CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Objectives and proposed outcomes

In the field welding of SS plates the welders and engineers are more concerned about
preventing welding defects like lack of penetration, under cuts, porosity etc. Not much steps
have been taken to prevent the hot cracking. This study helps to identify how the welding
parameters and plate thickness affect FN, which is directly related to hot cracking. As per API
582 the minimum FN for deposited weld metal should be 3FN. If the FN exceeds 10 FN, the
material losses its characteristic austenitic properties .So the favourable range of FN is
between 3FN and 10 FN for austenitic stainless steels like SS304.

The study was conducted with SS304 plates and welding method used is Shielded Metal Arc
Welding (SMAW). The FN is measured with Ferrite Meter which is calibrated in accordance
with procedure specified in ANSI/AWS A4.2. An experimentation strategy of Full factorial
design with three factors and two levels is considered for this study. The three factors taken
are welding current, speed and thickness of base plate. The weld specimens having different
FN are analysed with Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) to study the impact of
microstructure on FN. Cutting of specimen plates, welding and measurement of FN are
carried out at BPCL Kochi Refinery. The Hardness of the specimen is measured at SOE,
CUSAT and SEM study was conducted at STIC, CUSAT.

The main contribution from this investigation would be identification of the variation of the
FN with welding parameters and the thickness of the base plate. The study suggests a safe
range for welding parameters for which the hot cracking would be optimum. The study also
reveals the effect of welding heat input on FN and hardness of the weld material.
1.2 A brief introduction about BPCL-Kochi Refinery

The BPCL (Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited) Kochi Refinery, embarked on its journey
in 1966 with a capacity of 50,000 barrels per day. Formerly known as Cochin Refineries
Limited, the refinery was originally established as a joint venture in collaboration with
Philips Petroleum Corporation, USA. It was later renamed as Kochi Refineries Limited.

Kochi Refinery is located at Ambalamugal, near Kochi in Kerala, and is one of the two
Refineries of BPCL, presently having a crude oil refining capacity of 9.5 Million Metric
Tonnes per Annum (MMTPA). The product portfolio of the 190,000 barrels per day, refinery
today includes petrochemical feedstocks and specialty products in addition to its range of
quality fuels.

The products of this fuel based refinery include Liquefied Petroleum Gas, Naphtha, Motor
Spirit, Kerosene, Aviation Turbine Fuel, High Speed Diesel, Fuel Oils and Asphalt. Specialty
products for the domestic markets include Benzene, Toluene, Propylene, Special Boiling
Point Spirit, Mineral Turpentine Oil, Sulphur and Hydrogen.

The BPCL Kochi Refinery has been certified for the highly coveted Integrated Management
System (IMS) by M/s Bureau Veritas Certification for having complied with the requirements
of best standards and practices in the areas of Quality Management, Environment
Management and Occupational Safety and Health Management. By virtue of this, Kochi
Refinery is certified to Quality Management System - ISO 9001:2008, Environment
Management System - ISO 14001:2004 and Occupational Health & Safety Management
System - OHSAS 18001:2007.

With the prestigious Crude Oil receipt facilities consisting of Single Point Mooring (SPM)
and associated shore tank farm in place since December 2007, the Kochi refinery is equipped
to receive crude oil in Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCCs). This facility helps the refinery in
reducing the freight charges to a great extent, over and above increasing flexibility in crude
oil selection. This, thereby, is a major infrastructure facility to accelerate the future growth.
The refinery has facilities to evacuate products to the consuming centres through road, rail,
2
ships and through pipelines. All the major industries in the area are connected to the refinery
for product receipt. The BPCL installation at Irumpanam is connected to the refinery via
pipelines and is the major product distribution centre of the refinery. Petronet CCK, a joint
venture company of BPCL looks after the 300 km long pipeline that connects the refinery to
various consumption points in Tamil Nadu.

The Refinery has presently embarking on the Integrated Refinery Expansion Project which
would increase the refining capacity of KR from 9.5 MMTPA to 15.5 MMTPA and improve
the auto-fuel quality to Euro-IV/V levels to meet the growing demand of petroleum products
in Indian market. This would also upgrade the refinery residue stream to value added
distillates and create synergy for future diversification into value added petrochemical
products.

3
 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Austenitic Stainless Steel

Austenitic stainless steel represents the largest of the general groups of Stainless steel
and is produced in higher tonnage than any other group. About 75% of all stainless
steel used worldwide is austenitic stainless steel. They have good corrosion
resistance in most environments. In austenitic stainless steel the main alloying
elements are Chromium and Nickel. Elements that promote the formation of
austenite are Ni (generally over 8% by wt), C, N, and Cu. Although there are a wide
variety of austenitic stainless steels, the 300 series alloys are oldest and most
commonly used. Most of these alloys are 18Cr-8Ni system with additional alloying
elements to provide unique or enhanced properties. Type 304 is the foundation of this
alloy series.

Some of the common properties of austenitic steels are high strength, high, low
temperature toughness making it suitable for cryogenic applications, it has good
ductility and good weldability and it can be welded by all fusion and resistance
welding process.

Two major defects associated with the welding of austenitic stainless steel are:
• Sensitization
• Hot cracking

2.2 Hot Cracking

Hot cracking in austenitic stainless steel is one of the most investigated areas in
welding. All stainless steels may solidify as primary ferrite or primary austenite
depending on the specific composition. Figure 2.1 shows A and AF type
solidification modes are associated with primary austenite solidification. FA and F

4
Types solidification modes are associated with primary ferrite solidification. The
primary austenitic mode of solidification occurring in some of the alloys enables the
cracks to initiate and propagate more easily and this is further enhanced by the
presence of impurities like sulphur and phosphorus. The primary ferrite mode of
solidification however inhibits crack initiation and propagation.

Figure 2.1 Relationship of solidification type to the pseudobinary phase diagram.

Source: Welding Metallurgy and Weldability of Stainless Steels by John C .Lippold ,Damian
J. Kotecki

Cracking susceptibility is primarily a function of composition. Weld metals that

solidify in the A mode are fully austenitic and tend to be most susceptible for hot
cracking. Those that solidify in FA mode tend to be more resistant to solidification
cracking. High impurity levels, particularly sulphur and phosphorus, tend to increase
the susceptibility of hot cracking in alloys that solidify in A or AF mode. Weld
solidification cracking is a strong function of composition as shown by the schematic
representation of cracking susceptibility versus Cr eq/Ni eq (WRC-1992 equivalents)
5
in Figure 2.2. It is clear from the figure that the compositions which result in primary
austenite solidification are more susceptible to cracking, while the FA mode offers
the greatest resistance to solidification cracking. The F mode is more susceptible to
cracking than FA but superior to A and AF. Thus the composition can be used very
effectively to control hot cracking.

Figure 2.2 Weld solidification cracking susceptibility as a function of composition.

Source: Welding Metallurgy and Weldability of Stainless Steels by John C .Lippold ,Damian
J. Kotecki

Solidification as primary ferrite in the FA mode has been shown to ensure superior
resistance to hot cracking over the alloy that solidifies as primary austenite. The
principal reason for this superior resistance is the presence of a two-phase austenite +
ferrite mixture along the solidification grain boundary at the end of solidification
that resist wetting by liquid films and presents a tortuous(not straight and smooth)
boundary which resist crack propagation. In FA mode a ferrite-austenite boundary is
present at the end of solidification which is difficult for liquid films to wet and
presents a very nonplanar crack path. Thus, once a crack is initiated, it becomes very
difficult for it to propagate along this tortuous boundary. Both austenite-austenite
(Type A) and ferrite –ferrite (Type F) boundaries are much straighter, since no
6
secondary solidification product is present. This makes crack propagation much
easier. In the AF mode some ferrite is present along a relatively smooth A-A
boundary resulting in some improvement over fully austenitic (Type A)
solidification.

Figure 2.3 Effect of solidification type on grain boundary tortuosity: (a) A mode of
solidification; (b) FA mode of solidification.
Source: Welding Metallurgy and Weldability of Stainless Steels by John C .Lippold ,Damian
J. Kotecki

The effect of boundary tortuosity is shown schematically in figure 2.3. Hot cracks
occur preferentially along solidification grain boundaries. Under type A solidification,
these boundaries are very straight, contain no residual ferrite, and offer little
resistance to crack propagation, if a liquid film wet the boundary. By contrast, a
solidification grain boundary under type FA solidification contains a mixture of ferrite
and austenite that mitigates liquid film wetting due to high wetting angle and
complicates crack propagation, since the crack must follow a very tortuous austenite-
ferrite boundary.

Ferrite certainly has higher solubility for impurities such as sulphur and phosphorus ,
which restricts the partitioning of these elements to interdendritic regions but the
impurities have lesser solubility in austenite which aggravate the cracking.

7
Factors affecting hot cracking:

• Composition of the Base metal and welding electrode.

• Level of impurities, particularly sulfur and phosphorus.
• Welding parameters like welding current and speed.

8
 CHAPTER 3

EXPERIMENTATION STRATEGY

3.1 Design of experiment

The experimentation strategy used is Full Factorial Design (FFD). Here the factors are
varied together instead of one factor at a time. The factors are finalized after
discussions and brainstorming sections with welding experts. In this experiment there
are three factors, welding current, speed and plate thickness. When each of these
factors are considered at two levels (for ex. two levels of current considered in this
experiment are 80 A and 100 A) it is called two level full factorial design.

(no. of factors)
No of runs = (no. of levels)
= (2) 3 = 8

Considering the replication of the entire experiment for more accuracy there will be
sixteen runs. Design matrix shown in table 3.2 provides order of runs/trails for
carrying out the experiment. Various factors and levels are shown in table 3.2. These
levels are fixed based on WPS (Welding Procedure Specification).

Table 3.1 Factors and levels

+ 100
A WELDING CURRENT (A)
- 80
+ 230
B WELDING SPEED (mm/min)
- 110
+ 10
C PLATE THICKNESS(mm)
- 6

9
 Table 3.2 Design matrix

STANDARD Factors
ORDER A B C
1 - - -
2 + - -
3 - + -
4 + + -
5 - - +
6 + - +
7 - + +
8 + + +
9 - - -
10 + - -
11 - + -
12 + + -
13 - - +
14 + - +
15 - + +
16 + + +

In each of these run shown in table 3.2, FN is measured with ferrite meter at four
different locations on each specimen and average FN is calculated.

10
 CHAPTER 4

WELDING AND FERRITE NUMBER MEASUREMENT

4.1 Welding Procedure

The specimen plates are cut from larger sheets of plates of grade SS 304. The plates are
identified from its mill test certificates which are provided by the manufacturer of plates.
Specimen plates of size 5 X 8 inches are cut from larger plates using Cut-Off wheels. Thirty
two specimen pieces were cut out which forms the two halves of sixteen weld specimens.

Figure 4.1 Specimen plates cut out from larger plates

Welding is carried out based on WPS (Welding Procedure Specifications) shown in table 4.1.
WPS is prepared by organizations to ensure quality weld. WPS is prepared based on ASME
and AWS standards.

Figure 4.2 Welding of specimen plates by SMAW

11
 WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION (WPS)
Construction Code: (ASME Sec IX) and AWS A5.4
Project Name:
Welding of 10mm /6mm thick SS304 plate using SMAW process

WPS No: WPS/MB/SS304 Supporting PQR No: - BPCL/AKS/PQR/P8G1/20160515

Revision No:-0 Date: 17/02/2016
Welding Process:- SMAW Type:- MANUAL
JOINTS (QW-402)
Joint Design:- AS SHOWN IN SKETCH
Root Spacing:- AS SHOWN IN SKETCH
Backing:- N/A
Backing Material (Type) : N/A
Joint Design Used:-

PREHEAT (QW-406)
BASE METALS (QW-403)
Preheat Temperature, : 20 degree or ambient Temperature
Interpass Temperature : 150 °C
P-No. 8 Group No.1 to P-No. 8 Group No.:-1
Preheat Maintenance: - NA
Other:-NA
Thickness Range:
POST HEAT(QW-406)
Base Metal Plate :- Groove:- up to 10 mm
POSTHEAT Temperature : -NA
Pipe Dia. (mm) groove: NA RATE OF HEATING : -NA
Maximum Pass Thickness≤ ½ in. ( 13 mm ) Yes:-Y No:- RATE OF COOLINHG: - NA
FILLER METALS (QW -404)
SFA No: 5.4 POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT (QW407)
AWS CLASS: E308-15 Temperature Range: NA-
F. No. 5 SOCKING Time range: -NA
A. No. 8 Other:-NA
Size of Filler Metals 2.5,3.15mm
Root Pass : E308-15
Filler Pass: E308-15

Deposited Weld Metal Thickness

Range: Thickness Range (Groove) :10 mm

12
 TECHNIQUE (QW-410)

POSITIONS (QW -405) String or Weave Bead: EITHER

Positions of groove: 1G Orifice or Gas Cup Size : NA
Welding Progression:- Up: NA Down: NA Initial & Interpass Cleaning(Brushing, Grinding etc) :YES
Position(s) of Fillet:-ALL Method of Back Gouging : NA
Other:-NA Oscillation: NA
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTCS (QW-409) Contact Tube to Work Distance: NA
Current : (AC or DC) : SMAW : AC or DC Multiple or Single Pass (per side): MULTIPLE
Polarity : (SP or RP) : SMAW: DCEP Multiple or Single Electrodes: SINGLE
Metal Transfer Mode for GMAW/FCAW: NA Electrode Spacing:- NA
Electrode Wire Feed Speed Range: NA Travel Speed (range): 110-230 mm/min
Amp Range: 80-100 A
Volt Range : 80 V
Remark :

Sanal S Arun K Soman

Deputy Manager -Inspection Deputy Manager -Inspection
Mohamed Babu M A
BPCL-KR BPCL-KR
Deputy Manager –Inventory
BPCL-KR
Prepared by Reviewed by Approved by

Table 4.1 Welding Procedure Specifications

The welding features obtained from WPS are

• Type of Welding SMAW

• Base Plate SS304
• Welding Electrode SS308-15
• Power Source DC
• Polarity DCEP

13
 Figure 4.3 Specimen number Fourteen after welding

Based on the design matrix and WPS welding is carried out on sixteen plate specimens.
Fourteenth weld specimen is shown in figure 4.3.

4.2 Ferrite Number measurement

Ferrite Number (FN) is measured with the help of digital Ferrite meter and it works by
magnetic induction method. Ferrite meter is calibrated to AWS A4.2. The Ferrite meter along
with the welded specimen plates are shown in figure 4.4 and measurement of FN using
Ferrite meter is shown in figure 4.5.

Figure 4.4 Ferrite meter and welded specimen plates

14
 Figure 4.5 Measurement of FN using Ferrite meter

FN is measured at four different locations on each specimen and average FN is calculated.

The results obtained are shown in table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Average Ferrite number measured for different experimental runs

STANDARD Welding current Speed Thickness

ORDER (A) (mm/min) (mm) FN
1 80 110 6 4.4
2 100 110 6 3.6
3 80 230 6 6
4 100 230 6 5.1
5 80 110 10 4.7
6 100 110 10 3.8
7 80 230 10 6.2
8 100 230 10 5.3
9 80 110 6 4.5
10 100 110 6 3.5
11 80 230 6 6
12 100 230 6 4.5
13 80 110 10 4.8
14 100 110 10 3.8
15 80 230 10 6.2
16 100 230 10 5.2

15
4.3 Analysis of results using Minitab 17

Minitab 17 is statistical software. Using Minitab 17 the effects of the three factors, welding
current, welding speed and thickness of the plates on ferrite number is analyzed. The effect of
factors on FN is as shown in figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6 Screen shot of Minitab 17 showing the effect of factors on FN

From the above figure it is clear that FN decreases with increase in welding current but
increases with increase in welding speed and plate thickness.

16
 CHAPTER 5

SEM STUDY OF WELD

5.1 Sample preparation

Two sample specimens of size 1X1X1 cm is cut out from the weld zone using water jet
cutting and the specimens are tested using SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) . The cut
specimens are shown in figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1 SEM test specimen after water jet cutting

5.2 Testing

Two sample specimens, seven and ten having highest and lowest FN respectively are tested
using SEM. The specimen seven is having a FN of 6.2FN and specimen ten is having a FN of
3.5FN.

For specimen seven the dark patches of ferrite are clearly visible as shown in figure 5.2 and
for specimen ten the presence of ferrite are relatively less as shown in figure 5.3.

17
Figure 5.2 SEM image of specimen seven

Figure 5.3 SEM image of specimen ten

18
 CHAPTER 6

EFFECT OF HEAT INPUT ON FN AND WELD HARDNESS

6.1 Measurement of hardness

The sixteen weld specimens are cut into size of 5X5 cm using water jet cutting. The
specimens prepared by water jet cutting are shown in figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1 Hardness test specimen after water jet cutting

The hardness of the weld is measured using Brinell hardness testing machine. Hardness
testing was done at SM Lab at SOE CUSAT. The Brinnel hardness testing machine is used to
determine the Brinnel hardness, which is represented in HB. Brinnel hardness testing method
19
is defined in ASTM E10. The Brinell method applies a predetermined test load (F) to a
carbide ball of fixed diameter (D) which is held for a predetermined time period and then
removed. The resulting impression is measured across at least two diameters,usually at right
angles to each other and these result averaged (d). A chart is then used to convert the
averaged diameter measurement to a Brinell hardness number. Test forces range from 500 to
3000 kgf. In this study the load used was 3000 kgf. The Brinnel hardness measured for
sixteen sample specimens are shown in table 6.1, and it is clear from the table that the value
of Brinnel hardness varies between 151 HB and 187 HB.

Table 6.1 Hardness measured using Brinell hardness testing machine

STANDARD Welding current Speed Thickness Hardness

ORDER (A) (mm/min) (mm) (HB)
1 80 110 6 161
2 100 110 6 151
3 80 230 6 184
4 100 230 6 172
5 80 110 10 163
6 100 110 10 153
7 80 230 10 186
8 100 230 10 174
9 80 110 6 166
10 100 110 6 155
11 80 230 6 185
12 100 230 6 173
13 80 110 10 168
14 100 110 10 156
15 80 230 10 187
16 100 230 10 175

20
 CHAPTER 7

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

7.1 Handling the welding defect Hot cracking

In the field welding of SS plates the welders and engineers are more concerned about
preventing welding defects like lack of penetration, under cuts, porosity etc. Not much
steps have been taken to prevent the hot cracking. This study helps to identify how the
welding parameters and plate thickness affect FN which is directly related to hot
cracking. As per API 582 the minimum FN for deposited weld metal should be 3FN. If
the FN exceeds 10 FN, the material losses its characteristic austenitic properties.

7.2 Effect of welding parameters and plate thickness on FN

The effect of welding parameters and plate thickness on FN is as shown in figure

7.1,which is obtained using the software Minitab 17 and the experimentation strategy
used was two level full factorial design.

Figure 7.1 Effect of welding parameters and plate thickness on FN

21
7.3 Effect of welding current on FN

In this study welding is carried out at two current levels 80 A and 100 A. Eight specimens
were welded with 80 A and the remaining eight specimens were welded using 100A as per the
design matrix. From figure 7.1 it is clear that FN decreases with increase in welding current.
This is due to the fact that as the welding current increases welding heat input increases. The
welding heat input is controlled by the following equation.

Heat Input = V * A* 60 J/mm (7.1)

S

Where V --- Voltage in Volts

A --- Current in Amps, A
S --- Travel speed in mm/min

As the welding heat input increases cooling rate decreases as per the following equation

Cooling rate = {2πkρC (h/ Hnet) (Ti – To) 3 } 0C/sec (7.2)

2
Where k--- Thermal conductivity in W/m K
h--- Plate thickness in mm
C--- Specific heat (k Cal/0C.g)
Ti---Temperature of interest in 0C
To---Initial plate temperature in 0C
ρ---Density in g/cm3
Hnet---Heat input J/mm

As the cooling rate decreases solidification time increases providing sufficient time for the
molten metal to transform to austenite along with very small amount of retained delta ferrite.
This results in decrease in ferrite number with increase in welding current.

22
7.4 Effect of welding speed on FN

In this study welding is carried out at two speed levels 110 mm/min and 230 mm/min. Eight
specimens were welded with travel speed 110 mm/min and the remaining eight specimens
were welded with travel speed 230 mm/min as per the design matrix. From figure 7.1 it is
clear that FN increases with increase in welding speed. This is due to the fact that as welding
speed increases welding heat input decreases. The welding heat input is controlled by the
equation (7.1).

As welding heat input decreases cooling rate increases as per the equation (7.2). As the
cooling rate increases solidification time decreases. As the solidification time decreases the
transformation of delta ferrite to austenite would be suppressed resulting in higher residual
delta ferrite content and hence the FN increases with increase in welding speed.

7.5 Effect of plate thickness on FN

In these study plates of thickness 6mm and 10mm were used. From figure 7.1 it is clear that
FN increases with increase in plate thickness. This is due to the fact that as plate thickness
increases heat transfer rate or cooling rate increases due to increase area of cross section. As
the cooling rate increases solidification time decreases. As the solidification time decreases
the transformation of delta ferrite to austenite would be suppressed resulting in higher
residual delta ferrite content and hence the FN increases with increase in plate thickness.

7.6 Effect of Heat input on FN and weld hardness.

Table 7.1 shows the design matrix of full factorial design in which trials having same heat
input are grouped together. Welding heat input is calculated using equation (7.1). From table
7.1 the common heat inputs are combined and average value of FN and Hardness are taken as
shown in table 7.2.

23
 Table 7.1. The effect of heat input on FN and Hardness

Welding Welding
Standard current Speed HI Hardness
Order (A) (mm/min) (J/mm) FN (HB)
3 80 230 626.09 6 184
7 80 230 626.09 6.2 186
11 80 230 626.09 6 185
15 80 230 626.09 6.2 187
4 100 230 782.61 5.1 172
8 100 230 782.61 5.3 174
12 100 230 782.61 4.5 173
16 100 230 782.61 5.2 175
1 80 110 1309.09 4.4 161
5 80 110 1309.09 4.7 163
9 80 110 1309.09 4.5 166
13 80 110 1309.09 4.8 168
2 100 110 1636.36 3.6 151
6 100 110 1636.36 3.8 153
10 100 110 1636.36 3.5 155
14 100 110 1636.36 3.8 156

Table 7.2 The effect of heat input on FN and Hardness

Welding current Voltage Welding speed Heat input Hardness

(A) (V) (mm/min) (J/mm) FN (HB)
80 30 230 626.09 6.1 185.5
100 30 230 782.61 5 173.5
80 30 110 1309.09 4.6 164.5
100 30 110 1636.36 3.7 153.8

Figure 7.2 & 7.3 shows the effect of Heat input on FN and weld hardness respectively. From
the graphs it is clear that FN and weld hardness decreases with increase in Heat input.

24
 Figure 7.2 Effect of Heat input on FN

Figure 7.3 Effect of Heat input on weld hardness

From the figure 7.2 it is clear that FN decreases with increase in heat input. This is due to the
fact that as welding heat input increases cooling rate decreases as per equation (7.2). As the
cooling rate decreases solidification time increases providing sufficient time for the molten
metal to transform to austenite along with very small amount of retained delta ferrite. This

25
results in decrease in ferrite number with increase in heat input.

From figure 7.3 it is clear that weld hardness decreases with increase in heat input. This is
due to the fact that as welding heat input increases cooling rate decreases as per equation
(7.2). Low cooling rate result in coarse grain structure and cause lower hardness of the weld.
Higher cooling rate (low heat input) result in fine grain structure and cause higher hardness of
the weld.

26
 CHAPTER 8

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Hot cracking is one of the major defects in the welding of austenitic stainless steel. Hot
cracking is directly linked with FN. As per API 582, in order to prevent hot cracking in the
welding of austenitic stainless steel the FN of the deposited weld metal must be at least 3 FN
,If the FN exceeds 10 FN, the material losses its characteristic austenitic properties .So the
favourable range of FN is between 3FN and 10 FN for austenitic stainless steels like SS304.

The FN can be controlled by varying the welding parameters. The major part of this study
was concentrating on the effect of welding parameters and plate thickness on FN. Out of the
sixteen trails done in this study the FN is varied between 3.5 and 6.2. Hence in all the sixteen
trails the FN is greater than three, so the chances of Hot cracking can be neglected. So it can
be stated that a welding current range of 80 to 100 A and a welding speed of 110 to 230
mm/min are safe ranges for welding current and speed respectively for SS 304 plates having
thickness in the range 6 to 10 mm for preventing hot cracking.

In order to optimise the welding parameters, designs with more levels has to be conducted
which will help to create mathematical models on FN and Hot cracking, which can be
considered as one of the future propensity of this study.

Inferences derived from this study are

1. FN decreases with increase in welding current

2. FN increases with increase in welding speed
3. FN increases with increase in plate thickness.
4. FN decreases with increase in Heat input
5. Weld Hardness decreases with increase in heat input

27
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1 John C .Lippold, Damian J. Kotecki. Welding Metallurgy and Weldability of Stainless

Steels. Wiley India ;2011.
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st
3 API. Welding Inspection and Metallurgy, Recommended Practice 577.1 ed; 2004.
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Steel Welds-Solidification cracking,”WRC Bulletin, pp.203s-212s, Aug.1986.
5 C.D. Lundin,C.P.Chou,C.J.Sullivan, “Hot cracking resistance of Austenitic Stainless Steel
Weld metals,”WRC Bulletin, pp.226s-232s, Aug.1980.
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Bulletin, pp.13s-21s, Jan.1982.
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cracking of Type 309 Stainless Steel,” WRC Bulletin,pp.139s-143s.May.1978.
th
8 Larry Jeffus. Welding principles and applications. 5 ed.Thomson; 2003.
nd
9 API. Welding guidelines for the Chemical, Oil, and Gas industries, 2 ed; 2009.
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28