that are durable (resistant to
weathering) are less likely to degrade in the field and cause premature HMA pavement
distress and potentially, failure.
The soundness test repeatedly submerges an aggregate sample in a sodium sulfate
or magnesium sulfate solution. This process causes salt crystals to form in the aggregate’s
water permeable pores. The formation of these crystals creates internal forces that apply
 pressure on aggregate pores and tend to break the aggregate (Figure 3). After a specified
number of submerging and drying repetitions, the aggregate is sieved to determine the
percent loss of material.

Figure 3: Aggregate before (top) & after (bottom) the soundness test.

The formation of salt crystals is supposed to mimic the formation of ice crystals in
the field and could therefore be used as a surrogate to predict an aggregate’s freeze-thaw
performance.
The standard soundness test is:
 AASHTO T 104 and ASTM C 88: Soundness of Aggregate by Use of Sodium
Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate

II. TESTING OF CEMENT

A. FINENESS OF CEMENT BY SIEVING.
This experiment is carried out to check the proper grinding of cement. The cement
which is produced by an industry is checked for its quality, that either it is good for
certain type of construction or it doesn’t possess that much strength. The ability to
provide strength of a certain type of cement is checked by finding the fineness of that
cement, because the fineness of cement is responsible for the rate of hydration and hence
the rate of gain of strength and also the rate of evolution of heat.
If the cement is fine then greater is its cohesiveness, which is the property, required in
the concrete because it gives compactness to the concrete. Usually cement loses 10% of
its strength within one month of its manufacturing.

Procedure:
 Take the triple beam balance and adjust the reading of the balance to zero. Take a pan
and note its weight.
 Put some cement in the pan placed on the balance, so that the weight of cement
becomes 100 grams. This will be weight w1 of the cement. Put the cement in the sieve
carefully and close the sieve tightly.
 Start shaking the sieve horizontally, keep on shaking the sieve for 10 to 15 minutes
regularly.
 After 15 minutes take the residue left in the sieve, put it in a pre-weighed plate and
note the weight w2 of the residue with the help of triple beam balance.
The fineness modulus is related to gradation. This term is commonly associated with

aggregates for portland cement concrete. It is computed in accordance with AASHTO

T 27 by adding the cumulative percentages retained on the 3 1/2 in., 2 1/2 in., 2 in., 1½
in., 3/4 in., 3/8 in., No. 4, No. 8, No. 16, No. 30, No. 50, and No. 100 sieves, and then
dividing by 100. A large number indicates a coarse material. A small number indicates a
fine material.
SIEVE
SIZE 100 % PASSNG % RETAINED
3/8 in. 100 100 0.0
No. 4 100 100 0.0
No. 8 100 89.2 10.8
No. 16 100 68.3 31.7
No. 30 100 45.1 54.9
No. 50 100 13.8 86.2
No. 100 100 2.6 97.4
TOTAL 281.0
Fineness Modulus = 281/ 100 = 2.81
B. DETERMINATION OF SOUNDNESS
It is the property of cement due to which it undergoes large change in volume
after setting. This change in volume may cause crack and disintegration of concrete.
To check the soundness of cement Le-Chatlier’s apparatus is used.
Procedure:
The apparatus consist of cylindrical mould having a cut or split. Cement paste of
normal consistency is prepared of 100 grams consisting of 0.78 times of water required
 for normal consistency. This paste is filled in mould and curred for 24 hours.
After setting the mould is immersed in water and boil for one hour, after boiling note the
increase in distance. The difference between two measurements before and after heating
is expansion which should not be more than 10 mm.
C. CONSISTENCY
The procedures for determining the consistency are the following:
 The consistency is measured by the Vicat apparatus using a 10mm diameter
plunger.
 A trial paste of cement and water is mixed and placed in the mold having an
inside diameter of 70mm at the base and 60mm at the top, and a height of 40mm.
 The plunger is then brought into contact with the top surface of the paste and
released. Under the action of its weight the plunger will penetrate the paste. The
depth depending on the consistency.
 When the plunger penetrates the paste to a point 5 to 7mm from the bottom of the
mold. The paste is considered to be at “normal consistency”.
 The water content of the paste is expressed as a percentage by weight of dry
cement. The usual range of values being between 26% and 33%.

III. TESTING OF BRICKS

A. MOISTURE EXPANSION
All fired clay bricks expand slowly after their manufacture, by taking up moisture
out of the atmosphere.  The expansion continues for many years, and needs to be taken
into account in building design.  To predict the long-term expansion, a brick length can
be accurately measured before and after a laboratory steam treatment and the change in
length used to estimate how much the brick will expand in 15 years.
Information on how far a used brick has already expanded (“past expansion”) can
be gained from  re-firing the brick in a laboratory kiln, and measuring its shrinkage.  How
far the used bricks still have to expand (“residual expansion”) can be assessed by the
difference between these two measurements.
These expansion characteristics depend on the clays used in making the bricks,
and on the manufacturing process itself
 B. WATER ABSORPTION
A standard soaking-in-water test can determine the porosity of bricks and blocks,
which can then be used as an indication of the potential for the development of problems
related to the penetration of salts and other materials into the units, such as salt attack and
efflorescence

C. EFFLORESCENCE
Efflorescence is a deposit of salts, usually white, on the surface of bricks and
blocks after being laid.  The salts usually come from ground water or out of the mortar,
but may come from within the masonry units themselves.
This test predicts the likelihood that the units will display such unsightly deposits
from salts that they already contain.

IV. TESTING OF GLAZED TILES

A. WATER ABSORPTION TESTS
The capacity of a wall or floor tile body to absorb water determines the product’s
open porosity, i.e. the total volume of outer pores liable to be filled with fluid at
atmospheric pressure. The value is expressed as the percentage of the increase in the
product’s mass with respect to its dry mass after undergoing a standardised process of
prolonged immersion in boiling water, when tested in accordance with BS EN ISO
10545-3, Determination of water absorption. This value will have a direct bearing on
other performance characteristics such as mechanical resistance, the resistance to sudden
temperature changes and frost resistance. It also gives us an idea of the degree of internal
cohesion and compaction of the fired product. The open porosity of a wall or floor tile
firstly depends on the composition of the ceramic body. This may vary considerably
from one product to another (porcelain floor tiles have low porosity; wall tiles are very
porous). Other determining factors include the compaction of an unfired piece or piece-
forming (which in turn depends on such other factors as grain size, distribution of the
spray-dried powder, moisture etc.) and, finally, the firing process. Water absorption is
also used as a criterion for classifying ceramic wall and floor tiles in ISO 13006: 1998.
Obviously, the glazed layer has zero water absorption since it is fully vitrified.

Testing standards
Tile are tested to the following water absorption standard:
 BS EN ISO 10545-3, Determination of water absorption, apparent
porosity, apparent relative density and bulk density.
B. MECHANICAL RESISTANCE TESTS
Tiles are tested for their degree of mechanical resistance in the following areas:
 Impact and compression resistance
 Bending strength
 Hardness or scratch resistance
 Surface abrasion resistance
1) IMPACT AND COMPRESSION RESISTANCE
Impact can be defined as the application of a high degree of instantaneous
force on a minimal surface, and is generally negative for ceramic products.
Heavy or pointed objects falling on tiles may damage or shatter the surface,
depending on the type of object, overall mechanical resistance of the tile, and
the adhesive and elastic factors involved in the tile-adhesive-substrate system
etc. The determination of impact resistance is addressed in the European
standard through measuring what is known as the restitution coefficient (BS
EN ISO 10545-5: 1997). Today’s ceramic floor tiles, and to a greater extent
vitrified tiles, have mechanical resistance ratings that are comparable to those
of other inorganic materials (natural stone, marble, terrazzo etc).
1. BENDING STRENGTH
Bending strength is determined by following the method stated in the BS
EN ISO 10545-4 standard, Determination of bending strength and breakage
strength. This consists of using sample tiles under conditions set by the
standard, with the breakage load necessary to break tiles expressed in newtons
(N); the breakage strength, also expressed in newtons (N) is obtained by
multiplying the breakage load and the distance between supports and dividing
by tile width; modulus of rupture, expressed at N/mm2 is obtained by dividing
 the breakage strength by the minimum thickness along the line of tile
breakage.
Bending strength is tested by placing samples in the worst possible
installation conditions. The device used to measure this value is called
a flexometer, comprising a mobile platform on which the sample is
placed (on two supporting points, which would never be the case in a real
installation) and raising the platform up until it makes contact with the device.
A reading of the force withstood by the piece is taken up to the point when it
breaks. This gives a measurement of the degree of the product’s internal
cohesion, which is directly related to the tile’s total porosity, the distribution
and quantity of vitreous and crystalline phases present, composition, the
compaction method used to form the biscuit and firing. In general terms, it can
be said that bending strength increases from porous to vitrified products and
from extruded to dry-pressed products. Bending strength is an important
characteristic that must be included in the design criteria when specifying
ceramic tiles based on the level of performance demanded of them; however it
is of a secondary importance for wall tiles and is considered as a reference
value of their internal cohesion.
2. HARDNESS OR SCRATCH RESISTANCE
Hardness or scratch resistance along with surface abrasion resistance (see
below) are interrelated characteristics that indicate a ceramic floor tile’s
durability to resist the loss of its surface appearance as a result of use.
The wear or loss of a tile’s surface appearance will depend on the
external agent causing the wear and the physical characteristics of the floor
tile surface. We can identify the external factors that produce wear on the
floor in question: the type of wear by scraping (friction, direction of the
scraping, magnitude etc.), the type of mechanical agent (leather, rubber, types,
metal etc.), the type of intermediary material between the floor tile and the
scraping agent (sand, mud, water, snow, organic matter etc.).
Tests for surface hardness or scratch resistance are regulated by the EN
101 standard, putting minerals whose hardness is known into contact with the
 surface of the piece being tested. The Mohs’ Scale (see below) is used as the
basis of comparison. For wall tiles, this parameter is of very little importance,
but for floor tiles, it can be used as a point of reference to predict their ability
to withstand surface wear.
3. SURFACE ABRASION RESISTANCE
This test is performed in accordance with the method described in the BS EN
ISO 10545-7: 1998 standard: Determination of resistance to surface abrasion
for glazed tiles. It covers all all glazed ceramic tiles used for floor covering.
In this test, the tile surface is subjected to the action of a rotating abrasive
load, consisting of different sized steel balls and an abrasive load of an
extremely hard material (corundum – second on the Mohs’ hardness scale
only to diamond), with a specific amount of water. This compound is spun
sequentially at a specific number of revolutions, and gauged by an abrasion
meter that is equipped with an automatic device that stops it after a set number
of revolutions. At the end of the test, the tested sample is visually checked
against tiles that have not undergone testing in order to determine its
classification.
Abrasive loads
 Under BS EN ISO 10545-7: 1998, the total load on each test specimen

MOHS’ HARDNESS SCALE

MINERALS MOH’S HARDNESS

Talc 1
Gypsum 2
Calcite 3
Fluorspar 4
 Apatite 5
Felspar 6
Quartz 7
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond 10

V. TESTING ON SOIL
A. SOIL DENSITY TESTS`
1. Proctor Test (ASTM D1557-91) 
The Proctor, or Modified Proctor Test, determines the maximum density of
a soil needed for a specific job site.  The test first determines the maximum
density achievable for the materials and uses this figure as a reference.  Secondly,
it tests the effects of moisture on soil density.  The soil reference value is
expressed as a percentage of density.  These values are determined before any
compaction takes place to develop the compaction specifications.  Modified
Proctor values are higher because they take into account higher densities needed
for certain typed of construction projects.  Test methods are similar for both tests.

2. Sand Cone Test (ASTM D1556-90)  

A small hole (6" x 6" deep) is dug in the compacted material to be tested. 
The soil is removed and weighed, then dried and weighed again to determine its
moisture content.  A soil's moisture is figured as a percentage.  The specific
volume of the hole is determined by filling it with calibrated dry sand from a jar
and cone device.  The dry weight of the soil removed is divided by the volume of
sand needed to fill the hole.  This gives us the density of the compacted soil in
lbs per cubic foot.  This density is compared to the maximum Proctor density
obtained earlier, which gives us the relative density of the soil that was just
compacted. 
3. SOIL STIFFNESS
This field-test method is a very recent development that replaces soil
density testing.  Soil stiffness is the ratio of force-to-displacement.  Testing is
done by a machine that sends vibrations into the soil and then measures the
deflection of the soil from the vibrations.  This is a very fast, safe method of
testing soil stiffness.  Soil stiffness is the desired engineering property, not just
dry density and water content