FOCUS

STUDY AIDS

„O‟ LEVEL
AGRICULTURE

REVISION
CONTENTS

PART ONE

Section One – Introductory

1. An Introduction to Agriculture
2. Environmental Influences on Agriculture
3. Agricultural Production in Zimbabwe
4. Landuse
6. Forestry

Section Two – Soils & Irrigation

6. The Composition and Formation of Soils
7. The Properties of Soils
8. Soil Water, Soil Air, Soil Temperature and Soil Fertility
9. Soil Erosion
10. Irrigation

Section Three – Crop Husbandry

11. Plant Nutrition
12. Land Preparation
13. Cereal Crops of Zimbabwe
14. Crop protection

Section Four – Livestock Husbandry

15. Livestock Husbandry
16. Rearing Rabbits
17. Rearing Broiler Chickens

Section Five - Farm structures and Pasture management

18. Veld and pasture management
19. Farm Fences

Section Six – Agricultural Economics

20. Principles of Economics
21. Farm Records and Accounts
22. Farm Budgeting and Farm Credit
23. Marketing
PART TWO

Section Seven (Option One) – Crop husbandry.

24. Fruit Trees
25. Tobacco
26. Groundnuts
27. Tomatoes

Section Eight (Option Two) – Livestock Husbandry

28. Pigs
29. Sheeps and Goats
30. Beef Cattle
31. Dairy Cattle
32. Animal health

Section Nine (Option three) – Horticulture & Lawns

33. Ornamental plants
34. Lawns and Grasses

Section Ten (Option Four) – Farm Structures Machinery

35. Farm Roads
36. Farm Tools and Machinery
37. Farm Buildings and water supply
38. Animal Handling Facilities
Typical Examination Paper
Glossary
Part One

Section One
Introduction to Agriculture

1. Introduction to Agriculture

KEY FACTS

The History of Agriculture

At its most sophisticated and efficient present day agriculture is highly

commercialized and supported with the latest developments in technology
such as the use of computers.

This form of agriculture developed from:

 hunting and gathering practiced in the past and still by a few

isolated communities today.
 shifting cultivation after the domestication of some plants and
animals and also still common today.
 subsistence farming, with production mostly for self
consumption.

As methods and yields improved, surpluses beyond the farmers requirements

were used initially in barter trade and finally for money as trade became
more sophisticated.

The Importance of Agriculture

Agriculture provides us with both food and clothing. In addition to these

basic need, agriculture:

- Provides employment both directly and indirectly through secondary

industries like:

- meat processing factories (e.g. Cold Storage Commission).

- Timber mills (e.g. Border Timbers).
- Foodstuff manufacturing (e.g. Olivine).
- Leather processing factories (e.g. Olivine).
- Enables farmers to obtain cash and the country to obtain cash and the
country to obtain foreign currency as well as other commodities through
agricultural exports and barter trade, respectively.
- Enables farmers to keep pace with the needs of growing populations as
breeding centres and research units produce new crop varieties, animal
breeds and farming technologies.

Economic Uses of plants

The following groups of plants, arranged according to usages, are of

economic value to man.

1. Foods – cereals, legumes, fruits and vegetable as well as nuts are

eaten directly. Also, the edible flesh of cattle, swine, poultry, fish and
mollusks is a by-product of the consumption of plant life.
2. Fibres – many are used in the weaving of cloth fabrics, rope nets and
so on. Others, after suitable chemical and physical alteration, are used
to make paper, rayon, cellophane and other material.
3. Wood and wood derivatives. These should easily be familiar, but see
page 25.
4. Drugs – although many synthetic drugs are now produced by
chemists, many still come from plants. Examples are quinine (malaria
treatment), ephedrine (nasal sprays), casrara and senna (laxatives),
cocaine (anaesthesia), penicillin, balsam and others.
5. Beverages – tea, cocoa, coffee, sugars and after treatment, beers,
wines and other alcoholic drinks.
6. Gums and related substances, for example rubbers and gums.
7. Essential oils – perfumes and oils from flowers and other plants
evaporate easily and have characteristic smells.
8. Resins – some are used as fixatives for essential oils.
9. Tannins – from barks and other plant tissue, usually bitter and foul
smelling for treating leathers and making certain inks.
10. Dyes
11. Fatty oils – latex products and drugs such as the tobacco, opium and
marijuana.
Uses of grain

In developed countries like United States of America more grain is used to

feed livestock than for human consumption. In developing countries more
grain is directly used for human consumption.

The Green Revolution, which means the work done by plant breeders to
produce high yielding grains, helped many nations to increase food
production. However, in developed countries increased food production is
hampered by high fuel costs and unfavourable weather conditions. Figure
1.01 shows countries of Central and Southern Africa. This area does not
have sufficient food for its population of about 100 million people.

Zimbabwe has been able to produce enough food for its people and a surplus
is exported. As a member of the SADC region i.e. Southern Africa
Development Community, Zimbabwe is responsible for ensuring food
security for the SADC countries. table 1.01 shows the areas of SADC states
and their population figures.
Table 1.01
Land Areas and Population of SADC Countries
(in hectares)
Country Hectares Population in millions
(1981 Estimates)
Angola 112 467 000 7,3
Tanzania 94 516 600 19,0
Mozambique 78 300 000 10,8
Zambia 75 261 000 6,0
Botswana 60 037 200 0,84
Zimbabwe 39 037 000 7,5
Malawi 11 848 400 6,3
Lesotho 3 032 700 1,4
Swaziland 1 736 300 0,7

Exercise 1

Multiple choice

a) Modern day agriculture developed from:

A. Computers
B. Subsistence farming
C. Hunting and gathering
D. Barter trade.

b) This is an example of a secondary industry:

A. Shifting cultivation
B. Meat processing
C. Crop research
D. Fish breeding.

c) Which country is not in Southern Africa?

A. Botswana
B. Gabon
C. Namibia
D. Zimbabwe.

d) These are major sources of medicinal drugs:

A. Cattle
 B. Fibres
C. Fatty oils
D. Plants.

e) This country is responsible for SADC food security

A. Angola
B. Lesotho
C. Swaziland
D. Zimbabwe.

True/False

2. Answer the following questions by inserting the letter T for TRUE

statements and F for FALSE statements.
a) Computers are essential for producing high yields in modern
day agriculture.
b) Zimbabwe always produces enough food for its population.
c) Developed countries use more grain to feed livestock than for
human consumption.
d) Hunting and gathering is an extinct form of economic activity.
e) Barter trade enables the country to obtain foreign currency.

Structured items

3. What is the major drawback for agriculture in Central and Southern

Africa?
4. List four economic uses of plants.
5. What does SADC do for its members?

Essays
6. How are farmers able to keep pace with growing populations and the
increasing demand for food?
7. Write a few notes on the development of agriculture from ancient
times.
8. Describe subsistence farming.
2. Environmental Influences on Agriculture

KEY FACTS

The environment influences which affect agricultural production are:

- rainfall – see below for details.
- temperature – rates of evaporation and transpiration, humidity, soil
temperatures and the rate of photosynthesis in plants all depend on the
temperature. For winter crops, possibilities of frost formation are also
crucial.
- humidity – precipitation potential as well as rates of evaporation
transpiration depend on humidity, among other factors.
- wind – movement of rain – bearing air masses, rates of evaporation
and transpiration depend partly on wind speeds and direction.
- evaporation – the factors above affect rates of soil moisture loss and
hence rainfall effectiveness.
- water resources – availability of streams for damming, ground water
etc. affect possibilities for irrigation.
These factors cannot be controlled by the farmer. However the farmer can
control other factors such as:
- size of land cultivated
- fertilizer applications
- pests and diseases
- farming methods
- suitability of crops grown
- investment in irrigation.
Rainfall is the most important environmental factor which influences
farming. The types of crops that can be grown and the kind of natural
vegetation available all depend largely on the amount of rainfall. (See p18
for Zimbabwe‟s natural farming regions).

For the purposes of crop husbandry, it is not just the amount of rainfall
which is important but also:
- the intensity. Sustained, gentle rainfall is better than sudden
downpours.
- Reliability. Regular, relatively moderate falls are preferable to heavy
falls and periodic droughts in between.
- effectiveness. The factors above are important in their effect upon
runoff and penetration which together with the other environmental
factors determine the amount of water actually available to plants. The
 section on Soil Properties, p36 also has important information on the
drainage and water retention qualities of various soils.

The Water Cycle

Rainfall Formation
When atmospheric air is cooled, condensation – that is formation of
raindrops – occurs. There have to be condensation nuclei, such as dust
particles, before condensation can take place.

As the air is cooled further, more condensation takes place, increasing the
size of raindrops formed. This is followed by precipitation which is rainfall.

Plants, as well as, of course, human beings and animals need water to
survive and grow. The amount of water available for these forms of life
exists in a state of balance, called the water cycle which is best left
undisturbed. For an explanation of the water or Hydrological cycle.

Figure 2.01
The water cycle
Types of Rainfall
Convectional Rainfall
Heated air expands, becomes lighter and begins to rise. As the warm air
rises, it is cooled and condensation occurs. Heavy clouds build up and
thunderstorms are produced. Figure 2.02 illustrates the formation of
conventional rainfall.

Figure 2.02
Convectional rainfall
Orographic Rainfall
This is the type of rainfall which is influenced by topography. As a stream of
air encounters high ground, such as a mountain range, it is forced to rise to a
height where condensation can take place. Clouds are formed and rain
occurs, usually on the windward side of the mountain. Figure 2.03 shows
how orographic rainfall occurs.

Convergence
When two air streams meet, a front is formed and air rises to condensation
levels forming rainfall. Figure 2.04 illustrates the formation convergence
rain.
 Diagram

The Intertropical Convergence Zone

The heat of the sun creates an area of low pressure as the sun moves form
north to south.

This area of low pressure encourages convergence of air streams and rainfall
is formed. In Zimbabwe the Intertropical Convergence Zone (I.T.C.Z.) lies
across the country in summer causing most of the rainfall. Figures 2.05 and
2.06 show the position of the I.T.C.Z.

As the sun moves to the north an area of high pressure is created over South
Africa. This forces the South easterly winds to blow towards Zimbabwe,
causing the end of season showery weather across the country.
 Figure 2.05
Position of I.T.C.Z. in July
 Figure 2.06
Position of I.T.C.Z in January

Weather Records

Table 2.01 shows the instruments used for measurements to compile weather
records.

Table 2.01
Instrument What it measures
Rain Gauge Rainfall
Thermometer Temperature
Windvane Wind direction
Barometer Atmospheric pressure
Anemometer Windspeed
 Figure 2.07
A rain-gauge

Figure 2.08
anemometer
 Figure 2.09
Thermometers
 Figure 2.10
Windvane

Figure 2.10
Aneroid barometer
 Figure 2.11
Mercury barometer

Soil Temperature

The thin layer on the surface of the soil heats or cools in response to
temperature variations. If plant roots were not protected by the soil most
plants would die. For the soil to provide this protection it should contain
adequate moisture and organic matter.
Frost Formation

During the night the soil looses heat to the atmosphere. When the sky is
clear this process causes very low temperatures. At 0 degrees C what will
freeze. If moisture freezes on plant leaves the plants will die. When there is a
cloud cover the ground does not cool very much. This is the case because the
reflection of heat results in the greenhouse effect, that is when heat is
trapped in one place preventing frost formation. Figure 2.112 shows how
this occurs.
 Figure 2.12
The Greenhouse effect.

Factors which influence frost formation

- latitude i.e. nearness to the equator
- altitude i.e. height above sea level.
- topography i.e. surface land forms
- humidity i.e. amount of moisture in the atmosphere.

Frost protection

Methods of frost protection

These include the use of:
- frost barriers such as quick growing trees or bushes
- watery foliage
- mulching
- organic matter
- adjusted planting dates
- ground moisture
- use of fans
- use of lamps
- smoke
- breeding frost tolerant varieties.
Exercise 2

Multiple choice

1. (a) Which environmental factor has the most limiting effect on

crop growth?
 A. humidity
B. rainfall
C. temperature
D. wind.

(b) Farmers can increase crop production by:

A. controlling pests
B. measuring temperature
C. keeping rainfall records
D. assessing disease damage.

(c) Condensation means

A. cooling of air
B. raindrop formation
C. low pressure area
D. thunder clouds.

(d) Which type of rainfall is similar to convectional rainfall?

A. convergence
B. divergence
C. geographic
D. relief.

(e) Which one of the following is used to determine the speed fo

wind?

A. anemometer
B. rain gauge
C. thermometer
D. wind vane

True / False
Answer the following question by inserting the letter T for true statements
and F for false statements

2. (a) temperature is the most important factor which influences

 farming …………
(b) Windward slopes face prevailing winds …………….
(c) A front is associated with convergence …………..
(d) Wet soil can reflect a lot of heat …………..
(e) Frost occurs when the temperature is below 0 degrees Celcius
……….
(f) The green house effect creates a warm environment ………

Structured items

3. (a) How does altitude influence frost occurrence?

(b) State any 4 ways of protecting plants against frost.
(c) What would you use to water plant foliage to prevent frost.
(d) What does I.T.C.Z. stand for?
(e) In which direction does air flow in a low pressure area?

Essays

4. Write short notes on:

(a) condensation
(b) orographic rainfall.

5. Describe how the I.T.C.Z. occurs.

6. (a) Draw a labeled diagram of a rain gauge.

(b) Explain how the rain gauge is used to measure rainfall.

3. Agricultural Production in Zimbabwe

KEY FACTS

The peasant and small scale farmers of Zimbabwe are very important. They
produce food to feed a population fo nearly 6 million people living in the
 communal areas. Most of these farmers are found in regions of poor to
marginal rainfall. Since independence, some people have been moved into
re-settlement areas. The government bought farms form commercial farmers
to resettle landless people in areas of better rainfall. Table 3.01 show the
various groups of people found on the farms in Zimbabwe.

Table 3.01
Farming population before and after
Independence
Groups of people 1978 1983
Peasant farmers 750 000 950 000
Small-scale
Commercial Farmers 9 000 9 000
Large-scale
Commercial Farmers 6 000 4 000
Farm Workers 350 000 260 000

Table 3.02
Natural Climate Crops Livestock
farming regions
Region 1 High rainfall, over 1000 mm, Forestry Intensive live-
with fairly low temperature Fruit stock production
making the rain more effective Tea
than the same rain under higher Coffee
temperatures where much more
would be lost from evaporation.
Region 2 Summer rainfall 700 to 1 000mm Intensive crop Intensive livestock
production. Maize, production. Dairy
Tobacco Cotton farming and beef
fattening.
Region 3 Moderate rainfall 550 to 700 mm Drought resistant Beef breeding and
The temperatures are higher and crops rearing.
the rainfall less effective. The Supplementary
rainfall is less reliable with dry irrigation. Sorghum.
spells during the rainy season. Cotton. Oriental
Tobacco. Fodder
crops for livestock.
Region 4 Fairly low rainfall 450 to 600 Drought resistant Semi-extensive
mm with seasonal droughts and Fodder crops. livestock
 severe dry spells during the Cash crops under production under
rainly season. Irrigation. controlled grazing
management.
Region 5 Rainfall is less than 50 mm and Irrigation schemes Extensive cattle
too erratic for even drought growing Sugar ranching.
resistant fodder crops cane, Wheat, Citrus.

Natural Regions of Zimbabwe

These groups of farmers are found in five natural regions, determined

largely by the amount of rainfall. A natural farming region is thus an area in
which the rainfall in particular, but also the temperatures, vegetation and
farming activities are almost uniform.

Maize Production

Zimbabwe‟s staple food is maize. There has to be a constant supply of maize

throughout the year. Food which is kept for emergencies such as drought is
called reserve. About 0.5 million tones of maize should be kept in reserve
every year. A total of about 2.0 million tones are required to feed the
population yearly. Surplus maize is exported to other countries.

Government Agricultural Policies

The economy of Zimbabwe is based on agriculture. The farming systems

supported by government are:
- commercial farming
- peasant agriculture
- co-operative farming
- state-owned estates.
After independence a number of black farmers moved into commercial
farming. In order to promote collective efforts co-operative farming has been
encouraged. State-owned estates are important to ensure a constant supply of
essential products.

In order to co-ordinate development the government has set up development

committees. These committees are responsible for land distribution and
conservation of natural resources. Table 3.03 shows the structure of these
development organs.
 Table 3.03
Structure of development organs in the
provinces

Provincial Governors
↓
Provincial Councils
↓
District Councils
↓
Ward Development Committees
(WADCO)
↓
Village Development Committees
(VIDCO)

Resettlement
The resettlement programme is aimed at increasing agricultural productivity
and the peoples‟ standard of living. Groups of people are resettled on
commercial farms. The programme follows four models of production.

MODEL A
It is an intensive resettlement model. Individual farmers are allocated five
hectares of arable land, 2500 square metres for residential land and grazing
is communal. Up to 10 herd of cattle may be kept by each farmer.

MODEL B
This is another intensive system. Farmers are organized into co-operatives
and they farm the same land. Profits are shared amongst the members.

MODEL C
The model is highly organized around a central estate, controlled by a
commercial organization such as ADA (Agricultural Development
Authority.) Families also have arable and grazing land.
MODEL D
This system is suitable in Natural Regions IV and V. Land is divided into
paddocks and animals are grazed communally. This improves both the
livestock and the pastures.
Agricultural Extension Work
Extension work is provided by three main departments which are part of the
Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Rural Resettlement.
These are:
- Agricultural Extension (AGRITEX)
- Research and Specialist Services (R & SS)
- Veterinary Services.

Extension work in agriculture is also undertaken by non-government

organizations (NGOs). Most of these NGOs are promoting a form of
agriculture which is sustainable. The term sustainable agriculture refers to
those farming methods which are safe to the environment and which require
very low external inputs. These methods are cheap for the farmer and are
therefore socially acceptable.

One such method is called natural farming which lays emphasis on the use
of organic fertilizers and pesticides which are ecologically safe.

Other farming organizations like the Commercial Farmers‟ Union (CFU)

and the Zimbabwe National Farmers‟ Union (ZNFU) are also involved in
extension work as they advise the farmers affiliated to them on better
farming methods.

Services provided by Agritex

The department is concerned with the improvement of:
- crop production
- livestock management
- soil conservation
- natural resources conservation.

Services provided by Research and Specialist Services

- soil analysis
- weed control
- pest and disease control
- crop breeding.
Services provided by Veterinary Services
- disease research
- disease identification
- disease control
- tsetse-fly and tick control.
Exercise 3

Multiple choice
1. (a) Which of the following terms refers to farmers?

A. soil analysts
B. veterinary officers
C. primary producers
D. food manufacturers.

(b) Farmers are important to the economy of Zimbabwe because

they:

A. own large farms

B. process food
C. work on the land
D. produce raw materials.

(c) Which factor contributes to the low crop yields in developing

countries?

A. insufficient manpower
B. unfavourable weather
C. lack of hybrid seed
D. poor technology.

(d) Which of the following SADC states is responsible for food

security?

A. Lesotho
B. Mozambique
C. Swaziland
D. Zimbabwe.

(d) Which is the major activity carried out in Natural Region1?

A. fruit production
B. maize growing
C. livestock management
 D. wheat production.

True/False
Answer the following questions by inserting the letter T for true statements
and F for false statements.

2. (a) Masvingo town is in Natural Region 1 ……………..

(b) Natural Region 2 receives rainfall in summer …………..
(c) Ranching means intensive livestock production ………..
(d) Crops can only be successfully grown under irrigation ……….
(e) Zimbabwe‟s staple food is wheat ……….
(f) Surplus maize is exported to other countries ………..

Completion Items
Use the list provided to complete the statements given below.
- resettlement
- development committee
- extension work
- agricultural productivity
- export
- agriculture
- wadco
- employment

3. (a) The economy of Zimbabwe is based on ………..

(b) Maize is an example of a crop grown for ………..
(c) The government programme which reduces population pressure
in communal areas is …………..
(d) ……………………. Plan and implement projects in rural
communities.
(e) The resettlement programme is aimed at increasing ………….

Structured items

4. (a) State the main agricultural activity in the following Natural

Regions:
i) Region 2
 ii) Region 4
iii) Region 5.
(b) How is resettlement organized under:
i) Model A
ii) Model B?
(c) State one function provided for by
i) Agritex
ii) Research and Specialist Services.

5. Explain the meaning of the term „sustainable‟ agriculture.

4. Land Use

KEY FACTS
Land, which is the solid part of the earth‟s surface has a limited supply. It is
in high demand for such uses as agriculture, forestry, wildlife conservation,
industry, transport, housing and recreation purposes.

The conditions under which a piece of land is held are known as tenure.
When someone owns land, a title deed is given.

Land Tenure Systems

- private ownership
- state ownership
- communal ownership
- leasehold
- inheritance.

Crop rotation
- The growing of different crops on the same piece of land in order to
maintain fertility and control pests is known as crop rotation. It is
different from monoculture where the same crop is grown in the same
piece of land continuously or for several seasons.
- An example of a 4 crop rotation system is shown below:

Figure 4.01
Four crop rotation system
Principles of rotation
In order to design a good rotation cycle a farmer should observe certain
guidelines:
- rotation should include crops suitable to climatic conditions.
- soil types should be correct for the selected crops.
- a rotation should include a legume such as beans, peas and
groundnuts.
- manure should be added every 2-4 seasons.
- deep rooted crops should follow shallow rooted crops.
- crops of the same family should not follow each other.

Reasons for rotating crops

Depending on the choice of crops, a rotation can be a two, three, four or five
season cycle. Whichever cycle is selected there are advanteages which
should encourage farmers to practice crop rotation.
- a variety of crops can be grown.
- the risk of complete crop failure is reduced: for example when
drought tolerant crops are included or in the case of disease outbreak.
- weeds are effectively controlled. For example, parasitic weeds die
when a particular host is removed.
- pests and diseases are easily controlled.
- soil fertility is improved.
- there is effective use of plant nutrients as crops vary in their demands
for nutrients.
- there is effective use of nutrients at various depths when shallow
rooted crops.
- nutrient status of the soils is improved when deep rooted crops bring
nutrients to the top layers of the soil.
- aeration and water infiltration are improved when deep rooted crops
break up the hard layers of subsoil.
- crop rotation helps to control soil erosion.
- the nitrogen status of the soil is improved by legumes.
- there is a regular source of profits from a variety of crops. For
example, when there is a glut for one crop the farmer will rely on
another.
- there is an even use of labour since the work requirements can be
more effectively spread.
Exercise 4

1. Which group of crops consists of legumes?

A. cabbage; okra; sunflower

B. maize; carrots; parsely
C. peas; Lucerne; sunhemp
D. potato; asparagus; wheat.

2. When should manure be added in a rotation?

A. annually
B. seasonally
C. after 2 – 4 seasons
D. when required.

3. Which of the following is an advantage of crop rotation?

A. same crop is grown

B. no labour is required
C. nitrogen is increased
D. no disease outbreak.

4. (a) Under which tenure system does the owner get a title deed?

A. communal ownership
B. freehold
C. state ownership
D. tenancy.

5. Why are legumes included in crop rotation?

A. pests and diseases are avoided

B. weed control is facilitated
C. nitrogen content is increased
D. soil erosion is minimized.
6. An example of a tuber is

A. beans
B. cabbage
C. carrot
D. potato.

7. Related crops should not follow each other because

A. consumers want variety

B. the same fertilizer is used
C. the same pests attack them
D. the same labour is needed.

True/False
Use the letter T for true statements and F for false statements.

8. (a) Crop rotation must consist of four different crops ……….

(b) Forestry and wildlife management are agricultural activities
……….
(c) The supply of land is unlimited ………….
(d) Monoculture is the same as crop rotation …………..
(e) Glut means that there is an oversupply of a crop on the market
………

Essays

9. (a) Design a four crop rotation system.

(b) What are the advantages of crop rotations?

10. Explain with reasons the principles of crop rotations.

5. Forestry

KEY FACTS

Trees and Climate

As part of the hydrological cycle trees obtain water from underground water
supplies. The water is used for the various functions until the excess is
released through the process of evapotranspiration. This water in the form of
vapour is released into the atmosphere, where it condenses forming rain. In
this way trees increase the amount of rainfall an area will receive.
Climatologists claim that the climates around major irrigation schemes have
been altered as a result of atmospheric moisture from vegetation.

Trees are also essential in the catchment areas as their roots bind soil
particles together and prevent erosion. This means that the amount of
siltration in dams and rivers will be greatly reduced.

Other uses of trees include:

- wildlife conservation
- fuelwood and charcoal
- fencing
- building
- furniture
- apiculture
- wood carving
- oil production
- plywood and board wood manufacture
- paper production.

Timber trees of Zimbabwe

Hardwoods
- Mukwa (bloodwood) – produces good furniture.
- Mukusi (Zimbabwean Teak) – makes decorative floors.
- Mchibi (Zimbabwean Mahogany) – the timber is red in colour.

Exotics
- Eucalyptus grandis – fast growing.
- Black Wattle – bark extract used for tanning leather.
Soft woods
Most softwoods which are of economic importance are exotic. There are
mainly pine species such as:
- Mexican pine – makes 70% of plantations in Zimbabwe.
- Slash pine
- Tobolly pine.
Only a small area of Zimbabwe is planted with exotic trees because they
require deep soils and a minimum of 500mm of rainfall.

Forestry management

The choice of a site for planting trees should offer:

- deep, fertile soils that are well drained.
- easy access when watering is required.
- at least 30 metres distance from water courses and vleis since:
- it is bad conservation practice to grow crops near water courses.
- trees have a high level of water usage.

The propagation of trees can be done from:

- cuttings. Only one year old shoots should be used.
- seed. The best time for sowing is mid-July to the first week of August.
In all cases, the soil should be properly prepared top-soil, free from old roots
and stones. Once they have germinated, seedlings require:
- sufficient but not excessive watering.
- protection from weeds.
- where necessary, protection from termites using Aldrin.
- protection from livestock, either in the form of post and wire fencing
or thorn branches.
The land on which the seedlings are to be planted should be prepared well in
advance of planting time and involves:
- stumping
- ploughing
- weeding.
When planting out the seedlings, only strong, healthy seedlings of the right
size (25 – 30cm tall should be used and they must be planted early, as soon
as the soil is wet to a depth of 30cm.

Planting plans
Sometimes it is necessary to choose a certain type of plant in order to have
the best use of available land. The common planting plans are as follows:
- Triangular
- Rectangular
- Square
- Quincox – (trees planted in the centre)
- Hexagonal
- Contour or terrace.

Tree planting

Raising seedlings, and planting trees should be an annuall event because

there is more demand for fuelwood and poles, than the already available
supplies. Figure 5.01 on page 27 gives details of the events which should be
undertaken through the year.

Exercise 5

Multiple choice
1. a) Which one of the following uses of timber is most common in
the communal areas?

A. apiculture
B. carving
C. fuelwood
D. plywood.

b) Select an exotic hardwood from the list given.

A. Black wattle
B. Bloodwood
C. Mahogany
D. Teak.

c) The minimum amount of rainfall for planting exotic trees is

A. 500 mm
B. 600 mm
C. 700 mm
D. 800 mm
 d) Which one of the following is not a method of a plantation plan.

A. hexagonal
B. quincox
C. square
D. strip.

e) In which month should planting out of trees begin

A. December
B. January
C. July
D. March.

Structured Items

2. a) Why are trees part of the hydrological cycle?

b) How do plants lose water into the atmosphere?
c) Which indigenous tree is known as bloodwood?
d) Which exotic tree is known for its fast growth rate?
e) Which part of the wattle is used for tanning leather?
f) What should tree plantations be protected from?

Essays

3. Outline the importance of trees in relation to climate.

4. Explain, using examples of trees, why forests are important.
5. Discuss the steps you would take as part of your tree planting calendar
between January and June.
Figure 5.01 Gum Tree Planting Calendar

Section Two

The Soil

6. The Composition and Formation of Soils

KEY FACTS
Definition of soil
A very thin layer of rock particles and organic matter on the surface of the
earth‟s crust, in which plants, are anchored, nourished and grown.

Composition of Soils
Figure 6.01 illustrates the composition of the soil.

The Origin of Soil

 Figure 6.01
The composition of soil

The soil is a by – product of rock which has broken down over a very long
period and organic materials.
The three major rock types are:
- Igneous
- Sedimentary
- Metamorphic.

Igneous Rocks
Granite is a good example of igneous rocks. These rocks are a result of
molten magma which solidified many millions of years ago. Most soils in
Zimbabwe originated from this type of rock. Basalt is another type of
igneous rock. It produces deep fertile soils on low lying land, such as the
lowveld of Zimbabwe.

Sedimentary Rocks
This type of rock is formed through a process of weathering and destruction
of igneous rocks. These weathered materials are then deposited in low-lying
areas, together with organic and other materials, to form layers of sediment,
and finally, rock. Examples of sedimentary rocks are limestone and coal.
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are also formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks
under great heat and pressure. Gneiss and marble are examples of
metamorphic rocks.

Weathering Processes

The three main processes are

- physical weathering.
- chemical weathering.
- biological weathering.

PHYSICAL WEATHERING
Rock particles are weathered from large rocks through 4 main agents, which
are
- temperature
- ice
- wind
- water.

Temperature
During the day rocks are heated by the sun and cooled during the night. This
causes rocks to crack. When a rock is partially buried under the soil, it is
heated unevenly. The part above receives more heat and expands more than
that underneath causing the rock to crack.

Sometimes the sun‟s heat is not strong enough to crack the whole rock. Only
layers of rock are removed. This process is called exfoliation.

Ice
Water in cracks of rocks freezes during cold weather. As water freezes
during cold weather. As water freezes it expands causing great pressure
inside the crack. This causes the rock to break up.

Wind
Water charged with sand particles also has abrasive qualities. As it flows
over rock surfaces it removes small particles, and these are further broken
down as the stream flows.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Water flowing over different rocks dissolves the chemical properties of the
rock. When water becomes acidic e.g. by dissolving carbon dioxide it
becomes capable of dissolving other chemical elements in rocks. This results
in chemical weathering. Clay is result of chemical weathering and it contains
the chemical properties of the soil which is formed.

BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
Agents of Biological Weathering are:
- micro-organisms
- macro-organisms and
- plant roots.

Micro-organisms include bacteria and fungi. Macro-organisms such as

earthworms, cause rocks to weather due to their burrowing activities. Plant
roots grow into rock cracks and as their roots grow bigger, they force the
rocks apart. Animals and man‟s activities such as movement cause rock
particles to break.

Figure 6.02
Soil forming processes

We have seen that for weathering to be complete all the three processes have
to be involved. They complement one another.
Soil profiles

The scientific study of soils is called pedology. A useful tool in this science
is the soil profile, which is a diagrammatic representation, normally drawn to
scale, of the successive layers of a soil, called horizons. A profile is drawn
from the top downwards, as we would see if we dug a pit and normally has
the following 3 basic layers:

- A – the top soil, mostly weathered rock mixed with organic materials
and humus.
- B – the sub-soil, with little organic material
- C – the underlying material, consisting mostly of partially weathered
parent rock material grading down to the soil rock itself.

Figure. 6.03
A typical soil profile
A. Top soil
B. Sub soil
C. Underlying material

Mechanical Soil Analysis

This is a process of measuring soil particle sizes in order to classify soils.

International Classification of Soil Particles

Table 6.01 shows the classification of soil particles, by size.

Table 6.01
Soil particles by size
Fraction Particle Size
Gravel Over 2mm in diameter
Coarse sand 2 mm – 0,2 mm
Fine sand 0,2 mm – 0,2 mm
Silt 0,2 mm – 00,002 mm
clay Below 0,002 mm

Soil Texture

Texture means the fineness or coarseness of a soil. Soil texture is usually

dictated by the amount of sand or clay particles it contains. It cannot be
altered by any cultural practices.

A soil containing a large proportion of sand particles is described as sandy,

while a soil consisting of a large proportion of clay particles is clayey. Here
is a summary of soil classes and their percentage particle sizes.

Clay 30 – 50% clay

Loam 20 – 30% clay
Clay loam 40 – 60% sand
Sandy loam 80% sand 20% clay

When the amount of sand particles in clay increases a clayey – loam soil is
produced. Similarly when the amount of clay in sand increases a loamy sand
soil is produced.
Assessment of Texture

If you put soil in a jar, add water and shake vigorously, the soil will separate
into various particles, after it has been allowed to settle. This way you can
determine the type of soil in the jar. This simple experiment is illustrated in
figure 6.04.

Figure 6.04
Soil texture diagram

Another method is to take a wet sample of soil and rub it between the
fingers. If it feels sticky, then it is clay soil. A silty soil will feel soapy.

Soil Sampling

Sampling means taking small quantities of soil for analysis. The soil should
be sampled when it is moist enough to be easily cut with a spade.

Method
- Select a pattern to follow on the land. See Figure 6.05
- Leaf mould or other materials on the surface should not be removed.
- Cut a V-shaped hole with a spade to a depth of 30cm.
- cut a slice of soil from one of the slanting sides.
- Place the soil in a container and move to the next station.
- Repeat the process until the whole field is covered.
- Avoid ant heaps and drains.
 Figure 6.05
Soil sampling pattern

Packaging
The soil should be mixed thoroughly before drying on a suitable area, e.g.
cement floor. A sample of approximately 1 kg is packed to carton and sent
for analysis to:

The Soil Testing Laboratory

Chemistry and Soil Research Institute
P O Box 8100
Causeway
Harare

Exercise 6

Multiple choice

1. a) The percentage of organic matter in a typical soil sample is

approximately:

A. 25%
B. 15%
C. 10%
D. 5%

b) An example of an igneous rock is:

A. granite
B. limestone
 C. marble
D. schist.

c) Which of the following is NOT an agent of physical

weathering?

A. flowing water
B. plant roots
C. moving ice
D. strong winds.

d) Weathering of rock in layers is called ………….

A. chipping
B. crystallization
C. exfoliation
D. expansion.

e) Which chemical is mostly involved in chemical weathering?

A. acid
B. juice
C. solvent
D. water.

Completion items

2. Use the words provided to complete the statements below.

- grain - granule
- v – shaped - oval
- sedimentary - clay
- silt - earthworms
- over 2 mm - texture
- 0.02 mm - deep
- micro-organisms - structure
a) An example of an agent of biological weathering is …………
b) The size of silt particles is …………..
c) The smallest particles of the soil are called …………
 d) The ………… of a soil can be determined by feeling the soil
with fingers.
e) A …………. Shaped hole should be dug when collecting a soil
sample.
f) Rocks formed through weathering and deposition are called …

Structured items
3. a) Name two examples of metamorphic rocks.
b) Give the three processes of weathering.
c) Explain how temperature causes weathering.
d) What is exfoliation?
e) Name an example of soil formed as a result of chemical
weathering.
Essays
4. Explain how rocks are weathered by:
a) ice
b) wind.
5. Explain a method which is used when taking a soil sample.
7. Properties of Soils

KEY FACTS

Soil properties are affected by soil fractions which are sand, silt and clay.

Properties of sand:
- particles are large.
- sand particles allow air to circulate freely in the soil.
- improve the drainage of the soil.
- particle size is 2 mm – 0,02 mm.
- has no chemical properties.

Properties of silt
- silt particles are medium size.
- particle size is 0,02 – 0,002 mm.
- silt has no chemical properties.

Properties of clay
- Clay has very small particles.
- Particle size is smaller than 0,002 mm.
- Small clay particles are called colloids. Clay soils are formed as a
result of chemical weathering.
- Clay has chemical properties. Colloids carry a negative electric
charge.
- The electric charge controls the acidity or alkalinity of the soil.
- Clay determines the nutrient levels of the soil.
- Soils with small particles are capable of absorbing a lot of water.
- The water is held around the particles with a high surface tension,
which refers to the amount of force required to extract moisture from
a film of water.
Clay soil expands when wet and contracts when dry. This causes
cracks on clay surfaces.

Use of lime on clay

Lime is calcium carbonate. The calcium particle has a positive charge. When
added to clay soil calcium is attracted to colloids which have a negative
charge. In this way lime opens up clay soils. This process is called
flocculation.

Soil acidity
All acids contain hydrogen ions. Ions are positively charged elements such
as calcium. Examples of acids are: Sulphuric Acid, Nitric Acid, Carbonic
Acid.

Use of lime on acidic soils

Lime contains calcium which is positively charged. These calcium ions will
replace the hydrogen ions and the soil becomes alkaline. Figure 7.01 shows
this process.

Figure 7.01
Although lime makes the soil alkaline, more carbonic acid is added during
rains, thus adding more hydrogen ions to the soil this makes the soil more
acidic again. Figure 7.02 illustrates this process.

Figure 7.02

Base Exchange

Calcium ions are called bases. Remember they combine with colloids in clay
soils or replace hydrogen in acid soils.
The process of replacing hydrogen ions with calcium ions is called base
exchange. There are other elements which can replace hydrogen. These are
outlined in Table 7.01.

Table 7.01
Trace elements and their functions
Element Function
calcium -flocculates clays
potassium -major nutrient which maintains plant
health
ammontum -source of nitrogen
sodium -excessive amounts may cause soil
destruction.

magnesium )
boron )
manganese ) trace elements
iron )
zinc )
copper )

Examples of acid tolerant crops are:

- oats - cotton
- maize - tobacco
- potatoes - sorghum
- sugar cane - groundnuts
- fruit trees - peas
- coffee - soya beans

Examples of acid sensitive crops are:

- wheat - kale
- barley - lurcene
- cabbage - clover
- onions - beans
These crops prefer a neutral soil.

Organic matter
Origin of organic matter
Rock is weathered to form rock particles. Organic matter (O.M.) is added to
the particles to form soil.
Sources of organic matter
- decayed plants
- decayed animals
- leaf mould
- crop residues
- weeds.

Organic matter is broken down into humus by micro-organisms which live

in the soil. The amount of OM in the soil can be determined by a simple
method of burning the soil. OM burns easily.
For properties of organic matter and Humus see page 38.

Soil micro-organisms

The main types are bacterial, fungi and mycorrhiza.

Bacteria

Examples of Bacteria are staphloccocus, streptococcus, lactobacillus,

salmonella, spirochaetes, rhizobium, nitrobacter and nitrosomas.

Bacteria which require oxygen from the atmosphere in order to survive are
called aerobic. Those which thrive without oxygen are called anaerobic.

The properties of OM
Completely decayed organic matter, humus, is a mixture of very fine organic
substances which contains carbon, nitrogen, calcium, potash and phosphate.

Properties of humus
- dark in colour
- absorbs heat.
- improves the water-holding capacity of the soil.
- improves the soil structure.
- helps the exchange of bases, in a way similar to clay.
- releases nutrients to plants.

It should therefore be obvious from the above that the presence of humus in
the soil is an important factor in determining its fertility. Because of this,
levels of organic matter should constantly be maintained.

Functions of bacteria
Bacteria breakdown organic matter. For example a compost heap is first
acted upon by aerobic bacteria. As the materials decompose, the amount of
oxygen in the heap is reduced. Anaerobic bacteria then take over the process
of decomposing OM, until humus is produced.

Fungi
Example of fungi are: moulds, penicillin, mushrooms, fusarium and mildew.
Fungi breakdown coarse organic matter and living mycorrhiza plants.

An Example of mycorrhiza is algae. Mychorrhiza can fix Nitrogen from the

atmosphere.
The Nitrogen cycle

There are two main processes, that is, nitrification and denitrification.

Nitrification
- Nitrogen is found in the atmosphere.
- Lightning discharges nitrogen into the soil.
- Nitrogen-fixing bacteria trap atmospheric nitrogen and make it
available to plants for example legumes.
- Nitrogen-fixing bacteria make nitrogen available by converting it to
nitrites.
- The nitrites are further converted to nitrates by nitrobacteria.
- Plants take up nitrates containing nitrogen to form plant protein.

Figure 7.03
The Nitrogen Cycle

Denitrification
- Plant protein is broken down during death and decay.
- Denitrifying – bacteria convert decayed ammonium compounds into
amino acids.
- Amino acids are further converted into ammonia gas.
- Some of the ammonia gas escapes into the atmosphere.
- Ammonia gas can still be traped and converted back to nitrites, then
nitrates, which will be absorbed by plants.
Soil structure
Soil structure is defined as, the way in which soil particles are arranged. Two
types of structures are Single Grain Stucture and Crumb Stucture. Table 7.02
compares these two structures.

Table 7.02
Single grain and crumb structure qualities
Single grain Crumb structure
Soil particles are large There is a mixture of clay and sand
particles.
Mainly made up of sandy particles Contains organic matter.
Particles are not held together Soil particles are arranged in crumbs
Water-holding capacity is poor Good water-holding capacity
Poor nutrient status Contains adequate plant nutrients
Requires heavy application of Crops grow well in a soil with a
nutrients to support plant growth crumb structure
Poor root development Root penetration is easy
Soil capping is common Prevent soil capping

Ways in which soil structure can be destroyed

- ploughing soil when too wet or too dry.
- heavy machinery.
- monoculture.
- water-logging.
Ways of improving soil structure
- adding manure:
- crop rotation.
- allowing soil to dry out before ploughing.
- liming to open up heavy soils.
- ensuring good drainage.
Exercise 7

Multiple choice
1. (a) Small clay particles are called:

A. bases
B. colloids
C. elements
 D. ions.

(b) The force which holds water around soil particles is called:

A. capillarity
B. infiltration
C. pressure
D. surface tension.

(c) Which of the following consists mainly of calcium carbonate?

A. Agricultural lime
B. carbonic acid
C. compound D
D. Sulphate of potash.

(d) Which of the following opens up clay soils?

A. ammonia
B. lime
C. sand
D. silt.

(e) Which one of the following is a trace element?

A. boron
B. calcium
C. nitrogen
D. sodium.

True/False
Answer the following questions by inserting the letter T for True statements
and F for false statements

2. (a) Potassium is a major plant nutrient.

(b) Iron is a trace element
(c) Maize and tobacco are acid sensitive crops.
(d) Leaf mould is a source of OM.
(e) Humus is broken down into OM.
(f) Fungi and mycorrhiza are micro-organisms.
 (g) Aerobic bacteria survive in water – logged soils.

Structured items
3. (a) Name one of the main processes of the nitrogen cycle.
(b) What is the function of nitrobacteria?
(c) Which gas escapes into the atmosphere during dentrification?
(d) What part does lightning play in the nitrogen cycle?
(e) Which plant nutrient is derived from OM humus?

Essays
4. Using a diagram, show all the stages of the Nitrogen cycle.
5. (a) Outline the properties of clay.
(b) How can a farmer improve soil structure?
6. How does a crumb structure encourage good crop production?

8. Soil Water, Soil Air, Soil Temperature & Soil Fertility

KEY FACTS

Movement of water in the soil

Gravitational water
Water which is not lost through evaporation and run off is drawn into the
soil through the force of gravity. This water is known as gravitational water.
The water that remains in the soil is held by the surface tension of the soil.
At this point the soil is said to be at field capacity as the water is held against
the force of gravity.

Capillary water
This is held in the small pore spaces between soil particles. These pore
spaces link up to form small tubes called capillaries. Water moves in these
tubes in all directions. When the surface of the soil dries up water is brought
up by the force of capillarity. The size of the capillary tubes depends on the
size of particles of the soil. Sand has large particles, hence the tubes are big
and they lose water quickly. We say sand has a poor water-holding capacity.
Clay has small particles hence its water-holding capacity is high.

Pore spaces
There is always a balance between water and air in the soil. When the soil is
filled with water all the air is expelled. The soil is said to be saturated. When
the water is not removed the structure of the soil is destroyed and the soil
becomes water-logged. When most of the water is removed, the soil
becomes air-dry.

Wilting
Plants will not wilt in a soil which is at field capacity, which refers to the
maximum amount of water the soil can hold against the pull of gravity
withouting being saturated. If more water is lost through capillarity, surface
evaporation and uptake by plants, little water will be left for plants to use. If
water is not added through rain or irrigation, plants will begin to wilt.

Temporary wilting
Plants may wilt temporarily because of:
- excessive transpiration on a hot day.
- less moisture remaining in the soil.
When the soil is watered plants will recover.

Permanent wilting
Plants may wilt and recover after water has been applied. But if there is not
water added to the soil, plants will wilt and they will not recover. This is
called the permanent wilting point. At this point plants will not recover
even when water is applied. Farmers always try to avoid this happening to
their crops.
The Hydrological cycle

Water exists in three states, that is vapour ice and liquid. These three states
help in the completion of the hydrological cycle. This cycle has no starting
point. Let us have a look at the hydrological cycle.

Water evaporates from oceans, rivers, dams and vegetation. Condensation

takes place in the atmosphere and rain is formed. Rain water falls on the
ground. Some of it infiltrates into the soil. Some flows on the surface as run-
off. Flowing water eventually gets into rivers and flows back to the oceans.
Figure 8.01 illustrates the hydrological cycle.

Figure 8.01
The hydrological cycle

Soil Temperature

Colour of soil, aspect and moisture content have an influence on soil

temperature.

Colour
Dark soils absorb heat which keeps the soil warm. Humus helps maintain the
dark colour of the soil.

Aspect
Slopes facing the sun for a greater part of the year remain warmer than
slopes facing away from the sun. Mountains beyond the tropic of Capricon
in the southern hemisphere always have their southern slopes away from the
sun. The sun‟s rays never reach them. Slopes on the northern side are always
in the sun. This makes them warmer.

Moisture content
Dry soil heats up faster than wet soil. This means that more heat is needed to
raise the temperature of moist soil. Once wet soil is heated it takes longer to
lose the heat it has gained. Moisture therefore regulates the temperature of
the soil.

Soil Fertility

Major plant nutrients

Natural elements Artificial elements
carbon nitrogen
hydrogen posphorus
oxygen potassium
calcium

Essential nutrients
Some plant nutrients are essential because:
- They are needed by the plant to complete its life cycle.
- They cannot be replaced by another nutrient
- They have a direct effect on the plant.
Functions of nitrogen
- Plants grow bigger and faster.
- Plants become healthy and green in colour.
Nitrogen deficiency
Plants which lack nitrogen show the following signs:
- stunted growth,
- yellowing of leaves.
Excess nitrogen
- Plants become soft and weak.
- Plants are susceptible to diseases.
- Ripening is delayed.
Sources of nitrogen
Organic matter:
- Proteins in dead animal and plant residue.
- Proteins are broken down to amino acids, and finally nitrates as in the
nitrogen cycle.
Fertilizers

- Ammonium Sulphate
- Ammonium Nitrate
- Sodium Nitrate
- Urea

Functions of phosphate
- It is an essential part o protoplasm.
- Influences seed formation.
- Plants establish roots quickly
- Plants become drought-tolerant.
- It encourages early maturity.
- It encourages the formation of flowers.

Signs of phosphate deficiency

- Poor root development
- Purpling of leaves
- Pasture deficiency causes bone abnormalities especially in dairy cows.

Sources of phosphate
- Single superphosphate (treated with sulphuric acid).
- Double superhosphate (treated with phosphoric acid).

Potassium
Functions of Potassium
- Potassium improves the quality of produce.
- It is important for building protein.
- Stimulates the production of carbohydrates by increasing the rate of
photosynthesis.
- Plants become resistant to diseases.

Signs of deficiency
- Scortching of leaf edges.
- A predisposing factor for other mineral deficiency signs.
Sources of potassium
Fertilizers
- Muriate of Potash
- Sulphate of Potash
- Wood Ash.
Lime
Functions
- It aids cell formation.
- It is a soil conditioner i.e. it regulates the PH level of the soil.
- It improves the structure of the soil i.e. it opens up clays and binds
sands.

Sources of lime
- Ground Limestone (Calcium Carbonate)
- Quicklime (Calcium Oxide).
- Dolomitic Limestone

Trace elements

Table 18.01
Deficiency signs
Element Signs of deficiency
Boron (BO) Leaf crops rot.
Fruit becomes hard.
Stunted growth in cereals.
Manganese Oats and peas become susceptible to
disease. Poor yields in potatoes and
cereals.
Iron (Fe) Pale green colour due to lack of
chlorophyll.
Copper (Cu) Causes swayback in lambs
Zinc (Zn) Poor growth in fruit trees.
Poor root development in cereals.
Molybdenum (Mb) Causes whiptail disease in leaf crops.
Cobalt (Co) Essential to plants but not much is
know about it.
Chlorine (Cl) Usually in sufficient supply.

Sources of trace elements

Table 8.02
Sources of trace elements.
Element Source
 Boron Compound fertilizers.
Manganese Cattle manure.
Iron Soil.
Copper Copper sulphate sprays
Zinc Compound Z.
Molybdenum Liming and leguming.
Cobalt Available as colloids.
Chlorine Soil.

Composition of animal manure

Organic manures

Soil fertility can be improved by adding manure, ploughing back crop

residues and weeds. Artificial fertilizers are also used to increase soil
fertility. Organic matter becomes available as a plant nutrient in the form of
humus. This is a result of the functions of bacteria which breakdown organic
matter.

Functions of farmyard manure

- is a source of plant nutrients.

- improves soil aeration.
- improves drainage.
- improves the structure of the soil.
- improves soil temperature.
- improves the water holding capacity of the soil.
- encourages micro-organisms to multiply in the soil.
- improves infiltration and prevents surface capping.

Table 8.03
Composition of fresh animal dung
Animal Daily Dry matter Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Calcium
production per
animal
 Solid Liquid Solid Liquid Solid Liquid Solid Liquid Solid Liquid Solid Liquid
(g) (g) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Horse 16 117 3 632 24.3 9.9 0.50 1.20 0.30 Trace 0.24 1.50 0.15 0.45
Cattle 26 608 9 080 16.2 6.2 0.32 0.95 0.21 0.03 0.16 0.95 0.34 0.01
Sheep 1 135 681 34.5 12.8 0.65 1.68 0.46 0.03 0.23 2.10 0.46 0.16
Pig 2 724 1 589 18.0 3.3 0.60 0.30 0.46 0.12 0.44 1.00 0.09 0.00
Chicken 45.4 35.0 - 1.00 - 0.80 - 0.40 - - -

Green manuring
Ploughing back a legume adds both organic matter and nitrogen to the soil.
Sometimes grasses are used as green manure. Grasses only add organic
matter to the soil.

Artificial fertilizers
Several advantages are realized from using artificial fertilizers.
- They contain specific nutrients.
- They are easy to apply.
- They are less bulky than manure.
Table 8.04 shows the fertilizer groups and the nutrients they contain.

Unlike organic matter artificial fertilizers can be used to correct specific

nutrient deficiencies in a growing crop.

Exercise 8

Multiple choice
1. a) Movement of water through the soil is called:

A. surface tension
B. field capacity
C. infiltration
D. saturation.

b) A film of water is held around soil particles through;

Table 8.04
Fertilizers showing their composition
Granumix Mixtures N C/Sol K2 %S
P2O5 approx.
A 0,1% boron 2 17 15 (15 Sul-Mur) 10,0
B 0,1% boron 4 17 15 (15 Sul-Mur) 9,0
C 0,1% boron 6 17 15 (11 Sul 4 Mur) 7,5
V 0,1% boron 4 17 15 (11 Sul 4 Mur) 8,0
D 8 14 7 (-Sul 7 Mur) 6,5
J 0,1% boron 15 5 20 (-Sul 20Mur) 3,4
L 0,25% boron 5 18 10 (-Sul 10 Mur) 8,0
M 10 10 10 (-Sul 10 Mur) 6,5
P 10 18 0 (-Sul – Mur) 6,5
S 0,04% boron 7 21 7 (Sul – Mur) 8,0
T* 25 5 5 (5 Sul – Mur) 5,0
X 20 10 5 (- Sul 5 Mur) 3,0
Z 0,8% zinc 8 14 7 (- Sul 7 Mur) 6,5
Nitrogen Fertilizers:
Ammonium Nitrate (prilled) 34,5
Urea 46,0
Nitrate of Soda (crystal) 16,0
Phosphate Fertilizers:
Single Superphosphate 18,5 12,0
Double superphosphate 37,0 5,0
Potash Feritlizers:
Muriate of Potash 60
Sulphate of Potash 50 16,0
Other Products:
gypsum 17,5
A. absorption
B. surface tension
C. gravity
D. capillarity.

c) Water moves in all directions in the soil through:

A. capillarity
B. evaporation
C. run-off
D. uptake

d) Temporary wilting means, plants:

A. recover after watering

 B. are already dead
C. require less water
D. cannot absorb water.

e) A soil at field capacity means that:

A. there is excessive moisture in the soil

B. water is moving into the soil
C. moisture is at an maximum, yet not saturation.
D. water is not held by gravity.

f) A product of photosynthesis is:

A. ammonia
B. carbon dioxide
C. nitrogen
D. oxygen.

g) A form of carbohydrates is:

A. energy
B. glucose
C. proteins
D. water.

h) During respiration:

A. food is manufactured
B. energy is produced
C. sugars are stored
D. oxygen is released.

i) Excess carbohydrates are converted into:

A. energy
B. enzymes
 C. fats
D. nitrates.

j) A major nutrient found naturally is:

A. hydrogen
B. nitrogen
C. urea
D. water.

k) Which element makes plants grow bigger and faster?

A. boron
B. hydrogen
C. nitrogen
D. phosphorous.

Structured items

2. a) What happens when plants have excess nitrogen?

b) State two sources of nitrogen.
c) What nutrient is lacking in the soil when plants have purple
leaves?
d) What is used to treat rock in order to produce single super
phosphate?
e) Which element improves the quality of produce?
f) What are the functions of lime?
g) What is gravitational water?
h) Explain the difference between sand and clay particles.
i) What is permanent wilting?
j) What are the three states of water?
k) Where does condensation occur?

True/False
3. Answer the following questions by inserting the letter T for true
statements and F or false statement
(a) Soil air is found in the pore spaces ………….
(b) Water moves sideways through gravity …………
(c) Gravitational water helps to keep the soil moist ………..
(d) Excessive transpiration on a hot day causes permanent wilting
 ………
(e) Sandy soils have good water-holding capacity ……….

Completion items
4. Complete the questions that follow by selecting your answers from the
list given below.
- uptake - poor
- saturated - humus
- wilting - clay
- high - aspect
- low
(a) Shortage of water in plants causes …………..
(b) clay has ……… water-holding capacity
(c) …………. means the process of absorbing water from the soil.
(d) A soil which is filled with water is said to be …………..
(e) ………….. maintains the dark colour of the soil.
(f) The position of a slope in relation to the sun is called …………

Essays
5. (a) Explain the main stages of the hydrological cycle.
(b) Outline the differences between temporary and permanent
wilting.
(c) Explain soil temperature under:
i) colour
ii) aspect.
6. Discuss the sources and deficiency signs of the following trace
elements
i) boron
ii) iron
iii) molybdenum.
7. i) How can soil fertility be improved?
ii) What do you understand by the green manuring?
8. Explain the functions of nitrogen and organic matter.
9. Soil Erosion

KEY FACTS

As we have already seen, the soil is formed through a very slow process over
million of years. For this reason the soil is classified as a non-renewable
resource i.e. when lost it becomes difficult to replace. Resources such as
timber can be replaced by planting other trees. Such resources are
renewable. Every member of society should look after the soil and prevent
its loss through erosion. We now look at how erosion is caused.

Causes of erosion

- poor farming practices

- animal tracks
- overgrazing
- overstocking
- uncontrolled burning
- heavy machinery
- monoculture
- ranching.
Here are brief notes on each of these factors.

Poor farming practices

Examples of poor farming practices are:
- ploughing down the slope.
- exposing bare soil to thunderstorms.
- failure to use mechanical conservation measures.
- streambank cultivation.

Animal tracks
Animals being driven along the same paths will loosen the soil and expose it
to wind and storm damage. Hoofed animals can even make an impression on
rock surfaces.

Overgrazing
Too many animals grazing in a small area will make the grass suffer. When
grass cover is reduced then erosion sets in.

Overstocking
When animals do not get sufficient grass and their condition deteriorates,
there is overstocking. The animals increase movement in search of the grass
and this way the soil is trampled.
Uncontrolled burning
Burning leaves the soil bare. Therefore it should be done when there is
sufficient time for new grass to establish before heavy rains fall.
Heavy machinery
Machinery driven over the soil leaves tracks, which will collect rainfall and
trigger erosion. This is one of the causes of gully erosion.
Monoculture
Clearing large pieces of land for the establishment of a single crop causes
heavy soil losses. The most serious soil losses occur on coffee and tea
plantations especially during the first two years of establishment.
Ranching
Ranching depends on grass. Therefore to increase harvest, farmers remove
most trees so that they do not suppress grass. After a few years of grazing
the grass losses its vigour and overgrazing occurs, eventually leading to soil
loss through erosion.

Agents of soil erosion

These are:
- wind
- water
- temperature.

Wind erosion
As the wind blows over bare ground, it picks up sand particles and deposits
them a distance away. This becomes a continuous cycle until large volumes
of sand have been removed. The movement of sand particles by wind is
called saltation.

Water
Both rain and flowing water cause erosion particularly on unprotected soil.
The raindrop bomb
Large drops of water are first discharged during a storm. When the soil is not
protected, soil particles will be dislodged and deposited some distance away.
While this occurs the soil surface becomes muddy and all the airspaces are
closed. This means that infiltration is blocked and run-off encouraged. Large
amounts of soil are eroded through the raindrop action. Figure 9.01
illustrates this process.
 Figure 9.01
Raindrop action

The raindrop bomb destroys the structure of the soil by blocking porespaces
and encouraging surface capping. Infiltration and the water holding capacity
of the soil are reduced. The water which does not infiltrate into the soil
collects and flows as run-off. As it gains speed and volume the excessive
force is also increased and large volume of soil are carried away.

Temperature
In a way similar to the effect of uneven heating and cooling of rocks during
the formation of the soil, these changes continue to disintegrated the soil
particles encouraging erosion by either wind or run-off.
Types of erosion
The main types are:
- Splash – raindrops detach soil particles on the ground, this erosion is
also referred to as sheet erosion.
- Rill – on sloping land, rills are seen as channels.
widened.
Effects of erosion

Siltation
Riverbeds and dams are filled up with sand eroded from the catchment area.
This reduces the amount of water in the rivers and dams.
Poor yields
Soluble plant nutrients such as nitrogen are carried away from the fields
during thunderstorms.
Pollution
Dams and rivers are polluted with algae which feeds on nutrients from
arable lands and animal droppings which find their way into the dams. Water
becomes slimy and the process of purification is made difficult.

Methods of controlling erosion

Three major control mechanisms are land classification, crop rotation
systems and mechanical conservation works.

1. Land classification

Only land suitable for crop production is used for cropping. This controls
erosion on arable lands, for example by avoiding land where the gradient is
too high, or close to streams.

2. Crop rotation

The structure of soils is altered significantly through maintaining a high

nutrient level in the soil together with effective cultural practices such as soil
cover and tillage.

3. Mechanical conservation

Mechanical works reduce erosion by controlling the low of storm waters.

Excess water which cannot infiltrate into the soil is disposed off at safe
places.
Layout of these conservation works usually depends on the slope of the land,
soil type and the purpose for which the land will be used. Apart from these,
there are Biological Conservation measures which are equally effective in
controlling erosion. They are usually part of the cropping system, hence
arable land is not reduced.
Examples of mechanical conservation measures are:
- storm drains
- contour ridges
- terraces
- tied ridges
- pitching
- bolters
- dams and weirs.

1. Storm drains

Storm drains should be strong and large enough to divert storm water from
higher ground. In Zimbabwe the gradient of the storm drain is usually 1;150.
table 9.02 gives some guidelines on the dimensions of storm drains.

Table 9.02
Dimensions for a storm drain of gradient 1 in 150, on sandy clay soil
Area drained Width of Drain Depth of Drain
(ha) (m) (m)
4 2 0,4
10 2,6 0,4
10 2,6 0,6
20 3 0,9
40 3,5 1,1
100 8 1,2

2. Contour ridges

The waterways and storm drains are constructed first. Contour ridges can be
rectangular or broad shaped. The rectangular channel carries more water.
However, the broad channel type can be used as a road or crops can be
grown over the whole area. The broad channel contours are called workover
contours. Figure 9.03 (a) & (b) show the two types of contour ridges.
 Figure. 9.03 (a) and (b)

3. Terraces

Bench shaped earth structures are constructed across the slope to control the
flow of water. As the slope becomes steeper the terraces should
correspondly become narrower. Figure 9.04 illustrates the construction of
terraces.
 Figure 9.04
Bench terraces

4. Tied ridges

Figure 9.05
Tied ridges

Tie-ridging can be effectively used in conjunction with crop ridges

constructed on the contour. They block the flow of storm water and
encourage in situ infiltration.
5. Pitching

Exposed faces of terraces or gullies can be protected through pitching with

stones, sand bags or other suitable material. This reduces the amount of soil
loss and protects the exposed slopes.

6. Bolsters

These are mounds constructed of rocks or stable earth across gullies or steep
roads.

7. Dams and weirs

Small earth dams are constructed across a gully. They are constructed at
intervals along the gully and after some time the gully will drown. Weirs are
low walls built across a gully. They allow water to flow over, while
deposition takes place in front of the wall.

Limitations of mechanical works

- Poorly designed works may fail to work.
- Works constructed on too steep gradients may be eroded forming
gullies.
- Siltation occurs in shallow channels, which usually blocks them.
- The level of skill required to peg the works is high.
- Poor maintenance usually leads to bursting and massive soil removal.

Biological conservation measures

- contour ploughing
- Grass waterways
- Grass strips
- Cover crops
- Intercroping
- Mulching cultivation.

1. Contour ploughing

The principle of using plough furrows as miniature contour ridges is

employed. Ploughing is done in a pattern parallel to the contour ridges. In
this way a lot of storm water is held and infiltration is encouraged. This
method is referred to as ploughing on the contour. Roots of plants also hold
run-off within the furrows.

2. Grass waterways

A suitable area where storm drains and contour ridges discharge their water
is necessary. Such areas could be a grass vlei or a gentle depression where
grass has been allowed to establish.

3. Grass strips

Contours are pegged in the same way as contour ridges. Instead of digging,
strips of grass approximately two metres wide are left between fields. In this
way run-of is slowed down and infiltration is improved.

4. Cover strips

Closely spaced crops such as wheat or groundnuts are essential in a crop

rotation. They quickly grow and cover the soil. On grazing land grass cover
is essential. Farmers usually strive to establish a good grass cover to curb sil
loss.

5. Intercropping

Plantation crops are spaced widely and during the initial stages large areas of
bare ground are left between the rows. When intercropped with spreading
crops, a good soil cover is maintained and infiltration is increased. Thus soil
loss through run-off is minimized.

6. Mulching cultivation

Two principles are involved. One is that of maintaining a cover on bare

ground. This is coupled with the minimum tillage approach. After harvesting
grain, crop residues are spread over the land to act as a mulch. Then narrow
strips are cultivated along the rows for the next crop.
Exercise 9

Multiple choice
1. (a) Which one of the following is a cause of soil erosion?

A. mulching
B. thunderstorm
C. overgrazing
D. steep slopes.

(b) Which one of the following practices leads to reduced grass

yields?

A. zero grazing
B. overstocking
C. rotational grazing
D. overgrazing.

(c) Which one of the following is an agent of soil erosion?

A. burning
B. humidity
C. monoculture
D. temperature.

(d) The movement of sand particles due to wind erosion is called:

A. abbression
B. deposition
C. saltation
D. siltation.

(e) The raindrop bomb is most effective on ground that is:

A. bare
B. mulched
C. steep
D. virgin.
 (f) Raindrop bombs destroy the soil structure by:

A. dislodging particles
B. blocking pore spaces
C. reducing infiltration
D. increasing runoff.

(g) Waterways are protected by

A. destroying grass
B. stone pitching
C. adding mulch
D. deepening them.

Structured items
2. (a) Explain the effects of soil erosion under the following headings:
i) poor yields
ii) siltation
iii) pollution.

(b) List the three main methods of controlling soil erosion.

(c) What is meant by biological conservation?
(d) On the diagram of the contour ridge in figure 9.09, label the
parts marked A and B.
i) What is the width of the part marked A?

Figure 9.09

ii) What is the height of B?

iii) What are broad based contour ridges called?
(e) List the limitations of mechanical conservation works.
Essays

3. Explain with the aid of a diagram the damage caused by the raindrop
bomb.
4. Outline clearly how the following help to control soil erosion on
arable land:
a) crop rotation
b) storm drains.
5. How can a gully be healed?
10. Irrigation

KEY FACTS

Plants lose water through evapotranspiration which is a combined loss from

evaporation and transpiration. Some water is also lost from the surface of the
soil through evaporation. The water which is lost through these processes
should be replaced through rain or irrigation.

Reasons for Irrigation

- Rain water stored in dams is used to supplement rainfall especially
during dry spells. Lack of water at critical periods can have dramatic
effects on crop yields.
- It maintains soil moisture at field capacity.
- Irrigation may be used to extend the growing season.
- Winter irrigation is essential for the production of crops such as
wheat.
- Irrigation improves crop quality, yield and effective use of fertilizers.
- Most crops cannot be successfully grown without irrigation in
Zimbabwe.
- Irrigation facilities improve the value of the entire farm.

Disadvantages of irrigation
- A lot of capital is required to introduce irrigation.
- Management and maintenance costs are high.
- There is a danger of soil erosion.
- Leaching is a common problem.
- Nutrient translocation can have disastrous effects on soil at the lower
end of the field, e.g. soil salinity is increased.

Water legislation in Zimbabwe

In Zimbabwe water is a national asset and it is controlled through the Water

Act 1976, whose provisions are as follows:
- Application should be made for water rights before setting up an
irrigation project.
- The right to use public water can be granted by the state during
drought periods.
- Extraction of underground water is controlled by the State.
- all irrigation systems should be approved by the State.
- Pollution of water sources is prevented through the provisions of the
Water Act.
- Violation of the provisions of the Water Act is dealt with by the Water
Court.
Factors to consider before setting up an Irrigation Scheme:

Soil Type
Porous soils drain a lot of water, while clay soils take longer to drain. This
affects the frequency of irrigation.

Slope of Land
Steep slopes need special preparation before they can be irrigated. Flooding
on steep slopes may cause increased soil loss through erosion.

Evenness of land
In order to irrigate uneven land, leveling has to be done. Where overhead
irrigation is used the amount of leveling is reduced.

Type of irrigation
Conditions such as soil type, slope, amount of water available and type of
crops grown will dictate the irrigation systems adopted.

Irrigation Systems
The choice of an irrigation system will depend on whether permanent crops
such as fruit trees are to be irrigated. In this case trickle may be the most
suitable. Cover crops such as wheat are most suitably irrigated through
overheard irrigation.

The system of irrigation to be established depends on the soil type and

requirements of crops to be grown. The common systems used in Zimbabwe
are:
- overhead or sprinkler
- flood
- trickle or drip.

Overhead irrigation

Scheme Layout: Pipes and sprinklers are required to spread the water over
the irrigated area. Water moves in the pipes under pressure. Usually a water
pump is used to increase water pressure. Figure 10.01 shows a simple layout
of an irrigated scheme.

Figure 10.01
Layout of an overhead irrigation scheme

Sprinklers are attached to pipes laid on the ground at intervals. As water

under pressure hits the sprinkler heads it opens valves which allow water to
flow out. The valves are immediately closed by the revolution of the
sprinkler heads. This process happens quickly so that spray of water is
obtained.

Flood irrigation

A good supply of water is required for flood irrigation. Canals are used to
convey water to the fields. Figure 10.02 shows the shapes of irrigation
canals.

Figure 10.02
Cross-section of irrigation canals
 Field layout

Border Strips
These are strips 3 to 4 metres wide divided by earthridges. They are flat so
that water covers the whole width as it flows through.

Corrugations
Water runs in the furrows and crops are grown on the ridges. In dry areas
crops may be grown in the furrows.

Contour flooding
On steep slopes water allowed to flow between contours. This is a common
method used with terraces.

Basin irrigation
For watering fruit trees, water is led into basins which can be circular, square
or rectangular around the trees. The basins prevent water from flowing away
from the base of the tree.

Table 10.01
Differences between overhead and flood irrigation
Overhead Flood
Water is already controlled. Large volumes of water may cause erosion
Less water is used per unit area. More water is required to irrigate the same
pieces of land.
Overhead can be used to apply soluble fertilizers. Nutrients are leached.
Frost damage can be prevented by spraying Does not get in contact with foliage.
water on foliage.
Uneven land can be irrigated. Land should have even slope.
Soil with poor drainage can be used. A lot of water is lost through infiltration
especially on porous soils.
A lot of water is lost through evaporation. Wind has no effect on surface evaporation.
Labour is required to change pipes. Permanent ditches interfere with machinery.
It requires a high capital outlay. Cheap to construct.
Pumping is necessary to provide pressure for Water flows by the force of gravity.
sprinklers.
More time is needed to complete the job. Flood can be very fast when water is available.
There is no threat of water related There are problems of malaria.
trypanosomiasis and other diseases.
Trickle irrigation
The principle involved is to keep the soil at field capacity. Only the soil next
to the plants is wetted, leaving the soil between the rows dry. This is so
because the pipeline is below the ground surface. The perforations on the
pipeline are very close to the plant.

Advantages of trickle irrigation

- Water is applied underneath the soil thus preventing soil capping and
evaporation.
- chemicals applied to crops are not washed off during irrigation.
- Fertilizers can be dissolved and applied through this method.

Disadvantages
- High capital costs are incurred.
- Nozzles are easily blocked.
- the system lacks flexibility.

Sources of water

These include dams, river, weirs, underground supplies, rainfall and recycled
water. Water used in sewers and water collected from urban areas during
rains can be purified and used for irrigation purposes.

Drainage

Drainage is very important in irrigation. The frequency at which water is

applied is determined by the rate at which water is lost out of the root zone
through drainage. In flood irrigation good drainage is necessary to prevent
waterlogging. Disposal of excess water should be planned carefully,
especially at the lower end of the fields.

Exercise 10

Multiple choice
1. (a) Through which SET OF TERMS do plants lose water?

A. evaporation: respiration
B. transpiration: condensation
C. respiration: excretion
D. evaporation: transpiration.

(b) An advantage of irrigation is that it:

A. increases water supply

B. reduces amounts of fertilizer used
C. improves crop quality
D. corrects the salinity of the soil.

(c) An irrigation system which reduces water loss through

evaporation is:

A. flood
B. trickle
C. siphon
D. sprinklers.

(d) What makes sprinklers rotate?

A. return springs
B. water pressure
C. force of gravity
D. size of nozzler.
 (e) Which one of the following is a method of flood irrigation?

A. basin
B. corrugation
C. tied ridge
D. trickle.

(f) Select a source of water which should be treated before use for
irrigation.

A. borehole
B. weir
C. well
D. sewage

Structured items
2. a) State two reasons for irrigation.
b) State one disadvantage of irrigation.
c) What legal instrument is used to control the use of water in
Zimbabwe?
d) Explain the following types of irrigation:
i) border strips.
ii) contour flooding.
e) Give two diseases associated with flood irrigation.
f) Write notes on trickle irrigation.
g) Why is rainfall the main source of water for irrigation?

Essays
3. Outline the main disadvantages of irrigation.
4. Describe, with the aid of a diagram a simple layout of overhead
irrigation.
5. Outline five main differences between overhead and flood irrigation.
6. a) What factors should be taken into consideration before an
irrigation scheme is established?
b) Explain the importance of drainage in irrigation.
Section Three

Crop Husbandry

11. Plant nutrition

KEY FACTS

Structure of plant cells

Plant cells are shaped in such a way that they perform specific function. A
cross section of the stem shows two types of cells. These are xylem vessels
and phloem sieve tubes.

Xylem vessels transport water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the
leaves. Phloem sieve tubes are made up of cytoplasm, and they transport
manufactured food to the rest of the plant.

Figure 11.01
Cross-section of a plant stem
Photosynthesis

Atmospheric carbon dioxide is combined with water and energy from the
sun to produce carbohydrates. Oxygen is added into the atmosphere during
photosynthesis. This reaction can be summed up as follows:

During sunlight carbohydrates

+ +
carbon dioxide → oxygen
+ +
water water

This can be represented with chemical symbols as follows:

6C0 + 12H 0 + E = C H O + 6H O + O
Where E stands for energy from the sun

Respiration

Carbohydrates in the form of glucose, is used by plants to produce energy

needed for essential activities of the plant. During respiration glucose is an
converted to carbon dioxide, energy and water. Carbon dioxide is released
into the atmosphere at night. During the day plants release oxygen through
the process of photosynthesis. This reaction can be represented as follows:
CH12 06 + 602 = E+CO2 + H20
Carbohydrates + oxygen Energy + carbon
Dioxide + water.

Carbohydrates and proteins

Carbohydrates are as a result of combining carbon, oxygen and hydrogen.
Carbohydrates plus nitrogen produce proteins.

Example of Carbohydrates
- sucrose
- maltose
- glucose.
Carbohydrates can further be converted into fats and oils.

Functions of carbohydrates
- produce energy during respiration.
- can be used as a source of fats and oils.
- can be converted to proteins.
- Cellulose is used to provide support for cell walls.

Transport of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are transported as sucrose. Phloem vessels cary sucrose from
one part of the plant to another carbohydrates which are not transported are
stored as starch in tubers, stems and roots of various plants.

Plant anatomy and physiology

Buds make the plant grow and produce more branches. Figures 11.02 (a) and
(b) illustrate a terminal bud and its section.
Figure 11.02

Types of buds
- Axillary buds – the buds which grow from the axil of the stem and a
branch.
- Terminal buds – the buds which grow at the end of the branches or
stems.

Stems
Figures 11.03 and 11.04 show the major differences between the structure of
a dicotyledon and a monocotyledon.
 Figure 11.03
Cross-section through the stem of a dicot

Figure 11.04
Cross-section through a young monocot stem

Modified systems
Stem Description Advantage
stolons / runners Grow over the ground Assured reproduction
surface
rhizomes Grow underneath the
soil
tubers They are swollen stems Food storage
bulbs Very short stem Food storage
surrounded by compact
leaves

Roots
Functions
Roots perform the following functions:
- anchorage of the plant to the ground.
- absorbtion of water.
- absorbtion of dissolved minerals.
- storage of manufactured food.

Structure of root cap

It is made up of dead cells which protect the live tissue. It penetrates
between soil particles as the root grows. Cells behind the root cap are
actively dividing.

Region of elongation
Cells in this region increase in size through enlargement and lengthening.

Region of maturation
Root hairs are formed in this region as a result of lengthening of the
epidermal cells.

Figure 11.05
Cross-section of a root tip.
Leaf functions
Leaves manufacture plant food through the process of photosynthesis.
- The broad lamina traps sunlight needed for photosynthesis.
- Transpiration is reduced by the waxy

Figure 11.06
A magnified cross-section through a lea

cuticle cells which cover the surface of the leaf.

- leaves contain chlorophyll in chloroplasts which are found in the
palisade cells.
- Respiration is possible in the lower epidermis.
Figure 11.06 shows a magnified cross-section through a leaf.

Plant polarity
In both structure and function, there are differences in the direction of
growth of various parts of a plant. The differentiation is called polarity. To a
larger extent, it is because of polarity that roots grow downwards and the
leafy parts of plants grow upwards. Equally important in this function of
polarity is the exact nature of the stimulus to which the plant is reacting.
Polarity appears to be basic to plant life, has electrical implications
fundamental to the nature of living cells, and can be compared to the cause
of growth in animal life as well.

Plant tropisms
There are a number of external factors that affect the direction of growth of
specific parts of plant. The effect of these factors on a plant may be one of
attraction, or repulsion. Sometimes, the reaction to certain stimulus is
confirmed to specific cells, for example, only the root cap will react to
geotropism, the force of gravity which makes roots grow downwards, a
useful habit in the search for water, which travels downwards because of the
same force of gravity. Similarly, only leaves react to light, phototropism,
without which there would be no photosynthesis.

The mechanism whereby plants grow directionally appears related to the

uneven distribution of auxins or growth hormones on opposite parts of a
plant, causing a directional change in growth. Because of plant polarity,
variations in growth. Because of plant polarity, variations in growth occur on
opposite sides of say the stem, so that it bends in the direction of lesser
growth. We can divide these plant reactions into two:

Autonomic growth movements (voluntary – genetically coded.)

1. Nutations (Nodding movements, as in bean seedlings)
2. circumnutations (spiral growth, again as in bean seedlings)
3. Twinning movements.
4. Nastic movements (opening out, as in flowers and buds)
Tropisms (bending movements in cylindrical parts like roots and stems).
1. Phototropism (stem reaction to light, has obvious advantages for
photosynthesis)
2. Hydrotropism (roots grow towards moisture – root cap reacts.)
3. Chemotropism (growth towards certain chemical agents)
4. Thigmotropism (growth in response to physical contact).
While plants exhibit other growth movements in response to other
stimuli, these are the major ones which explain plant growth.

The flower
Functions
- The flower is the part where fertilization takes place.
- Flowers develop into fruits.
- Some flowers have beautiful petals which attract insects such as bees.
- Beautiful petals make it possible for cross-pollination to take place.
Structure
Figure 11.02 illustrates a cross-section of a flower.

Figure 11.02
Cross-section of a flower

The female part of the flower is made up to the ovary, style and the stigma.
The male part is made of the anther and the filament. Both the male and
female parts are wrapped up by the petals and protected by the green sepals
at the base of the flower.

Reproduction in plants
There are two main types of reproduction in plants:
- sexual.
- asexual.
Plants have male and female parts. Male parts produce pollen grains which
fertilize ovules contained in the ovaries of female parts. Pollution can be in
three ways:
- self-pollination
- cross-pollination
- wind pollination.
It should be remembered that some plants can be fertilized through both self
and cross-pollination. In both cases seed is produced and used for
propagation.
Asexual
Plants are propagated through vegetative means. This is usually the case
with sterile plants such as bananas. Vegetative means of propagation
include:
- cuttings
- layering
- grafting
- budding.
A sexual reproduction produces plants which are similar to their parents,
although they tend to be bulky, hence difficult to handle.

Factors influencing growth

Climatic factors such as temperature, sunshine, rainfall and wind will
influence the crops grown in an area. Of these factors rainfall is the most
important. For most crops the rainfall has to be supplemented with irrigation.

Soil requirements
Fertile soils are good for crop production. When soil fertility is inadequate,
nutrients can be added through the application of fertilizers.

Exercise 11

Multiple choice
1. a) Which one of the following stems grows above the ground?

A. bulb
B. rhizome
C. stolon
D. tuber.

b) Which structure on a leaf makes it waterproof?

A. broad lamina
B. upper epidermis
 C. waxy cuticle
D. guard cells.

c) Which one of the following parts of a plant absorbs nutrients?

A. buds
B. bulbs
C. roots
D. tubers.

d) Plants manufacture food through

A. photosynthesis
B. respiration
C. transpiration
D. translocation.

e) Which one of the following is found in the palisade cells?

A. chloroplasts
B. cuticle
C. guard cells
D. stomata.

f) Which part of the flower develops into a fruit?

A. bud
B. ovary
C. ovule
D. stigma.

g) the part of a flower which is usually brightly coloured is

A. filament
B. petals
C. pistil
D. sepals.
h) The most important factor which influences plant growth is:

A. amount of water
 B. type of soil
C. availability of fertilizer
D. control of pests.

Practical
2. Dissect a flower and identify five major parts. List the parts you have
identified. Draw the flower and label the parts.

Structured items
3. a) State two methods of reproduction in plants.
b) Give two examples of factors which influence plant growth.
c) Give four examples of vegetative propagation.
d) Explain the difference between anaxillary and a terminal bud.
e) Which part of a root is made up of dead cells?

Essays
4. Draw the diagram of a root and label the parts.
5. Explain how leaves are adapted to manufacture plant food.
6. Outline the main functions of a flower.
7. Explain the following terms.
i) self-pollination
ii) cross-pollination.

12. Land Preparation

KEY FACTS

Four types of tillage

The following methods can be used in land preparation:

- Primary cultivation (e.g. ploughing / digging).
- Secondary cultivation (e.g. harrowing /discing) – after primary
cultivation.
- Minimum tillage – which means that disturbance of the soil before
planting is very minor A previously cropped land can be ripped along
planting lines and the new crop established. Soil erosion is therefore
kept to a minimum.
- Zero tillage – which means that planting is done without any
mechanical preparation techniques. Seed is just planted and in most
cases herbicides are used in weed control.

Reasons for tillage

- Destruction of weeds before a crop is planted.

- Loosening the soil to improve aeration, infiltration and root
penetration.
- Seedbed preparation – secondary tillage is needed to bring the soil to a
desired tilth.
Small seed will require a fine tilth.
- Incorporation of crop residues.
- Exposing pests and disease causing organisms.

The Single Furrow Mouldboard plough

The most widely used implement in Zimbabwe is the single furrow
mouldboard plough. This is an important implement because successful crop
production will depend to a large extent on how the soil has been prepared.

Setting

The single furrow mouldboard plough has many parts which need constant
setting and maintenance. Figure 12.01 shows the parts of a single furrow
mouldboard plough.

Figure 12.01
Parts of a single furrow mouldboard plough
Depth
The hitch assembly is used to adjust ploughing depth and size of cut. When
the hitch is raised the plough cuts deeper. The steadying wheel is removed
when the plough is being adjusted for depth. It is fitted after the correct
depth has been obtained. The wheel has a function of maintaining the depth
of ploughing.

The other way of adjusting depth is to use the trek chains. When the chains
are lengthened the plough goes deeper. When shortened the plough makes a
shallower cut. The length of standard trek chains is 2.9m.

Width
When the hitch is moved to the right, the plough makes a wider cut. Moving
the hitch to the left produces a narrower cut.
Dome forms of minimum tillage are:

Rip-roll
Only the area where seed will be sown is tilled. A sub-soiler is used to
achieve this.
Wheel-track
Tractors‟ wheels are adjusted to coincide with planting lines. The wheels act
as rollers and bring the soil to a fine tilth. Seed is sown along the wheel-
tracks.
Tramline
Each time the land is ploughed the tractor wheel-tracks are run along the
same position. The area between the tracks is used for planting crops. This
way soil compaction is restricted to a small area, and there will be no need to
do heavy ploughing.
No till
This is becoming a popular method where soil is not disturbed by
mechanical tillage. After plants have been established there will be no
further tillage on the land. Weeds are controlled by using herbicides.

Fertilizer application
Basic dressing (Basal dressing)
Compound fertilizers are uses as initial application, usually before crops are
planted. They are incorporated into the soil at the time of ploughing for three
reasons:
- there is a saving on fuel and labour costs;
- the fertilizer is placed deeper into the moisture zone to give it time to
dissolve.
- fertilizers may burn seedlings if they are not deeper in the soil.
Top dressing
Top dressing, sometimes called side dressing means the application of
fertilizer to growing crops. Fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate, urea,
sulphate of ammonia are usually applied to provide nitrogen to plants.
Methods of application
- Broadcasting – usually for basic dressing.
- Banding – fertilizer is applied close to seed, in a line.
- Hill placement – fertilizer is placed in one position near a plant.
- Liquid Fertigation – usually a nitrogen mixture is dissolved in water
and applied on leaves of plants. The mixture can also be applied at the
same time with irrigation water.

Crop establishment
Planting can be done by hand or machine. Some planters are attached with
fertilizer distributors.
System of planting
- dry planting
- water planting
- wet (rain) planting.
Dry planting is done to increase the growing period and to obtain an early
crop. Seed should be planted deep enough so that light showers do not
penetrate to the seed and cause partial germination. Water planting is done at
the same time with dry planting. Water is poured into a planting hole, seed is
placed and covered with dry soil, to prevent crusting. The third method of
wet planting is the most common. Farmers wait for the first planting rains to
wet the soil. Then seed is sown.
Exercise 12

Multiple choice
1. a) An example of secondary tillage is:

A. harrowing
B. ploughing
C. stumping
D. sub-soiling.

b) Fine tilth refers to:

 A. deeply ploughed soil
B. well broken soil lumps
C. good germination of seed
D. primary preparation of soil.

c) The part that wears out quickly on the single furrow

mouldboard plough is:

A. steadying wheel
B. landslide
C. mouldboard
D. plough share.

d) What is used to adjust ploughing depth?

A. hitch assembly
B. steadying wheel
C. plough share
D. mouldboard.

e) One of the following is NOT a form of minimum tillage:

A. rip-roll
B. wheel track
C. sub-soiling
D. no-till.

f) Another term for basic dressing is:

A. initial application
B. top dressing
C. broadcasting
D. foliage spray.

g) Which one of the following is NOT used when sowing seed?

A. furrows
B. holes
 C. ridge
D. terraces.

h) Which implement is used when seed is sown?

A. planter
B. disc harrow
C. ridger
D. cultivator.

i) Which of the following operations can be carried out at he same

time by a planter?

A. sowing and harvesting

B. harvesting and fertilizing
C. marking and leveling
D. sowing and fertilizing.

Completion items

2. Complete the questions which follow by selecting your answers from

the list given below.
- harrow
- aerate the soil
- single furrow mouldboard plough
- ploughing depth
- compound
- seed germination
- share
- dry planting
- wet planting
a) The soil is tilled in order to ……………
b) A fine tilth is sometimes necessary for ………….
c) The most common implement used for primary land
preparation in Zimbabwe is the …………..
d) The …………… is responsible for soil penetration.
e) ……………. Can be adjusted by lengthening trek chins.
f) A …………… fertilizer is normally used as basic dressing.
g) In order to have an early crop farmers practice ………..
Structured items

3. a) Give an example of minimum tillage.

b) Which part of the mould board plough is responsible for turning
the soil?
c) What term is used for adjusting the plough before ploughing?
d) What method of tillage uses tyre tracks to produce a fine
tillage?
e) What may happen to seedlings if fertilizer is not worked deep
into the soil?
f) What is banding?
g) Which farm implement is used to sow seed?
h) Why is dry soil used to cover seen during planting?

13. Cereal crops of Zimbabwe

KEY FACTS

The cereals grown in Zimbabwe on a large scale are:

- maize - staple food, stockfeed, vegetable oils and brewing
beer.
- wheat - making bread.
- barley - brewing clear beer (malt).
- sorghum - brewing and stockfeed.
- millet - stockfeed.
- rice - supplement to maize.

Maize production

Table 13.01 outlines the periods maize varieties take to mature.

Table 13.01
Maturity time of Maize varieties

Group Varieties
Late maturing
(long season) SR 52, R 90, ZS 107
Medium maturing
(medium long season) ZS 227
Early maturing R 70, R 200, R 201,
(short season) ZS 202, ZS 225

Most of the yellow maize produced in the country is used as stockfeed.

Table 13.02 shows the varieties of white and yellow maize.

In some specialized farms maize can be grown for silage production. R201 is
used for making silage because it remains standing and produces a lot of
foliage at high plant populations. Silage is usually used for feeding dairy
cows.

Table 13.02
Colour of Maize varieties
Colour Varities
White SR 52
R 90, R 201, R 215
ZS 107
Yellow R 70, R 90,
ZS 202

Climatic requirements
Maize can grow where rainfall exceeds 200mm during the growing season
and temperatures exceed 20. C. However in farming terms, maize is
generally grown where rainfall ranges between 400-900mm. the rainfall
should be well distributed.
- Moisture stress is particularly critical at time of flowering.
- Temperatures should generally range between 20 - 30ºC.
- Maize cannot withstand frost.
- Very high temperatures exceeding 40ºC damage pollen and decrese
fruit setting.
- Short warm days are better than long cool ones for quick maturity of
the cro9p9.
- Strong winds result in lodging.
- The growing season ranges with cultivars from 90 – 190 days.

Soil Requirements
Maize is grown on a wide range of soils in Zimbabwe. Higher yields are
obtained on heavy textured sandy clay loams and heavier soils which contain
more nutrients. The heavy soils also hold water for a longer period. They
have a high water-holding capacity.
Lighter sands can be used to produce maize, provided adequate amounts of
fertilizers are applied.

Nutrient Requirements
One of the main nutrients required for successful maize production is
nitrogen, whose application is split. The recommended times for application
are at planting, at knee-height and later at tasselling. This is when the crop is
said to be sexually mature.

Phosphorus is important during the early stages of plant growth. Adequate

amounts should therefore be applied at or before planting.
The third element is potassium. It encourages healthy growth and
development. Both potassium and phosphorus are usually applied at the
same time in the form of a compound at or before planting.

It should be remembered that maize requires well drained soils. Areas which
are prone to waterlogging should therefore be avoided.

Land preparation
Land is usually ploughed as soon as the previous crop is harvested.
Ploughing is important for the following reasons.
1. Loosening the soil.
2. Mixing fertilizers and manures at the correct depth.
3. Preserving ground moisture.
4. Improving rainfall infiltration.
5. Controlling weeds.
6. Controlling pests and diseases.
However, ploughing should be done in conjunction with minimum tillage
techniques, in order to maintain a good soil structure.

Planting time

Early planting is important for production of high yields. There is a marked

reduction in yield when maize is planted after mid-November. Tables 13.01
illustrate this point.

Table 13.03
Yield reduction due to late planting
Approx. planting date Mean yield in tones per hectare
14 November 10,00
17 December 8,00
19 December 6,50

Seed
Seed size will determine the amount of seed required. But as a guide 25 kg
should cover one hectare. Two seeds are usually placed in one planting
station.
Spacing
Dry land maize is spaced 900 mm by 450 mm. irrigated maize is spaced 600
mm by 300 mm.

Planting depth
Seed is placed 50 mm deep. Planting at greater depths will increase the
number of days the seed will take to emerge.
Seed may be sown by planters. These should be properly calibrated before
planting out.
Methods of planting
- Rain planting – planting with the first good rains.
- Dry planting – sowing seed before the rains.
- Wet planting – planting before the rains, applying water to planting
stations. This is also used when transplanting tobacco.
Weed control
Maize cannot stand competition with weeds. If uncontrolled, weeds can
drastically reduce yields.
Methods of control
- crop rotation
- herbicides
- mechanical means.
- hand labour (weeding).
Pest control
Figure 13.01 outlines the main pests in maize production.

Figure 13.01
Pests of maize
Pest Notes
Maize Stalk Borer This inflicts serious damage to the crown of the
growing plant. It normally infects the plant prior to
sexual maturity. Chemical control involves the use of
carbaryl carbofuran and endosulfun.
Maize Snout Beetle Small brownish beetles feed on leaves of very young
plants and there are several species dangerous to maize
plants. Control-borne chemicals at planting and crop
rotations.
Cutworm These damage the young plant just after germination.
The best control measure is to keep the land absolutely
clean 4-6 weeks before planting.
African Armyworm This is a leaf-eating caterpillar which feeds on
members of the grass family. Since they appear in very
large numbers, they can inflict very serious damage.
Chemical control when outbreak occurs has involved
the use of carbaryl, dimethoate, malathion and
endosulfan.
Harvesting

Maize can be harvested at the soft-dough stage, for green mealies. It can be
harvested at the hard-dough stage for grain. At this stage the grain still
contains a high moisture content and it has to be dried further after
harvesting. Commercial farmers harvest maize in winter when the grain is
dry and has a moisture content of 12%.
Diseases control
Disease are classified into COB ROTS, LEAF diseases.
Cob rots
Disease Control
Fusarium kernel rot plant resistant varieties
Giberella ear rot seed dressing
Diplodia ear rot. seed dressing
Leaf diseases
Leaf blight plant resistant varieties.
Rust early planting crop rotation. spray
dressing
Leaf spot seed dressing
Boil smut. spray with fungicides.
Maize Streak Virus late planting

Methods of harvesting
- Hand harvesting
- Stocking
- Combine harvesters.
Hand harvesting
Cobs are removed and collected in bags. Oxcarts or trailers are used to carry
the bags.
Stocking
Maize is cut at the hard-dough stage and piled into stocks. This allows the
grain to dry while the land can be prepared for another crop.
Combine Harvesters
These are machines which remove cobs and shell grain at the same time.
Some of these harvesters can shell, bag and sew at the same time.

Maize yields
While 5 tonnes per hectare is commonly achieved on commercial farms,
yields of up to 10 tonnes per hectare have been achieved with irrigation in
Israel. Average yields in communal areas are between 1-2 tonnes per
hectare.

Storage
Bagged grain should be stored under shelter, free from moisture. Pesticides
should be used to control rats, beetles and weevils.
Concrete or galvanized iron are used to store large quantities of maize grain.
Peasant farmers use cribs for drying maize cobs.

Marketing
The Grain Marketing Board (GMB) handles all the marketing of maize in
Zimbabwe. There are many depots in many centres throughout the country,
some of them with storage silos, where farmers may deliver their maize.
Government thinking on the marketing of maize appears to be changing
however and it appears that the marketing of maize may be de-controlled
(i.e. opened up to the public).

Sorghum

Sorghum is more drought tolerant than maize, and it matures in a shorter

period. It is also important for brewing.

Varities
These are:
- Red Swazi
- DC99.

Soil requirements
Soil requirements are similar to those for maize, but the land should be
prepared to a fine tilth for successful seed germination. Planting time should
be Mid-November to end of December.

Seed rate
Most varieties will require 10 – 15 kg per hectare.

Planting
Rows are spaced 900 mm, and seed is drilled thinly. Depth on sowing should
be 25 – 35 mm.

Nutrient requirements
Sorghum requires similar nutrients to maize. However the nitrogen content
should be reduced for the more arid zones.
Pests and diseases
Pests
- stalk borer-controlled with contact insecticides 3 to 4 weeks after
germination and or 8 weeks after germination.
- aphids – controlled with systemic pesticides after heads emerge.
- American ballworm, controlled with endosulfan
Disease Control
Leaf blight - spray with fungicides
Scooty stripe - crop rotation
- planting healthy seed.
Downy mildew - spray with fungicides
Covered smut - crop rotation
Ergot - plant resistant varieties

Exercise 13
Multiple choice
1. a) A cereal which is the staple food of Zimbabwe is:

A. maize
B. rice
C. sorghum
D. wheat.

b) A cereal used for brewing is:

A. millet
B. rice
C. sorghum
D. wheat.

c) At which stage are maize plants sexually mature?

A. soft-dough
B. knee-height
C. hard-dough
D. tasselling.
d) Why is it necessary to split the application of nitrogen
fertilizers?

A. demand will be minimized

 B. plants will be scorched
C. the soil becomes acidic
D. costs will be reduced.

e) Planting maize after mid-November results in

A. improved quality
B. attack by pests
C. reduced weeding
D. reduced yields.

Structured items
2. a) How much maize seed is required per hectare?
b) To what depth is maize seed planted?
c) List the three methods of planting maize.
d) How does crop rotation control weeds?
e) Name two diseases of maize.
f) At what stage is maize harvested for green mealies?

True/false
3. Answer the following questions by inserting T for True and F for
False statements.
a) Boil smut is a disease of maize ……….
b) Green mealies are harvested at the hard-dough stage ……….
c) Small scale farmers use combines for harvesting maize ……….
d) Diplodia is a cob rot disease of maize ………….
e) The G.M.B. only handles maize from commercial farms ……
f) DC99 is a variety of maize ………..
Essays
4. Outline the reasons why the soil should be ploughed in preparation for
maize planting.
5. a) Describe the following
i) dry planting
ii) wet planting.
b) Explain how a peasant farmer harvests and stores maize for
grain.
14. Crop Protection

KEY FACTS
 Pest control

Plants need protection from pests. If unprotected, crops will not grow well.
Plants will be affected by diseases and yields will be reduced. Pests are of
four main types, mammals, birds, insects and nematodes.

Table 14.01
Some common insect pests.
Insects Stage Damage Crop
Biting insects (have well developed mouth parts for chewing leaves or fruit)
locusts adult & nymphs chew leaves maize, other cereals
termites workers destroy growing plants, maize, other cereals
stacked up harvests
leaf worms larvae eat leaves cereals, grasses, tobacco
army worms larvae eat leaves most crops attacked
bud worms larvae eat buds tomatoes
Sucking insects (insert mouth parts into plant tissues & suck sap)
fruit piercing
mouth adult fruit mango, guava, tomato
cotton stainers adult distorts leaves (transmits cotton, maize tomato.
virus)
white flies adults distort leaves (transmits tobacco, tomato citrus
virus)
mealy bugs adults swollen shoots citrus
coreid buds adults sap suckers with toxic saliva legumes
scale insects adults damage to all parts, fruit falls coffee
& leaves yellow (virus attack)
aphids adults cause sooty fungus on leaves, peaches, sorghum, wheat
prevents photosynthesis decidous fruit, citrus
soyas & groundnuts
Boring insects (chew into plant, live inside, sucking sap)
Weevils Adult & larvae Eat seed & grain Maize, rice, wheat,
groundnuts
Stem borer larvae Bore into stems & eat up Maize, sugarcane,
insides sunflower, tea, coffe
Nematodes (eelworms)
These are roundworms that parasitize plants and cause damage, for example
root swellings. They also use nutrients, and attack tubers and leaves. An
example are the root-knot nematodes which are serious tomato plant pests.
Nematodes can be controlled by good crop hygiene and use of chemicals
called nematicides.

Pest control methods

Mammals & birds – these can be hunted, scared off or plants or crops can
be fenced off in wire enclosure, which is very expensive.

Cultural methods – this refers to good farming practice, such as crop

rotations to destroy host plants, use of resistant varieties and clean seed as
well as regular crop inspection to detect onset of pests early on. Some like
the army worm can be picked off plants.

Biological control – this is a risky method of allowing natural predators of

pests to feed on them. Care should be taken not to upset delicate natural
balances in food chains and ecosystems.

Use of chemicals – chemicals used to control pests are called pesticides.

They are designed to kill specific pests without damaging crops.

Forms of pesticides
- Dusts – ready for application as a powder. The active ingredient is
mixed with carrier material such as lime.
- Granules – ready for application in granular form. They are not mixed
with water.
- Fumigants – used to kill soil pests such as nematodes. They are
applied in a gaseous form.
- Sprays – the powders are mixed with water, hence they are wettable
powders. Emulsions are prepared with oil as a solvent and they are
usually in concentrated form. They have to be diluted with water
before use.

How pesticides work

Pesticides work in the following ways:

- stomach poisons – they kill insects when swallowed.
- contact poisons – when insects crawl on plants where insecticide
applied, they absorb chemicals which affect their nervous systems,
causing death.
 - systemic poisons – they are absorbed by plants to all parts of the
plants tissue. Insects sucking the sap die.
- baits – these are mixed with poisons which kill insects when eaten.
- fumigants – these kill insects when inhaled.
It is important to note that while DDT used to be in widespread use both as a
contact poison and a fumigant, in Zimbabwe particularly for tsetse fly
eradication its use has largely been discontinued because of its persistence
once applied and the damage it does to other creatures down the food chain.
For example the reproduction of the fish eagle has suffered from DDT use
by eating contaminated fish which absorb chemicals brought downstream by
rainwater.

Table 14.02.
Some common pesticides
Insecticide Formulation Caution Used on
Stomach poisons
lead arsenate wettable powder highly toxic caterpillars, sawfly and tipulid
lavae
Paris green solid highly toxic as bait for insects
sodium floride solution highly toxic as bait for insects
Systemic Poisons
dimethoate wettable powder highly toxic aphids, some flies, red spider
granules mites
furadan wettable powder highly toxic leafhoppers on rice, root eating
granules caterpillars, beetle larvae on
cereals
phospharmidon spray highly toxic aphids, caterpillars, thrips, rice,
stem-borers, grasshoppers some
mites
primicarb wettable powder aphids and fly larvae
granules
Contact poisons
aldrin spray highly toxic termites
BHC dust, spray as dust-stem borers, as bait –
grasshoppers
derris dust stored products
dieldrin spray highly toxic termites
karathane dust toxic rice blast
kerosene/soap spray aphids
malathion spray cotton stainers
pyrethum dust, spray fruit fly
Fumigants
BHC smoke highly toxic beetles, fly larvae
bromomethane liquid highly toxic pests of soil and stored products
DDT smoke highly toxic most insects
dibromethane solution highly toxic pests of soil and stored products

Colour coding

Colours are used to indicate to farmers the amount of poison and the dangers
to the user of specific pesticides. Table 14.03 gives details of the colour
codes.

Table 14.03
Pesticide colour codes
Colour Description
Green less toxic, harmful if swallowed
Amber poison
Red dangerous poison
Purple very dangerous poison

Weed control

Weed types
- Perennials – need more than one season to complete life cycle.
Examples are star grass, couch grass, rapoko grass oxalis, nutgrass,
wandering jew and thorn apple.
- Annuals – they grow, mature and seed in one season. Examples are
Mexican marigold, witchweed, black jack, Sodom apple.

Control Methods
- Mechanical – hand labour hoe removal of first flush of weeds after
first rains.
- cultivators, spike toothed harrows can be used.
- Biological – use of animals, insects and bacteria which prey on weeds.
- Cultural – use of crop rotation and timely planting.
- Chemical – herbicides may be applied in three stages depending on
the type of weed to be eradicated:
 a. pre-planting
b. pre-emergence
c. post emergence

Reasons for weed control

- Weeds harbour pests and diseases.
- Weeds compete for nutrients and water with crops.
- They shade crops from sunshine. This reduces the rate of
photosynthesis, hence reduced yields.
- Some weeds interfere with harvesting operations.
- Weeds can reduce the quality of produce. Black jack can stick to
cotton reducing its quality.
- Some weeds are parasitic and they draw their food directly from
crops. The maize witchweed is a typical example.

Crop diseases

Diseases caused by parasites are called parasitic diseases. Those caused by

poor crop management such as nutritional difficiencies are called non-
parasitic.

Parasitic diseases
Disease causing organisms called pathogens cause this type of diseases.
These are: - nematodes (not all nematodes cause diseases)
- fungi
- bacteria
- viruses.

Nematodes
Nematodes are minute soil pests also known as eelworms. They attack roots
of plants such as tomatoes and cause root knots, galls and lesions. They are
usually controlled with fumigants.

Fungi
Fungi grow in plant tissue, destroy the tissues and absorb the contents for
food. Fungal diseases are spread by means of spores. The spores are
produced in large numbers and they are either air or water borne.
Bacterial
Bacteria attack plants and cause diseases such as Blight. Sometimes it is
necessary to apply chemicals to protect crops from attack by bacteria.
Viruses
Viruses are extremely tiny and they multiply prolifically. They are
transmitted through a vector which sucks the sap of plants already infected.
A summary of diseases caused by fungi, bacteria and viruses is given in
table 14.04

Table 14.04
Crop diseases
Name of disease Cause Crop affected
Leaf curl fungi peach
Black spot apple
Brown knot stone fruit
Blight peas
Downey Mildew pumpkins
Late blight potatoes
Soft rot bacteria cabbages
Crown gall groundnuts
Bacterial cancer tomatoes
Angular leaf spot cucurbits
Spotted wilt virus tomatoes
Woodiness passion fruit
Bunchy top bananas
Mosaic apple

Seed-borne diseases
Some diseases which affect crops eventually remain in the seed when the
crop dies. If the seed is used or planting a new crop, then the disease will be
reactivated and spread in the new crop. Seed should therefore be treated
before use. Certified seed is seed which is free of disease.

Non parasitic diseases

Causes
- drought
- waterlogging
- poor soil structure
- nutrient deficiency
- soil acidity
- frost damage
- monoculture.
Methods of diseases control

Rotation
Rotating crops means that the host crop is changed. In this way the life cycle
of the disease is broken.

Ploughing-in crop residues

Crop residues harbouring disease causing organisms should be buried so that
the organisms are destroyed.

Timely planting
Winter crops such as wheat are susceptible to leaf rust, which favours wet
and hot summer conditions. Planting early can also be an effective way of
controlling certain diseases.

Weed control
Crops and weeds usually share the same diseases. When the crop is
harvested the disease causing organisms remain in the weeds.
Certified seed
Seed-borne diseases are prevented through the use of certified seed.

Roguing
Individual plants which are diseased are pulled out and destroyed.

Chemical control
These are used to control vectors which spread diseases.

Fungicides
When diseases have been observed, chemicals called fungicides are applied.

Nutrient deficiencies
Application of specific nutrients is sometimes helpful. Trace elements such
as zinc and copper can be sprayed on foliage to correct deficiencies.

Exercise 14

Multiple choice
1. a) Pesticides that are absorbed by the entire plant are called:

A. contact
B. fumigants
C. stomach
D. systemic.

b) Fumigants are affective against pests which:

A. suck the sap

B. are nocturnal
C. have chewing mouth parts
D. dwell in the soil.

c) Which of the following pesticides has organophosphate base?

A. carbaryl
B. dieldrin
C. melathin
D. nicotine.

d) Pesticides which are dissolved only in solvents are called

A. aerosol
B. emulsions
C. granules
D. systems.

e) Which one of the following is an example of a perennial weed?

A. wandering jew
B. black jack
C. witchweed
D. Mexican marigold.

f) Which one of the following is NOT a reason for controlling

weeds?
A. weeds shade crops from sunlight.
B. can be ploughed back into the soil.
 C. weeds reduce the quality of produce.
D. some weeds are parasites.

g) Which one of the following organisms is spread through

spores?

A. bacteria
B. fungi
C. nematodes
D. virus.

h) Late blight is a fungal disease which attacks:

A. cabbages
B. carrots
C. peas
D. potatoes.

Structured items
2. Complete the table below with the correct answers

Colour Description
Green less toxic
Amber …………
………… dangerous poison
………… very dangerous poison

3. a) List three ways in which pesticides work.

b) Give two main classes of weeds.
c) Explain the following terms:
i) pathogens
ii) fumigants.
d) How are seed-borne diseases controlled?
Essays
4. Outline the cause of non-parasitic diseases.
5. Describe the methods used to control weeds.
Section Four

Livestock Husbandry
15. Introduction to livestock husbandry

KEY FACTS

Types of livestock:

Three types of livestock kept by farmers are: - Ruminants – they have

complex stomachs and feed on grass and cereals. They have four stomachs
(see below) and are especially useful for their ability to convert raw
vegetative mater (which people cannot digest) into more complex
substances. Examples are:
- cattle – useful for providing foodstuffs milk, like meat, also clothing
& employment in food processing industries, manure.
- sheep – useful for meats, wool pelts and other secondary industrial
products.
- goats – meat, pelts, milk, other by-products.

Non-ruminants – they have simple stomachs and with exception of the

horse, cannot digest cellulose, that is, they do not digest raw vegetative
matter. Examples are:
- pigs – foodstuffs and manure
- poultry – eggs and meat products, feathers can be used for various
purposes, as can blood.
- horses – draught animal, racing, transport, other by-products, also
meats sometimes.
- rabbits – meat and pelts.
- donkeys – draught power, transport.
Fish – farmed and harvested for food and animal feeds, and supply one sixth
of humanity‟s animal protein.
The anatomy of animals

The beef-cow (ruminant) – digestive system.

Figure 15.01.
Ruminant digestive system.

Ruminants, like the cow, have four stomachs as illustrated in figure 15.01.
In the rumen, fibrous food is mixed with water. It is broken down by the
action of the thick walls of the rumen. Further breakdown is achieved
through rumination. Lumps of food are brought back into the mouth for
chewing and mixed with saliva during rumination.

Chemical Breakdown
As the chemical reactions take place in the rumen, gases, i.e. carbon dioxide
and methane are released and expelled out of the rumen through the mouth.
This process is called belching. When gasses are trapped in the rumen, the
animal gets bloated.

Absorption
Fatty acids, produced when bacteria act on cellulose, are absorbed through
the walls of the rumen, reticulum, and omasum. The rest of the food passes
into the abomasums and digestion occurs just as in the non-ruminant.
Villi, lining the intestinal walls, absorb food nutrients contained in chime,
released from the stomach. Figure 15.02 illustrates the structure of the villi
in the ruminant.

Sugars, fats and proteins are absorbed into the blood stream int eh form of
glucose, glycerol/fatty acids and amino acids.

Feed rationing
Maintenance ration
Feed is used for:
- breathing
- warmth
- circulation of blood
- repair of worn out tissue.

Production Ration
Feed is used for:
- growth
- reproduction
- milk production
- energy to do work.

Nutritional requirements of an animal

A cow will consume 3% of its body mass as dry matter per day. Feeds such
as hay which have a high dry matter content will be consumed less than feed
such as silage which have a low dry matter content.

Minerals
Calcium and phosphorus are essential in a cow‟s diet. Remember, most soils
in Zimbabwe are deficient in phosphorus. This means that grass and other
feeds will not provide the animal with sufficient phosphorus. So it has to be
added to the feed.
Figure 15.02
Absorption and utilization in the ruminant

Calculating a maintenance ration

The food elements which are considered when calculating a ration are:
- Dry Matter (DM)
- Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN)
- Digestible Crude Protein (DCP)
- Calcium (Ca)
- Phosphorus (P)

Grazing
A cow grazing the veld in summer, will consume 20 kg of grass per day.
During summer this amount of grass will provide nutrition for maintenance
and production. When the nutritive value of grass drops in winter the animal
may not even get enough nutrition for maintenance. The protein content of
dry grass is low and it should be supplemented.

Palatability
Animals will eat their daily requirements if the food is palatable. Feeds
which contain protein and a low fibre content are generally more palatable.
Sometimes fibrous food is mixed with sweet and tasty ingredients to
increase palatability. Molasses and salt are particularly important during the
winter period when the veld is dry and unpalatable.
The male reproductive system
Figure 15.03.
Reproductive system of a bull

Functions of parts
Testes
- provide a favourable environment for sperm production.
- production of sperms.
- production of hormone – testosterone which facilitates ejaculation.

Epididymus
- matures sperms
- storage of sperms.
Seminal vesciles
- produces semen
- store semen
- dilute sperms with semen.
Vas deferens
- transporting sperms from the epididymis to the urethra- facilitates the
flow of blood.
Penis
- insemination
Accessory glands:
i.e. prostate and cowpers‟ glands provide nutrition to sperms.

Anatomy of the female reproductive system

Figure 15.04 illustrates the parts of the cow‟s reproductive system.
Functions of parts
Ovaries
- production of ova
- secretion of conception hormone – (oestrogen)
- secretion of pregnancy hormone – (progesterone).
Fallopian tubes
- collect eggs from ovaries.
- passage for eggs from ovaries to uterus.
- fertilization of eggs.
Uterus
- development of embryos.
- implantation of foetus.
- nourishment of foetus.
- protection of foetus during pregnancy.
Vagina
- insemination
- birth passage.

Figure 15.04
The reproductive tract of the cow
Vulva
- protection of the vagina.
Cervix
- separates uterus from vagina.
- closes the uterus to retain the foetus during pregnancy.
- opens to allow foetus into the vagina at birth.

Reproductive process
The oestrus cycle and ovulation
During oestrus a female animal will accept the bull. This period coincides
with the release of eggs from the ovary.
Fertilization
At fertilization the nucleus of the sperm and that of the egg fuse. No further
fertilization can take place. The embryo moves into the uterus where it later
implants.
Pregnancy
It is important to ensure that the cow is properly fed during gestation. This
period is followed by parturition or birth.

Figure 15.05
Cross-section of the udder
Mammary glands

Secretion of milk
Figure 15.05 shows a cross section of the udder. Blood is supplied to the
udder through the mammary artery. The alveoli of the udder secrets milk
into the teat sphincter muscle. A hormone called oxytocin is released when
the udder is stimulated and the alveoli secrete milk into teat the cistern. This
process is called “Let down”.

Exercise 15

Multiple choice
1. a) Which one of the following animals has a simple stomach?

A. cow
B. goat
C. sheep
D. pig.

b) Which non-ruminant has a caecum which is adapted to digest

fibre?

A. goat
B. horse
C. pig
D. rabbit.

c) What does ruminant mean?

A. chewing the cud

B. belching gasses
C. producing saliva
D. adding enzyme to food.

d) What causes bloat?

A. trapped gases
 B. intestinal juices
C. rumen flora
D. rumination.

e) Which one is a function of testes?

A. production of testosterone
B. storage of sperms
C. storage of urine
D. production of semen.

f) Which one is responsible for transporting sperms?

A. epididymis
B. vas deferens
C. testes
D. zygote.

g) Which part collects eggs being released from the ovary?

A. cervis
B. funnel
C. uterus
D. vagina.

h) Which hormone is secreted when fertilization has occurred?

A. oestrogen
B. oxytoin
C. progesterone
D. testosterone.

i) Oestrus is best described as the period when:

A. a foetus is implanted
B. ovulation has finished
 C. mating has failed
D. fertilization is possible.

Structured items
2. (a) The figure below illustrates the digestive system of a ruminant.
i) Name the parts marked A-E.
ii) What is the function of B?
iii) Where is the rumen flora found?

b) The diagram above shows the reproductive system of a cow.

 i) Label the parts marked A-E
ii) What are the functions of the following parts?
- penis
- seminal vesicle
- prostate gland
c) State the part which produces milk.
d) Where does implantation occur?
e) Explain “Let down.”
f) Name four areas where absorption takes place in the ruminant.
g) How does bloat occur?
h) What product of cellulose digestion is absorbed through
the walls of the rumen?
i) What are the projections on the lining of the ilium called?

Completion items
Complete the sentences below.
3. a) The fusion of an egg and a sperm is called ………………
b) The gestation period is flowed by …………..
c) The muscle which prevents milk from dripping out of the teat
cistern is the ……………………..
d) The …………………. Facilitates the flow of blood in the
testicles.
Essays
4. (a) Outline the chemical breakdown of food in the stomach of a
non-ruminant.
(b) Explain the digestion of cellulose under:
i) rumination
ii) bacterial action.
(c) Outline the end-products of digestion.
16. Rearing rabbits

KEY FACTS

Breeds

There are two distinctive classes of rabbits:

- meat breeds
- fancy breeds
Meat breeds are large and they are prolific breeders – up to 50 offspring a
year. Fancy breeds are usually small and they are reared for how purposes.

Breeding

Breeding stock reaches sexual maturity within six months and both bucks
and does can remain breeding for up to three years. To select a doe you must
look for a minimum of eight functional teats.

Rabbits do not have a specific heat period, so mating can take place
throughout the year. Mating occurs when the doe is taken to the buck. This
avoids fighting. Fourteen days after mating, pregnancy can be tested. Two
methods are used:
- test-mating – a doe which has conceived will refuse to be mated.
- palpating – feeling the foetus in the uterus.
Litter size is between 8 to 10 depending on the breed of the rabbits.
Weaning may be carried out after four weeks.

Housing

Rules to observe
- ensure adequate cleanliness.
- ensure adequate comfort.
- provide protection against predators.
- plan for easy management through light hutches and proper
arrangement.
- allow a floor space of 0.85 m² per doe.
- housing should be as economical as possible.
- hutches should be of the correct size.

Feeding
Basic rabbit feed is:
- greens
- rabbit pellets.
Tomato and potato tops should not be used because they are poisonous. 100
grams of pellets and good quality hay should be fed per rabbit per day.

Pregnant does should be given 115 grams of pellets. A conversion ratio of

3:1 is considered satisfactory for a mature rabbit.
A continuous supply of water is essential. A restricted supply will reduce
feed intake and growth rate of the litter because lactation of milking does
will be reduced. An adult rabbit consumes about a litre of water a day and
doe with an 8 week litter up to 3.5 litres.

Frequency of feeding
- Feed can be ad-lib, that is feeding to appetite.
- Where feed is given once per day it should be in the evening.
- It is however preferable to feed twice a day.
- Milking does should be fed three times a day to ensure adequate milk
production.

Moulting
Rabbits do lose fur once a year. This process is called moulting. During this
period does should not be mated.

Weaning
At the age of about four weeks, young rabbits are able to feed on rabbit
pellets and they can be weaned. At 8 to 10 weeks rabbits can be slaughtered
from dirt or damp. Where possible, cleaning out of the hatch should be done
twice a week but at the very least, once a week.
Improper handling of rabbits will lead to fright, which in turn may cause
viciousness so that the young may be scattered and even eaten. It is therefore
important to learn how to handle rabbits properly both for inspection and to
remove for cleaning of hutches. Never lift a rabbit by the ears.

Record keeping
Reasons for keeping records are:
- avoiding in-breeding.
- identification of good performance.
- maintaining information on weaning weights.
- evaluating quantity and cost of feeds.
- determining milk production.

Diseases
Rabbit diseases are difficult to diagnose. Quick reaction is essential as
contagious diseases can spread rapidly. The Department of Vet.Services will
identify the disease for you and indicate if culling is necessary. Killing sick
animals must be done away from the rabbitry and carcases burnt or buried.
 Figure 16.01
The correct way to handle a rabbit

Table 16.01
Common disease of rabbits
Disease Signs Cause Control
Coccidiosis diarrhea protozoa coccidiostats
Snuffles sneezing and mucus dustry conditions good ventilation and
discharge cleanliness
Myxomtosis swollen eyelids and virus vaccination
body
Sore hocks wounds on hocks damp bedding antiseptics
Pasteurellosis pneumonia pasteurella antibiotics
Ear canker rusty ears mites parasticide engine oil
Heat stroke panting and poor ventilation wet animals with cold
slobbering water
Cannibalism eating the young stress avoid handling the young
soon after kindling
Provided that good stockmanship is observed, diseases are rare. As with
broiler chickens, the introduction of hybrids has led to improvements in
growth rates, food conversion rations and reduction of ages for slaughter.
Rabbits are also useful because they are well suited to production in small
units.
Killing-out percentage
The killing-out percentage for a rabbits is 60 – 64%. This is calculated as
follows:
Mass of Carcass x 100
Livemass

Exercises 16
Multiple choice
1. a) At what age does a rabbit reach sexual maturity?

A. four months
B. six months
C. eight months
D. twelve months.

b) A method of pregnancy testing is:

A. kindling
B. reactating
C. moulting
D. palpating.

c) At what age can rabbits be weaned?

A. 4 weeks
B. 16 weeks
C. 18 weeks
D. 20 weeks

d) A suitable food for rabbits is:

A. tomato tops
B. potato tops
C. lantana leaves
D. green Lucerne

e) How much food should be fed to a lactating doe?

A. 105 gm
B. 110 gm
C. 115 gm
 D. 118 gm

f) Ad-lib feeding means giving food;

A. once a day
B. twice a day
C. at regular intervals
D. at all times.

g) The process of losing fur in rabbits is called:

A. kindling
B. mating
C. moulting
D. weaning

Structured items

2. a) State the formula used to calculate the killing-out percentage.

b) Name a protozoal disease of rabbits.
c) What causes cannibalism?
d) How many functional teats should a good doe have?

True/false

Answer the following questions by inserting the letter T, for true and F for
false statements.
3. a) Heat period means the body temperature is high ………..
b) The size of a litter from a good doe is 8 to 10 …………
c) Greens and pellets are basic foods for rabbits …………
d) The conversion ratio of a rabbit is 3:1 ……………..
e) Milking does should be given pellets once per day …………..
f) Moulting time should be used for mating rabbits …………..
g) Record keeping helps to avoid in-breeding …………….
Completion items

Use the list below to complete the statements which follow.

- emulsion
- tanning
- snuffles
- bolus
- mite
- carcass
4. a) The body of an animal which has been slaughtered is
called a ……….
b) A common vector of ear canker in rabbits is ……….
c) A disease which can be avoided by good ventilation is ………..

17. Rearing broiler chickens

KEY FACTS

Hybrids
The introduction of hybrid chickens has reduced the cost of poultry
production remarkably. The main reasons for hybridization are to:
- achieve rapid growth.
- slaughter at 8-9 weeks before birds are sexually mature.
- use both male and female for meat production.
- regulate food consumption over time.\
- produce better quality meat.

Housing

While large, commercial broiler unites have a controlled environment,

simpler buildings are adequate for the average farmer. The following points
need to be observed:
- brick or stone walls at the bottom to contain the litter.
- the remainder can be wire netting or Hessian. Plastic sheets can be
used in cold weather. Timber can also be used. If walls are solid,
ventilation space between roof and walls is required.
- Height should be no more than 4 metres and width no more than 12
metres.
- floor space should be 0.05 x 0.9m² per hundred birds.
- the best litter is untreated wood shavings to a depth of 800 – 900mm.

Rearing

In order to achieve rapid and uninterrupted growth, birds are kept in the
same house from day old to slaughter. Allowing for time to clean out and
rest house, it is possible for a farmer to raise 4 crops of broilers each year.

Brooding

Up to the time they are 4-6 weeks old (depending on the time of the year)
day old chicks need artificial heat. There are two methods:
1. Canopy brooder
No more than 500 chicks under one roof.
- surround should be 1 metre from apron.
2. Infra-red lamps
In both cases, borders of cardpard or thin metal sheet should be placed
round brooders to prevent chicks from wandering away.

Temperatures
1. Brooder temperatures should be:
1st week ………… 32-35ºC
2nd week ………… 27-32ºC
3rd week ………… 21-27 ºC
4th week ………… 15-20 ºC
2. During hot weather, temperatures in the whole house should stay
below 30 ºC, hence the need for good ventilation.
In order to keep both food and water clean, which is essential, feeders and
water should be raised from the 4th week.

Feeding

Hybrid broilers need a properly balanced ration if their full genetic potential
is to be realized. The broiler is given two feeding regimes:
1. The starter period – from day old to 6 weeks.
a) Birds should be fed on starter mash with 22-24% crude protein.
b) Access to food must be unrestricted.
c) Water must be clean.

2. The finisher period – 6 weeks to slaughter.

a) Finisher mash or pellets replace starter mash gradually, with
crude protein 19-20%.
b) As chicks grow, feeders and drinkers should be placed evenly
about the house so they do not have to move a lot for food and
water.

Feed can be bought ready mixed, or homegrown maize can be mixed with
concentrate. The first table below gives the live mass gain and weekly food
consumption of chickens form 1-15 weeks. The table below shows the
proportions of maize meal and concentrate to use if you mix your own feed.

Table 17.01
Live mass weekly food consumption
Week Live mass Feed consumption
kg Weekly kg cumulative
1 0,12 0,13 0,13
2 0,24 0,18 0,31
 3 0,42 0,32 0,63
4 0,64 0,42 1,05
5 (Poussin) 0,89 0,52 1,57
6 1,17 0,62 2,19
8 1,79 0,84 3.76
9 (Broiler) 2,11 0,90 4,66
10 (Roaster) 2,40 0,92 5,58
11 2,68 0,95 6,53
12 2,92 1,00 7,53
15 3,60 1,30 11,00

Table 17.02
Preparing poultry feeds from concentrates
Concentrate Crude Protein % Mixture for feeding
Chick 36 2 parts concentrate to 3 parts maize meal
Growers 22 1 part concentrate to 1 part maize meal
Layers 28 2 parts concentrate to 3 parts maize meal
Broiler Starter 43 2 parts concentrate to 3 parts maize meal
from 1 day – 4 weeks
Broiler Finisher 43 1 part concentrate to 2 parts maize meal
from 4 weeks - maturity

Pests and diseases

As soon as a poultry house is emptied of birds after slaughtering, it should

be cleaned immediately, including all feeders and drinkers. Disinfectants and
washing sodas may be used. The house should be kept empty for a while, at
least a week. During rearing, food and water must be kept clean. Birds must
be watched for pests and dead birds burned or buried away from the house.

But good stockmanship is only of use if the birds are disease free in the first
place. Chicks should only be bought from reputable breeders to ensure this.
The tables below gives common fowl diseases, parasites and pests, and in
cases, cures.
Table 17.03
Common fowl parasites and pests
Parasite Signs and symptons Treatment and / or control measures
Ascaris and 1. droopiness in chicks 1. practice of hygiene in housing
Tapeworms 2. lack of any weight gain 2. dosing or deworming
3. emaciation and low egg 3. proper disposal of potentially infectious
 production faeces
4. diarrhea with blood streaks 4. use Lintex to control tape worms
in droppings 5. use Pipeazine to control ascaris
5. inflammation of the gut wall
6. paralysis in one or both legs
Tampan 1. irritation 1. remove bark from poles and perches before
2. weakness using them in fowl houses
3. suffers from anemia 2. plaster the inside of brick houses
3. fill in cracks and crevices with tar or paint
4.dust fowls and poultry houses with either
poultry dusting powder, carbaryl 5% or
benzene hexachloride (BHC)
Red mite 1. scratching 1. avoid overcrowding
2. restlessness especially at 2. use carbarly 5%, malathion or dylox
night 3. cover or fill in cracks with used engine oil,
3. general weakness paint or with tar
4. decreased egg production 4. replace litter with clean material and burn
5. loss of weight soiled nest grass and litter
6. high mortality rate in young
birds
Lice (biting 1. scratching 1. avoid overcrowding
and sucking) 2. restlessness 2. disinfect the fowls and their housing; dust
3. loss of weight with malathion 5%, spray or dip birds in a
4. decreased egg production solution of dylox
3. purchase chicks from reputable breeders /
sources
Fleas 1. decrease in egg production 1. disinfect the fowls and their housing
(eggs laid in the deep litter not between batches
in nest boxes) 2. keep poultry house clean always
2. death of young chicks 3. dust chickens with 1% malathion or briefly
3. reddish brown insects can be dip indylox solution or in paraffin
seen on eyelids, wattles and
comb
4. ulcers form on the skin
Table 17.04
Some common poultry diseases (continued on p.90)
Disease Causative Signs and symptons Treatment and or control
agent measures
Newcastle Virus 1. drooping wings. 1. no treatment.
A notifiable disease 2. rapid breathing 2. hygienic practices.
which is very accompanied by a 3. kill whole flock and disinfect
infectious. When there bubbling sound from the houses.
is an outbreak of this throat. 4. control by vaccination of chicks at
disease, the area 3. lack of appetite. a few days old, and at 18 to 24 days.
affected is usually put 4. watery yellowish-
under isolation or white faeces with
quarantine. When the offensive smell.
affected batch has been 5. mucus discharge from
destroyed, restocking both the mouth and
should not take place nostrils.
for at least 3 months.
The spread of the
disease is very rapid
and death rate or
mortality very high.
Coccidiosis One – celled 1. diarrhea with blood. 1. use of drugs for treatment and
Also affects rabbits, parasite 2. rough feathers. prevention: coccidiostats e.g. Epsom
calves, kids and lambs. (protozoan) 3. drooping wings. salts and sulphur drugs. Examples of
Organism attacks 4. dullness in treatment drugs are E S B3, sulphur-
linings of the appearance and activity. mezathine 16%, Amprol Soluble. Put
alimentary tract. 5. poor appetite for food in drinking water.
but usually very thirsty. 2. proper management of poultry
6. pullets attacked may housing.
die in a day or two.
Fowl typhoid and Bacteria 1. diarrhea with white – 1. difficult to treat. Treat fowl
Bacillary. White yellowish or green – typhoid with furasol in the drinking
Diarrhoea (BWD) yellowing faeces. water and furazolidine in the food.
both are infectious 2. drooping wings and Follow instructions on the label.
diseases. Healthy sleepy eyes. 2. kill affected birds.
folws may be carriers 3. loss of appetite. 3. regular vaccination.
for both diseases. 4. combs and wattles 4. keep poultry houses clean, dry and
BWD usually affects shrunken and pale well ventilated.
chicks while fowl yellow. 5. buy chicks form certified breeders
typhoid commonly 5. continuous chirping only. N.B. Laboratory tests would be
appears in grown-up till death. necessary to determine which of the
birds two diseases was present in a bird.
Fowl pox Virus 1. veicles (tiny pimples 1. no treatment.
A contagious, killer which later form black 2. kill all affected birds.
disease. scabs) seen on 3. control by vaccination.
 unfeathered parts of 4. disinfect houses and observe strick
body. hygiene.
2. discharge from eyes
nostrils.
3. eyes get sleepy and
stuck.
4. difficult breathing.
Fowl paralysis Virus 1. fowl paralysed in one 1. breed from healthy stock.
Transmission could be or both legs. 2. control tampans and other blood
through tampans and 2. bird has good appetite sucking parasites.
other blood sucking and looks normal except 3. remove affected birds from the
parasites. Infection that it may be paralysed flock.
may also be passed via in neck and wings. 4. disease has no known treatment.
the egg. 3. some affected birds

Record keeping

Broiler chickens have the fastest turnover of capital farming. After only 7-9
weeks, the first crop of birds is harvested. Profits can then be reinvested in
the next crop. But the profit margin can only be worked out when the farmer
keeps accurate and continuous records. (For more information, see
Agricultural Economics section)
Records of six types are useful. Some of these can be combined.
1. Stock register – death, gifts and pre-harvest sales need to be taken into
account in working out profit margins. Below is an example.
2. Feeds register – quantities and costs need recording.
3. Live-mass and cumulative feed usage comparisons help to monitor
efficiency.
4. Daily events record help in the monitoring of disease, problems and in
establishing performance comparisons for the future.
5. Inventories – to keep track of all equipment which will cost money to
replace.
6. Cash book – the profit and loss account will help the farmer work out
if he has made a profit or loss.

Table 17.05 A stock register

Date Beginning Stock bought or received Total Dead Sold / Given In hand Remarks
Exercise 17

Multiple choice
1. a) The best litter for broilers is:

A. cut grass
B. wood shavings
C. wood sawdust
D. tree leaves.

b) Brooding means the time when chicks require:

A. artificial feeds
B. artificial heat
C. artificial light
D. artificial shelter.

c) During hot weather, housing temperatures should be kept below

A. 50 ºC
B. 60 ºC
C. 30 ºC
D. 20 ºC

d) How are hybrids produced?

A. Cross breeding
B. sex linkage
C. line breeding
D. hybrid vigour

Completion items

2. a) Broiler finisher‟s mash should contain ………..% crude protein

b) ……………. In poultry production has led to reduced
production costs.
 c) Pullets which are 8 weeks old are fed on …………..
d) A canopy brooder should contain no more than ………… birds
e) ………… walls should be at the bottom of the building to
contain litter.
Answers: 16%, 18%, wood, Brick, stone, 600, 500, starter, finisher, in-
breeding, hybridization.

Essays
Write notes on the following topics
3. a) brooding
b) resting houses
c) record keeping.

Section Five

Farm structures & Pasture

Management
18. Veld and pasture management

KEY FACTS

The grass plant

Figure 18.01
Stem of the grass plant

Life cycle

Annuals complete their life cycle within one season, while perennials require
two or more growing seasons. Annuals grow fast and seed before the end of
the season. After seeding the annuals dry up and die. New plants are
obtained from seed. Perennials grow in one season. They transfer nutrients
to the roots by translocation, at the end of the season. During the nest season
the grasses are rejuvenated and grow to produce seed. This explains why the
perennials have no crude protein in winter.

Roots
Stolons – are horizontal roots which run above the ground.
Rhizomes – are horizontal roots which run underground.
Leaves – mostly parallel veined. Inflorescence
 Figure 18.02
Flowering heads of the grass plant

Veld management

Carrying capacity
In order to avoid overgrazing, the correct number of animals should be kept
on the farm. The correct number of hectares required to feed one mature
animal is expressed as carrying capacity, e.g. 1:4 which means that one
animal will require four hectares to obtain its basic food requirements.

Stocking rate
The actual number of mature livestock units kept in an area is the socking
rate. One animal can be grazed on an area greater than the carrying capacity.
A reduction in the minimum number of hectares required to graze one
animal will result in overgrazing.

Table 18.01
Common pasture grasses of Zimbabwe
Common Name Botanical name Description
Rhodes grass Chloris gayana stoloniferous
perennial makes a good hay.
Sabi pennisetum annual stolons /
clandestinum rhizomes
Kikuyu pennisetum annual sotlons /
 clandestinum rhizomes
Love grass Nile Eragrostis acraea annual/perennial
Acroceras macrum perennial rhizomes
Sabi panicum Panicum maximum perennial tufted, seeded
Shamva Rootboellia exaltata annual palatable
Star Cyndon plectostachyas perennial stoloniferous.

Common grasses of Zimbabwe

Table 18.01 shows the common pasture grasses of Zimbabwe.

Pasture management

Farmers establish pastures just like any other crop. Properly managed
pastures are more productive than the veld. They can be grazed with a
carrying capacity as high as 4 to 1. This means four animals grazing on one
hectare of pasture.

The intensive system depends on paddocking and the more paddocks the
better. This is because more and more options are available to the farmer in
terms of shifting his stock around.‟ Also the more paddocks there are, the
less sensitive the whole unit is to poor management.

Pasture management types

Pasture management can be intensive or extensive. The extensive system is

similar to the continuous light stocking veld management system to keep
well within the carrying capacity of the land.

The natural regions of Zimbabwe

Figure 18.03 illustrates the Agro-Ecological zones of Zimbabwe. For a

summary of the activities in these zones, see page 18.
 Figure 18.03
The natural regions of Zimbabwe

Veld types

Sweet veld
The sweet veld has palatable grass species. These annuals are forced to seed
early due to scarce rainfall. There is minimum translocation of nutrients
during winter. Therefore, where it is available in winter it provides adequate
TDN and DCP.

Sour veld
Grass provides palatable grazing during the growing season. There is
translocation and little protein is left in winter. Most farmers use molasses to
improve palatability. Protein has to be supplemented as well.

Mixed veld
There is a mixture of grass species, which help to maintain a high carrying
capacity. Protein remains adequate throughout the year. The veld can be
intercropped with pasture legumes, such as silver leaf, siratro, Kenya white
clover, macrotylama, desmodium, and sesbania macrantha.

Veld management systems

When poorly managed the veld will deteriorate gradually. The first signs of
deterioration are a reduction in ground cover. There is decreased infiltration
and runoff is increased. Erosion sets in and grass pedestals are prominent.
This condition leads to bush encroachment.

Good management ensures that defoliation is followed by a rest period.

Camps should therefore be divided into paddocks and rotational grazing
should be practiced.

Split-season systems
Two paddocks are required for this system, which is based on the principle
of a rest period during the growing season.

Table 18.04
“Split season” grazing system. One Herd: Two paddocks
Paddock 1 Paddock 2
Year 1 Early summer Rest Graze
Late summer Graze Rest
Winter Winter rest Graze
Year 2 Early summer Graze Rest
Late summer Rest Graze
Winter Graze Winter rest

Table 18.04 illustrates how the system works. A third paddock can be added
so that more rest is given during the early summer period.

Veld Management Planning

A good plan should take into consideration the following factors:
- siting of fences
- siting of roads
- water reticulation
- correct stocking rate
- provision for wild life.
- groups of herds i.e. cows, heifers, weaners
- number of paddocks
- size of paddocks
- grazing period
- rest period (30 – 45 days)
- veld carrying capacity
- burning (to remove top hamper).
Exercise 18

Multiple choice

1. a) An annual grass:

A. sets seed after 2 years

B. completes its life cycle in 1 season
C. has a very deep root system
D. consists of upright stems.

b) In plants, nutrients are transferred from leaves to roots in a

process called

A. diffusion
B. osmosis
C. photosynthesis
D. translocation.

c) Reduced ground cover leads to

A. increased infiltration
B. reduced run-off
C. increased erosion
D. reduced temperatures.

d) Why is burning of paddocks necessary at times?

A. plants are rejuvenated

B. fibrous material is destroyed
C. plant litter is increased
D. wild life will be easily trapped.

e) Which crop is grown in Region 1?

A. cotton
B. sorghum
C. tea
D. wheat.
 f) Which region in Zimbabwe receives the least rainfall?

A. 11
B. 111
C. 1V
D. V

g) Grass pedestals occur when the veld is:

A. undergrazed
B. poorly managed
C. susceptible to erosion
D. covered with perennials.

Structured items
2. a) What is defoliation?
b) During which period should the veld be given enough rest?
c) How is the carrying capacity expressed?
d) What is the actual number of animals on the veld called?
e) What type of grass is found in the sweet veld?
f) Why does the sweet veld continue to have adequate D.C.P. in
winter?

True/False
Use the letter T or F to show which statement is true or false.
3. a) Sour veld provides palatable gazing during the growing season
………
b) Sour veld has plenty of protein in winter ……….
c) Mixed veld is produced by careful management ……………
d) Sesbania macrantha is a pasture legume …………
e) The cows are given grazing priority in a herd ……………..

Essays
4. Outline the factors to be considered in veld management planning.
5. a) Show the differences between sweet and sour veld.
b) Distinguish between carrying capacity and stocking rate.
6. Discuss veld management under:
a) rotational grazing
b) split-season systems.
19. Farm fences

KEY FACTS

Fences

Materials

Wooden posts are commonly used for construction of fences on farms.

Suitable tree species are the eucalyptus and mopani. Wooden posts have to
be treated before use.

Methods of treatment

The hot and cold process is the most common. In this method posts are
immersed in a drum of creosote, tar oil or grease. The drum is heated to a
high temperature for an hour and the posts are left in the liquid for 24 hours.
After that they are dried and they are ready for use.

Metal posts

Materials manufactured commercially are:

- straining posts for anchoring.
- metal standards, for strengthening the fence.
- droppers for spacing wire stands.

Concrete posts

Concrete is cast into required shapes such as straining posts, standards or

stays. Figure 18.01 shows a stay anchor.
Concrete is also used in the construction of grids to prevent animals from
passing.

Advantages and disadvantages

If treated properly wooden posts are durable and versatile, since they can be
cut into suitable lengths. However the disadvantages are that they are
affected by weather such as rain which washes away the preservative.
Termites will also damage untreated wooden posts.
 Figure 19.01
Stay anchor

Metal posts are easy to work with and they are less bulky. The major
disadvantage is that they are very expensive to purchase.
Concrete posts are desirable for protecting small areas such as gardens and
lawns. They have the advantage that they are readily available since they can
be made on the farm. They have a disadvantage in that they cannot be used
to protect large areas. They also take time to erect fences with since the
concrete used to support the posts should be allowed to set before the fence
is strained.

Types of fences

- Barbed wire, used for boundary fences.

- Plain wire, used for internal fences.
- Diamond mesh, suitable for fowlruns.
- Electronic, used to confine cattle and game to a desired pasture. It is
portable.
- Security, used for residential properties.
- Hedges, suitable for protecting small areas, but take long to establish.
- Windbreaks, are fast growing trees planted in rows along plantations
to reduce wind damage to delicate crops such as coffee.

Construction
Anchoring
Corner posts should be anchored to provide strong fences. Figure 18.02
shows how anchoring is done using wooden posts and anchoring wire. This
type of anchor is called a box anchor.
 Figure 19.02
Double box anchor

Spacing posts
- Straining posts ………… 400m apart, depending on topography.
- Standards. ……….. 14 m on boundary fences. 18m on internal fences.
- Droppers ……….. 4,66m on boundary fences, where 3 droppers are
required. 4,5 m on internal fences, with 4 droppers between standards.

Exercise 19

Multiple choice

1. a) In treating wooden fence posts, the drum is heated at high

temperature for:

A. one hour
B. four hours
C. 24 hours
D. 48 hours.

b) Which of the following is used to keep wire strands evenly

spaced?

A. standard
B. dropper
C. stay
D. straining post.
 c) What is a stay used for?

A. spacing wire strands

B. straining the fence
C. anchoring the fence
D. as a straining post.

d) An Advantage is wooden fence posts is that they are:

A. durable
B. light
C. thick
D. versatile.

e) Where would you use concrete posts for fencing?

A. boundaries
B. internal fences
C. security
D. small gardens.

Completion Items
2. Use the list below to complete the following statements
- 400m - hot and cold
- tar - 24 hours
- prevent sagging - 36 hours
- grease - 370m.
- 200m - creasole
- pressure process - droppers
a) A process used to treat wooden posts is ……….
b) A chemical used tp treat wooden posts is …………
c) After heating the liquid the posts are left in the drum for ……
d) Fence posts used to keep wire strands evenly spaced are called
………….
e) The distance between straining posts should be ……….
f) Anchoring is necessary in order to ………
Structured items
3. a) List four chemicals used to treat fence posts.
b) Which type of fence is used for boundaries?
c) What are windbreakers used for?
d) List three materials required in the construction of a box anchor
and wire posts rails.
e) State a major disadvantage of metal posts.

Essays
4. Write brief notes on types of fences under the following headings:
a) barbed wire
b) diamond mesh
c) hedges
d) electric fence.
5. a) State two advantages and disadvantages of wooden fence posts.
b) Describe with the aid of a diagram the construction of a stay
anchor.
 Section Six
Agricultural Economics

20. Principles of Economics

KEY FACTS

Determination of price

Pricing is very important in farm business. A number of factors have to be

considered before a price can be determined. These are:
- production costs e.g. transport, labour, fertilizer, seed etc.
- technology to produce the product.
- demand for the product.
- peoples preferences.
- supply of the product on the market.

Laws of supply and demand

Demand
Price determines the demand for a product. As price rises demand falls.
Figure 20.01 shows the demand curve.

Figure 20.01
Demand curve
Supply
When the price of a product is high more farmers will produce that product.
In this way supply is increased. This can be illustrated by the supply curve.
See Fig 20.02.
Figure 20.02
Normal supply curve

Equilibrium price
The price at which all goods are sold at the market is the equilibrium price.
If producers increase the price buyers will buy less, until producers have
lowered the price. This means that demand has pushed down the price. We
should realize that a high price cannot be maintained because the suppliers
have to sell their goods. Demand can also be affected by substitutes which
will lower the price.

Elasticity of demand
Two types of demand
1. Inelastic demand
2. Elastic demand.
Inelastic demand means that products will still be bought at higher prices.
Items such as food – stuffs will still be bought because people have to eat in
order to live.
Elastic demand affects luxury commodities such as radios. When prices go
too high only a few commodities will be bought, while a decrease in price
will lead to an increased demand.

The law of diminishing returns

This law states that there is a positive increase in output for every increase in
input. But only up to a certain point beyond which the output will not
respond to further input. Output will lever off for a while and any further
input beyond which will result in a decrease in output. For example a poultry
farmer rearing broilers will realize an increase in the weight of his poultry
for a corresponding increase in stock feed. Beyond that point overfeeding
the birds will lead to overfat carcasses of a relatively lower grade. Thus the
birds cannot fetch the best price on the market.

Figure 20.03 shows an example of how the law affects maize yield and
fertilizer application. The correct amount of fertilizer which produces the
best yield is the optimum quantity.

Figure 20.03

Fluctuations in supply and demand

Changes in supply are usually caused by natural factors such as weather, e.g.
drought, frost, floods and diseases e.g. foot and mouth, maize streak virus.
Price will also cause fluctuations in supply and demand.

Production controls
Sometimes production controls are used in order to protect the national
economy. Examples of controls are:
- use of quotas e.g. pig products.
- price control.
- placing restrictions on imports.
- Quality control e.g. mixing flour with maize meal for baking.
- provision of credit for specific products.
- income tax rebates for certain products.
- Use of subsidy i.e. Government pays part of the price directly to the
producer.

Opportunity cost
If a farmer has a choice between crops and livestock and he chooses to grow
only crops, he looses the opportunity cost for livestock. The amount of
money he could have earned by producing livestock is the opportunity cost.
This means that the farmer has to choose what to produce very carefully
each season.

Risk and uncertainity

The choice of a production programme is affected by risks and
uncertainities. A farmer may choose to produce crops but once the land has
been planted he cannot avoid the damaging effects of drought or floods. An
example of a risk is a drop in price, or a rise in fertilizer costs which could
not be predicted. Uncertainity cannot be predicted and cannot be covered by
insurance.

Risk can be avoided by spreading it. Several crops can be grown instead of
one. Uncertainity can also be reduced by choosing correct enterprises e.g.
growing drought tolerant crops in areas of marginal rainfall.

Exercise 20

Multiple choice

1. a) Which one of the following factors will determine the price of a

commodity?

A. transport costs
B. availability of markets.
C. Producers preferences
 D. Level of demand.

b) How is a demand curve shaped?

A. from right to left

B. from left to right
C. from the top to the bottom
D. form the bottom to the top

c) What factor will encourage producers to increase the production

of a commodity?

A. availability fo spares
B. low input costs
C. high prices
D. reduced risk.

d) Prices can be pushed down through a reduction in:

A. demand
B. inputs
C. substitutes
D. supply.

e) Select an example of a product with inelastic demand:

A. computer
B. fertilizer
C. labour
D. sugar.

Completion items
2. Complete the following statements with the answers provided below.
- price - natural factors
- production control - quota system
- demand - diminishing returns
- optimum quantity - equilibrium price
- opportunity cost.
 a) An over-application of fertilizer to a crop results in …………
b) The quantity of inputs which produce the maximum output is
the ………….
c) Factors such as weather and disease which cause fluctuations in
supply are called ………..
d) The factor which is most influencial in altering supply is ……
e) The type of production control which limits the quantity
formers can produce is the ……….
f) Provision of credit for specific products can be used as a
………… measure.
g) If a farmer chooses to grow crops instead of rearing cattle he
loses the ……………… be earned from cattle.
h) As the price of a commodity increases there will be a fall in
……….
i) The price at which all the goods supplied are sold is the ………

True/False items
3. Answer the following questions by inserting T for true and F for false
statements.
a) Technology can determine the price of a product.
b) Both supply and demand can be changed by price.
c) Demand can also push prices down.
d) Elastic demand is drastically altered by supply.
e) The highest quantity of input will always produce the best
results.
f) Overfat porkers usually fetch higher prices.
g) Restrictions on imports of certain products can be used as a
price control measure.

Structured items
4. a) What are production controls used for?.
b) Explain the meaning of opportunity cost.
c) How can risk be reduced?.
d) How does price affect the demand of a product?.
e) What is equilibrium price?.
f) Explain:
i) inelastic demand
ii) elastic demand
21. Farm records and accounts

KEY FACTS

Costs can be referred to as inputs, while income may be called output. A

viable farm should have more income than costs. This means that the farmer
is making a profit.
INCOME – COSTS = PROFIT

Farm records

Types
1. Management records
2. Financial records

Management records
These include:
Livestock records such as breeds, mating dates, calving dates, birth mass,
weaning dates, weaning mass etc.
Crop records such as ploughing dates, irrigation dates, sowing dates,
fertilizer application, seed cultivators, seed rates etc.

Financial records

Expenditure such as seed, fertilizers, stockfeeds, medicines, labour, fuel

etc.
Income such as crop sales, slaughtering etc.

Advantages of keeping records

Records are used for:
- obtaining credit
- making quick decisions.
- establishment of a sound crop rotation system.
- selection of breeds.
- determining the labour force.
- determining profits or losses.

Types of financial records

Variable costs
These are costs which recur and can be adjusted annually.
Fixed costs
These are cost which are called overheads. These cannot be allocated to a
specific area of activity.
Examples of variable costs
- Fertilizer - Transport
- Seed/Feed - Labour
- Pesticides - Stock purchases
- Packing materials
Examples of fixed costs
- Ploughing costs
- Fuel
- Maintenance
- Loan repayments
- Rents

Exercise 21

Multiple choice

1. a) What is the term used for costs?

A. income
B. inputs
C. output
D. profit.

b) What is the correct way to calculate profit?

A. costs – income
B. income – output
 C. income – costs
D. costs – output

c) An example of a financial record is:

A. livestock record
B. crop records
C. budget statement
D. expenditure account.

d) Select a variable cost.

A. fuel
B. insurance
C. labour
D. ploughing.

Essays
2. a) Distinguish between input and output costs.
b) Discuss farm management under the following headings:
i) management records
ii) financial records
3. a) Outline the advantages of keeping farm records.
b) Distinguish between variable and fixed costs.
4. Outline variable costs and state how they affect production on the
farm.
22. Farm budgeting and farm credit

KEY FACTS

Definition of budget

A future budget is an estimate of the income expected from an enterprise and

the expenditure the farmer will incur.

Functions of a budget
- Helps the farmer to secure loans.
- Determines the financial requirements.
- Determines the amount of capital to be allocated to the various
enterprises.
- Outlines the farmers operations.
- Helps to determine expected profit.
- Helps the farmer to make decisions on choice of enterprises.

Depreciation of equipment

Equipment depreciates in value due to use, wear and tear and age. The
recommended depreciation value is 20% per annum. For example a new
tractor bought for $30 000.00 will have the value of $24 000.00 after 12
months. The following list gives example of equipment whose depreciation
should be calculated annually.
- tractor - grinder
- disc plough - chicken house
- scotchcart - sprayers
- barrow - fences
Farm credit

Major factors of production

- Capital
- Land
- Labour.
Farmers need capital to purchase the farm, machinery and inputs required
for livestock and production. It is therefore essential for the farmer to
manage his/her farm business properly to avoid loses.

Sources of capital
- Profit.
- Public investment.
- Government grants, in rich countries.
- Credit.
Credit can be long term, medium or short term.
Long term credit
Periods of more than 10 years are allowed for long term credit. Farmers who
take longer loan terms pay less annually but the total amount repaid will be
larger. Long term credit is needed for investment on land and related
developments.
Sources of long term credit
- Agricultural Finance Corporation – funded by Government.
- Private mortgages.
- Life insurance companies – loans covered by insurance policy.
Medium term credit
Loan terms are up to 10 years and less, while interest rates are higher.
Sources of medium term credit
- A.F.C Development loans – for sinking boreholes and construction of
dams.
- Commercial banks.
- Finance houses – for purchase of equipment.
- Cold Storage Commission – provide breeding cows and repayment is
when the animals are sold to C.S.C.
Short term credit
Credit terms are less than one year; usually the loans are intended to support
annual plans such as cropping.
Sources of short term credit
- A.F.C.
- Commercial banks
- Merchant, credit e.g. feed and fertilizer companies.
How to borrow money
- Credit should not be used to revive a failing enterprises.
- Loans for machinery should be repaid while the equipment is still
working.
- The best way to repay is through a stop order.
- Obtain a written agreement for the loan.

Exercise 22

Multiple choice
1. a) Depreciation means

A. loss of value
B. wear and tear
C. maintenance costs
D. over utilization.

b) The recommended depreciation value is:

A. 10%
B. 15%
C. 20%
D. 25%.

c) On which of the following can depreciation be calculated?

A. fertilizer
B. chicken house
C. labour
D. maize meal.

d) Which one is a major factor of production?

A. irrigation
B. land
C. livestock
D. machinery.
 e) What is capital needed for?

A. loan repayments
B. purchase of machinery
C. maintaining a bank account
D. security of credit.

f) The Duration of medium term credit is:

A. more than 10 years

B. less than 1 year
C. 10 to 15 years
D. Less than 20 years.

g) Which one has highest interest rate?

A. long term credit

B. medium term credit
C. short term credit
D. merchants credit.
True/false
2. Answer the following questions using the letter T for true and F for
false statements.
a) Short term credit is used to support cropping cycles.
b) Credit should be used to revive a declining enterprise.
c) The only way to repay loans is through stop orders.
d) A budget is a future estimate of expenditure.
e) Profit from a specific enterprise can be predicted through a
budget.
f) Age of equipment has no effect on depreciation.
g) Profit on capital is a source of capital.
h) The Cold Storage Commission does not offer credit to farmers.
Structured items
3. a) What helps the farmer to make a decision on the choice of
enterprise?
b) What are development loans used for?
c) What is depreciation?
 d) How is an insurance company loan pro-tected?
e) What are short terms loans used for?
Essays
4. Discuss factors of production under:
a) capital
b) land
c) labour.

5. State three sources of credit and outline the importance of credit to a

farmer.
23. Marketing

KEY FACTS

As soon as goods have been produced they should be marketed. Any delays
will mean that money is tied up the goods. Fortunately most agricultural
products have a ready market and this minimizes loses. Produce which is
perishable should be marketed soon after harvesting. Thus in order to
facilitate marketing provision should be made for funding marketing at the
budgeting stage.

Risk bearing
Several risks can be incurred during the period when goods are held before
they are sold. Some of the risks include deterioration in quality, fire hazards
and price fluctuations.

Transport
The farmer incurs the cost of transporting his produce to the market. There is
sometimes need for adaptation of vehicles to suit products such as live cattle
and poultry or milk which needs refrigeration.

Storage
Produce may have to be stored when there is a glut so that marketing will
continue when conditions are favourable. This means that the farmer may
have to incur storage cost. Poor storage will result in losses which can be
costly to the producer. Grains such as maize or wheat are easily damaged by
moisture and may not even be suitable for livestock consumption.

Standardizing the Grading

Farmers who produce small quantities may have to team up in order to
market in bulk. This has the advantage that marketing is more efficiently and
speedily conducted.

Grading
Grading has to be standardized, thus set criteria have to be observed at all
times. To standardize grading the following criteria may be used:
- uniformity
- size
- colour
- glossiness
- cleanliness
- degree of damage
- freshness.
Advantages of standardization
- Good quality produce is marketed.
- Favourable prices are maintained.
- Makes advertising possible.
- a reputable and reliable market is established.

Packing
After produce has been graded it should be packed in accordance with the
grade the produce has achieved. Poor packaging will inevitably reduce the
quality of a product. On the other hand good packaging maintains the quality
of the product by:
- protection against damage.
- marketing in suitable units e.g. 500ml packet of milk.
- making storage easy.
- providing for trade-marking to identify produce.

Selling
The assumption in producing a product is that there is demand for that
particular commodity. It is therefore necessary to supply quantities which
the market can absorb in this way optimum prices are maintained and gluts
are avoided.

Processing
Farmers produce and manufacturers do the processing. Not all products need
processing. For example tomatoes may be sold directly to the consumer. At
the same time tomatoes can be processed into sauce which can be stored
over long periods. Processing adds value to the produce.

Problems of marketing
1. Size of business
The individual farmer has very little control over the entire market. Hence
the farmer will accept the price the market offers. However, manufacturers
can control the supply of goods on the market. In this way they are able to
push prices up.
In addition, the level of production during a particular season has a direct
effect on pricing. In a good season farmers produce more ant his excess has
the effect of pushing prices down. it is therefore difficult for an individual
farmer to predict accurately the final revenue from his enterprises.
2. Seasonal effects
Certain products are harvested during a specific period and supply will
outstrip demand. This lowers prices, hence the farmer‟s gross margin. This
is particularly so with perishable products such as vegetables.
3. Length of production cycle
In most cases the farmer has to wait for long periods before products are
ready for the market. This is usually the case with livestock production.
Thus, the farmer may be affected by many factors during this period.
Furthermore the long production cycle means that turnover is only once a
year, in the case of a crop farmer. Thereafter he has to wait until the next
season.
NB: A fast turnover of capital means more profit.
4. Perishable goods
A ready market should be available for perishable products which have to be
marketed on the day they are harvested. Long distances from the market may
also mean that special transport arrangements have to be made.
5. Gluts and shortages
Gluts depress prices and in turn force farmers to cut down production. This
results in a shortage which pushes prices up and encourages some farmers to
produce more. Thus a constant fluctuation of prices is maintained. This is a
disadvantage to the farmer who sells when the prices are low.

Marketing systems

1. Agricultural Marketing Authority (AMA)

These are boards which operate under AMA:
- Grain Marketing Board (GMB)
- Cotton Marketing Board (CMB)
- Cold Storage Commission (CSC)
- Dairy Marketing Board (DMB)
Marketing through these boards is compulsory. Prices are governed and
exports are organized by the boards. In line with changes in government
policy however, many of the boards no longer have monopolies in marketing
the various products.
2. Tobacco marketing
There are several associations involved in tobacco marketing.
- Zimbabwe Tobacco Association – each farmer delivers a quota to be
sold by auction.
- Zimbabwe Burley Tobacco Association – tobacco sold by auction.
- Zimbabwe Aromatic Tobacco Growers Association – marketing is by
contract.
- Zimbabwe Tobacco Floors Association – manage the auction floors.
- Tobacco Graders Association – the group buys tobacco and
manufactures products.
- The Tobacco Marketing Board – process licences for graders,
auctioneers and buyers.
3. Co-operatives
- Zimbabwe Seed Maize co-operative
- Colcom has a monopoly for bacon pigs and farmers are given an
annual quota.
4. Free enterprise marketing
Products sold through this system are poultry, vegetables and fruit. Price
fluctuations are common due to supply and demand. However, breeders such
as Irvine‟s Chicks and Crest International have a monopoly.

Exercise 23

Multiple choice
1. a) Products which are perishable:

A. deteriorate rapidly soon after harvesting

B. can be kept for a long time
C. should be marketed on the farm
D. cannot be transported over long distances.

b) A marketing risk which a farmer can not control is:

 A. a fire hazard
B. price fluctuations
C. deterioration of quality
D. presence of a glut.

c) Standardization of grading means:

A. grading at a central place

B. removal of inferior products from the market
C. setting specific prices for products
D. setting criteria for grading.
d) Which of the following pairs can be used as grading criteria?

A. size: shape
B. colour: uniformity
C. glossiness: firmness
D. size: mass

e) Why is packaging of a product important?

A. improving quality of produce

B. regulating supply
C. ensuring high prices
D. protection against damage.

f) An advantage of processing is:

A. quality is improved
B. value of product is increased
C. higher prices are obtained
D. less labour is required.

g) What is the disadvantage of seasonal cropping?

A. price fluctuation
B. fewer farmers are involved
C. profits are lower
D. labour is used on different projects.

Completion items
2. Answer the following questions by choosing your answers from the
list provided.
- advantage
- demand
- glut
- manufacturers
- merchants
- production cycle
- monopoly
- wholesalers
a) The assumption in producing a product is that there is ……..
b) Processed goods are marketed by …............
c) An over supply of goods on the market is called …………
d) The time between setting up an enterprise and marketing the
produce is known as …………
e) An organization which produces and markets a product without
competition has a market …………….

Structured items
3. a) Why should goods be marketed soon after harvesting? ………..
b) Why are gluts experienced on the market? ……………
c) How are favourable prices maintained? ……………………
d) How does processing add value to a product? ………………..
e) How can manufacturers control the supply of a product? ……...

Essays
4. Discuss marketing under
a) transport
b) storage
5. a) How is grading standardized?
b) Outline the advantages of processing?
6. Discuss problems of marketing under:
a) length of production cycle
b) gluts and shortages.
 Part Two

Section Seven
Crop Husbandry

24. Fruit trees

KEY FACTS

Planting holes
A planting hole which is a metre square (1m x 1m) and 600mm deep should
suffice for all practical purposes. It is better to make the hole square to
encourage vigorous development of feeder roots within a depth of one
metre.

Avocado pears

Soil and climatic requirements

Avocado pears require a deep rich soil. Impervious layers or shallow soil can
be broken through digging and replacing the soil with top soil. Areas where
underlying rocks exist near the surface should be avoided.
As a subtropical crop avocado pears will grow well under a warm and humid
climate. Young trees are susceptible to frost and they should be protected
from ground frost. Grass shelters are usually used to provide shelter for the
young trees – other materials used are palm leaves or hessian.

Figure 24.01
Avocado varieties
Varieties Description
 Fuerte pear-shaped with rough skin
Hass small fruit of good quality
turns purple to black on ripening.
Pinkerton round shape and rough skin.
fruit turns dark brown
Duke 7 used as rootstock

Planting
Plants can be raised from seed but the trees may fail to fruit at maturity. It is
recommended to use grafted trees from nurseries.
Planting out should be done in rows and 1.5 kg of single super phosphate
should be applied at planting.

Organic manures
Holes should be filled with good top soil mixed with well-rotted manure. A
kilogram of a suitable fertilizer such as compound J should be incorporated
into the mixture. This ensures good root penetration and development,
especially when the trees are still establishing.
Fertilizer application
Avocados are given an annual dressing of 1kg compound J, up to 6 years.
Thereafter 2kg are applied annually.
Zinc
Avocados are sensitive to zinc deficiency. Leaves become mottled and
growth is retarded. This can be corrected by spraying the tree with 0.5kg
zinc sulphate and 0.3kg hydratedlime, in 100 litres of water.

Pests
Fruit flies, loopers and thrips may attack the trees, but this is rare.

Diseases
Root rot
A fungus – phytophora cinnamoni causes root rot. Signs of attack are die-
back and general deterioration.
Anthracnose and sterm-end rot
These are fruit diseases which are prevalent in old trees where air circulation
is limited. Trees can be sprayed with a fungicide such as copper oxycloride.

Recognition of crop maturity

When regularly observed the fruit will gradually stop growing after attaining
the cultivar size and the seed will rattle inside the fruit. This is usually
followed by a colour change as indicated under description of varieties. The
fruit remains on the tree and should be harvested at this stage and marketed
immediately.

Deciduous fruit

Examples:
- Apples - Apricots
- Pears - Peaches
- Plums - Nectarines
Climate
Cold winters are important because chilling is necessary for fruiting during
the next season.

Planting
Roots of young trees should not be exposed to dry conditions. At planting
the young trees should stand at the same depth as they were in the nursery or
container. This is important because when planted too deep, the green parts
that were exposed will rot.

Fertilizer application
Fertilizers should be applied not less than 300mm away from the tree trunk.
Compound B is recommended for deciduous trees. Before buds burst
Ammonium Nitrate is applied. Sulphate of Potash is also applied after the
fruits have set.

Pruning
Reason for pruning
Trees are pruned so that:
- New growth is encouraged
- Flowers and fruit formation is improved
- Dead wood is removed.
- The tree can be shaped.
- A suitable frame is produced to carry the fruit.

Figure 24.02
Nutrient deficiencies
Element Signs of deficiency
Nitrogen yellowing of leaves poor growth
Phosphate purpling of leaves
Potassium scortching around edges of leaves.
die-back of branches
Magnesium yellowing of leaf along veins leaves
turn black
Zinc yellowing of leaves dwarfed and
bunched leaves small fruit
Boron small fruit
malformed fruit

Peaches, apricots and nectarines

Pests
The following pests can cause problems by chewing, cutting or sucking sap.
- Aphids
- Bagworms
- Chewing bettles
- Fruit-piercing moths
- Fruit flies.

Citrus

Examples
- Lime
- Lemon - Tangarines
- Grape fruit - Nectarines
- Oranges

Climate
Citrus trees require warm summers. They can withstand high temperatures.
Navels require hot shiny days and cool nights. Valencia and premier are
more popular because they tolerate a wider range of climatic conditions.
Soils
They can be successfully grown in a wide range of soils as long as they are
well drained.
Propagation
The rough lemon is used as a root-stock because it grows fast and it is
resistant to a number of diseases. Scions are developed from buds which are
taken from healthy trees usually more than ten years old.
Varities
Oranges - Washington Navel, Premier, Valencia.
Naartjies - Cape, Emperor, Portlet No. 2
Grapefruit - Frost Nucellar, Eureka, Lisbor, Chinese Dwarf, Mazower
Rough, Mosop Seedless.
Limes - Tahiti, West Indian
Fertilizer application
A basic application of 1 kg single super phosphate is required per hole. An
annual application of 150g ammonium nitrate should be given per tree. Both
phosphate and potassium should be added with the nitrogen fertilizer. Table
24.01 shows the nutrient requirements for citrus trees.
Table 24.01
Fertilizer application for citrus trees
Age Nitrogen Phosphate Potassium
(N) (P) (K)
Ammonium Single super KGI
nitrate phosphate Potassium
chloride
1 0,16 0,20 0,20
2 0,32 0,40 0,20
3 0,50 0,60 0,20
4 0,75 0,80 0,25
5 1,00 1,00 0,50
6 1,20 1,25 0,75
7 1,50 1,50 1,00
8 1,75 2,00 1,50

Table 24.02
Citrus Pests
Pest Control
Citrus psylla Dimenthoate
Ants Chlordane
Orange Dog hand picking
Fruit fly Trichlorfon bait
False codling moth remove all dropped and affected fruit
Citrus bud mite Lime sulphur
Red Scale Dimethoate
Soft brown scale control ants

Diseases
Cited problems include greening, root rot, collar rot and scab.
Greening
Fruit is small and underdeveloped. It affects leaves as well and may later
cause die-back. The disease is spread b the citrus psylla, so the pest must be
controlled if the disease is to be prevented.
Root rot
Trees have a weak root system which causes yellowing of leaves, leaf drop
and die-back. It is important to ensure good drainage.

Collar rot
The main cause is poor drainage. Over watering may also create problems.
Affected trees lose vigour and roots have a dark bark.
Scab
Scab attacks fruit and young leaves, causing corky lesions. It is a fungal
disease which is controlled with copper oxychloride.

Exercise 24

Multiple choice
1. (a) Why should a hole for planting fruit trees be square?

A. more water is held

B. digging is easier
C. vigorous root development occurs
D. marking the centre is easier.

b) What is Duke 7 important for.

A. produces large fruit

B. matures early
C. used as root-stock
D. does not require grafting.

c) A sign of root rot disease in avocados is:

A. withered leaves
B. die-back
C. retarded growth
D. fruit fall.
 d) A sign of zinc deficiency in decidous trees is:

A. yellowing of leaves
B. black leaves
C. die-back
D. stunted growth.

e) Which one of the following is a variety of oranges?

A. emperor
B. eureka
C. premier
D. Tahiti.

Structured items
2. a) Which fruit tree is affected by the greening disease?
b) Give two common varieties of avocado pears
c) What causes root rot?
d) Give a fungicide which can be used to control diseases of fruit
trees.
e) What does the term „heat blast‟ mean?
f) How far away from the tree trunk should fertilizer be applied?

True/false
3. Answer the following questions by inserting the letter T for true
statements and F for false statements.

(a) The lower portion of a grafted peach tree is called a scion

…….
(b) Tangerines are an example of citrus ………..
(c) Greening is a disease of citrus ………….
(d) A way of controlling root rot is to ensure good drainage
……….
(e) Drought spells cause collar rot ………..
25. Tobacco

KEY FACTS

Varieties

Tobacco is important to the economy of Zimbabwe because it is exported to

earn valuable foreign currency. It is either air-cured or flue-cured.
Air-cured varities
- Barley
- Oriental
- Cigar Filler
Flue-cured varities
- Kutsaga E1 - Kutsaga 51E
- Kutsaga E2 - SCR
- K. Mammoth E - KIIO
- Kutsaga 51 - Hicks
- White God

Soil and climatic requirements

Tobacco tolerates a wide range of climatic conditions. However the crop is

sensitive to frost and excessive humidity. Drought tolerance is also high, and
rainfall should ease off towards flowering.

Soils
Good drainage is important. Thus sandy loam soils which are free from an
impervious subsoil are suitable. In order to ensure adequate drainage,
tobacco is planted on ridges. Figure 25.01 shows a cross section of a ridge.
 Figure 25.01
An ideal ridge

Seedbed preparation

Seedbed sites should be rotated once every four years. Grass should be
ploughed under as early as February, to allow decomposition to take place.
Seedbeds are usually 1 metre wide and 25 metres long. They are raised to
allow for adequate drainage. A single seedbed should suffice to plant one
hectare of tobacco.

Care of seedlings
Tobacco is transplanted from seedbeds at the beginning of the rainy season.
Watering is very important while the seedlings are still growing in the
nursery. During the germination period water is applied up to 5 times per
day. After germination the watering interval is reduced to twice per day until
seedlings are 2 mm in diameter. Water is then applied once per day.

Hardening
Two to three weeks (2-3 weeks) before planting out, the seedlings are
hardened so that they adapt to harsh field conditions. Water is withheld until
plants wilt. At his stage more water is applied and the seedlings are allowed
to wilt again. This process is repeated until transplanting.

Fumigation

The soil should be fumigated because tobacco is susceptible to eelworm.

Fumigation is done to kill weed seeds, nematodes and fungi. A highly
poisonous liquid fumigant, Methyl bromide can be used.
Fig 25.02 illustrates how fumigation is done.
 Figure 25.02
Hand soil injector

Fertilizer Application

Liming should be done on most soils in order to raise the pH up to 5.0 to 5,5.
The major plant nutrients i.e. nitrogen, phosphate and potassium are required
in varying amounts depending on the soil type and nutrient level. Nitrogen is
important in determining the quality of the leaf. It is therefore applied as top
dressing. Again depending on the amount of rainfall, the amount of nitrogen
can be increases to replace that which is lost due to leaching. Fifty kilograms
per ha. of Ammonium Nitrate followed by a similar application of nitrate of
soda 4-5 weeks after planting may be given where the rainfall is heavy.

Trace elements
Element Signs of deficiency
Magnesium yellowing of leaves
Boron growing part loses colour and dies
Sulphur discolouration of leaves.

Pests and diseases

Pest control
Pest Control
Cutworms Controlled by adding
Wireworms Chloropyriphos to water at planting
White grub
Bedworms Spray with Monocrotophos
Leaf miners
Laceworms
Aphids They act as vectors in spreading
Rosette and Bushy top. Control with
Malathion 25% Wettable powder.
Eelworm A properly planned crop rotation
programme is necessary. Control by
fumigation with Ethylene
Dibromide.

Disease control
Disease Control
Angular leaf spot Must be controlled in the seedbeds.
Spray with Copper oxychloride.
Frog eye Copper oxychloride.
Wildfire Copper oxychloride.
Afthracnose Dithance M45 Thiram, Benomyl.
Mosaic Strict hygiene
Altermaria Spray with Anilizene
White mould Spray with Dinocap
Rosette and Bushy top Control aphids with Disulfoton,
Dimethoate Methazon.

Harvesting and grading

Figure 25.03 gives the details of leaf position on the plant.

Signs of maturity
Tobacco is ready for harvesting before flowering. Ripening starts with the
lower leaves. At this stage buds are fully grown and just about to flower.
 Figure 25.03
Leaf position on the tobacco plant

Curing
Tobacco is cured in barns with the aid of hot air generated from burning
coal. Figure 25.04, shows a conventional barn.
The leaf is cured until dry. This is followed by adding moisture to prevent
the leaf from breaking and shattering.

Grading
Uniformity should always be aimed for. Leaf is graded according to size and
colour the process of grading actually begins when the crop is harvested and
placed on tiers.

Baling
Hessian and water-proof paper are required for wrapping tobacco into bales
weighing 100 – 110kg.

Marketing
Marketing is controlled by the Tobacco Marketing Board which helps
farmers on arranging their tobacco bales. At the auction floors, a starter
values the tobacco and gives it a starting price. Bidding then progresses, and
in a matter of seconds the bales are bought, so that up to 600 tonnes of
tobacco can be sold per day.

By products
Tobacco scrap is obtained after the leaf has been crushed into cigarette
tobacco. This residue is rich in nitrogen and it can be used to rejuvenate
lawns.

Figure 25.04
Conventional barn with eight tiers

Exercise 25

Multiple choice

1. a) An example of flue-cured tobacco is:

 A. Barley
B. Cigar filler
C. Kutsaga 51
D. Oriental.

b) Ridges are important in tobacco production because they

ensure:

A. good drainage
B. high yields
C. natural weed control
D. erosion control.

c) Hardening seedlings means:

A. applying little water

B. watering at intervals
C. allowing soil to become hard
D. allowing seedlings to wilt.

d) A tool used for fumigation is called:

A. fumigant
B. applicator
C. injector gun
D. big gun.

e) The correct pH range for tobacco is:

A. 4,5 – 5,0
B. 5,0 – 5,5
C. 5,5 – 6,0
D. 6,0 – 6,5

Completion items
2. (a) Complete the following table, pairing diseases with their
method of control.

Disease Control
Anthracnose (i)
 Mosaic (ii)
Rosette (iii)
Alternaria (iv)
(b) complete the four season rotation with suitable crops
Plots
1 2 3 4
1 Cabbage (i) ………….. Onion Beans
2 Beans Cabbage (iii) (v) ………
3 Onion (ii) ………….. Cabbage Tomato
4 Tomato Onion (iv) …………. Cabbage

Structured items
3. a) Where is tobacco research carried out in Zimbabwe?
b) What is the most important cultural practice to be undettaken to
ensure the production of healthy tobacco seedlings?
c) How far apart should tobacco ridges be made?
d) What does the amount of nitrogen applied to tobacco as top
dressing depend on?

Essays
4. Explain tobacco seedling production under:
a) watering
b) hardening.
5. a) Explain how a tobacco seedbed is fumigated.
b) What are the fertilizer requirements for tobacco?

26. Groundnuts

KEY FACTS

Soil and climatic requirements

Groundnuts are important as a source of edible oils. They are included in a
rotation because they add nitrogen into the soil.
Groundnuts will tolerate a wide range of climatic conditions. However, the
length of the growing season is of the essence.
Short season cultivars should be grown in areas of marginal rainfall.
Cultivars such as VALENCIA AND NATAL COMMON are short season
and take 110-160 days to mature.
Long season cultivars are grown under high rainfall conditions. These are
MAKULU red and VIRGINIA bunch. They take 150 – 200 days to mature.

Soil preparation
Sandy loam soils are preferable as this ensures easy harvesting. Heavy clays
are not suitable because they will stick to the pods.
The land should be disced before seed is sown. Ridges are made 45 cm apart
and seed is sown on the ridges.

Planting
Groundnuts are planted during the rainy season. Short season cultivars
should be planted later as the main showers tail off.
Seed is spaced 5-7 cm apart on ridges and 25kg of seed should suffice to
plant out one hectare of groundnuts. Seed selected from the previous crop
should be shelled just before planting and it should be treated with
THIRAM.

Manures and fertilizers

Groundnuts do not respond well to direct application of organic matter.
Manure should be applied to the previous crop in the rotation.
Agricultural lime should be used where the soil is acidic, in order to
maintain a soil ph range of 5-6. The crop makes good use of residual
fertilizers but a reasonable amount of calcium is required for pod formation.
Gypsum is usually applied at the flowering stage.
Pest and diseases
Aphids should be controlled because they are vectors which spread rosette.
Common diseases of groundnuts are
- leaf rot
- root rot
- pod rot.
These are fungal diseases which should be controlled by the use of
fungicides.
Maturity
Signs of maturity include:
- yellowing of leaves
- defoliation
- kernels rattle inside pods
- 60 – 80% pods fully ripened.
As soon as maturity has been reached, harvesting should follow. Otherwise
the non-dormant cultivars will begin to sprout.

Harvesting

Lifting
The soil should be loosened with a groundnut digger and groundnut bunches
arranged in rows in the field.

Curing
Firstly wilting is carried out by merely leaving the crop on the ground for
two days. This is done to reduce the moisture content. This si followed by
DRYING which is achieved through the use of tripods or cocks. Figure
26.05 shows these two methods of curing groundnuts.

Figure 26.05
Methods of curing groundnuts
Cocks and tripods are used to dry the crop for two to four weeks. The crop is
arranged with pods inside to avoid direct insolation. When the moisture
content has reduced to 10 -15% the groundnuts are ready for picking.

Picking
Pods are picked by hand and packed into Hessian sacks for further drying.
When the moisture content has reduced to 7% shelling commences. Shellers
are used to separate the kernels from the pods.
Yields of 40-60 bags of pods can be realized per hectare. One bag of grain is
obtained from 4 bags of pods.

Marketing
Groundnut kernels are pocketed into 90kg bags and sold to the Grain
Marketing Board. Care should be taken to market the crop soon after
shelling, otherwise both weight and quality are easily lost.

Uses
Basically edible oils are obtained and these include:
- cooking oil
- margarine
- peanut butter
- soap is also manufactured from groundnuts.

By-products
After the oil has been extracted the residue that remains contains 45% crude
protein. A valuable stock feed produced from the residue is groundnut cake.
Hay is also obtained from groundnut tops.

Exercise 26

Multiple choice

1. a) It is important to include groundnuts in a rotation because it

provides:

A. valuable oils
B. high yield
C. nitrogen to the soil
D. a source of protein.
 b) A short season cultivar of groundnuts is planted:

A. before the rains

B. at the onset of rains
C. when there is sufficient moisture
D. at the end of the rains.

c) Which fertilizer is used to correct soil acidity?

A. gypsum
B. agricultural lime
C. ammonium nitrate
D. sulphate of potash.

d) A nutrient supplied by groundnut cake is:

A. crude protein
B. soluble fats
C. carbohydrates
D. cellulose.

e) When should manures be applied on the groundnut field?

A. before each planting

B. to the previous crop
C. when the crop is growing
D. during winter ploughing.

True/false
2. Answer the following questions by inserting T for true and F for false
statements.
a) Groundnuts is important as a source of edible oils ………
b) Natal Common is a long – season cultivar ………..
c) Sandy soils should be avoided when selecting soil for growing
groundnuts …………
d) Groundnuts should be sown on ridges to enhance drainage ……
e) Calcium should be available in the soil for pod formation ……..
3. Structured items

a) List 3 common diseases of ground nuts.

b) What are the signs of maturity on groundnuts
c) How is wilting done?
d) List 3 products from groundnuts.

Essays

4. Discuss groundnuts under the following headings:

a) signs of maturity
b) curing.
5. Outline groundnuts production under the following headings:
a) marketing
b) by-products.
6. What are the fertilizer requirements for groundnuts?
27. Tomatoes

KEY FACTS

Soil and climatic requirements

Soil
Tomatoes grow well on a wide range of soils. The most important factor to
fulfill is drainage. Heavy clays often create problems as they are prone to
water-logging. Sandy loams and clay loams seem to produce the best results.
Soil pH should be neutral and acidic soils should be corrected with
agricultural lime.

Climate
Moderate to warm temperatures are suitable for tomato production. Warm
temperatures increase plant growth while moderate temperatures are
required for effective fruit set. Tomatoes are frost sensitive and areas which
experience ground frost should be avoided.
High humidity increases the occurrence of fungal diseases. Problems of fruit
splitting are encountered in locations when hot dry spells are followed by
heavy rains.

Seedbed Preparation
Nursery seedbed
Soil preparation commences with clearing of all vegetation followed by
digging to a depth of 300 mm. well-roted manure should be incorporated
into the soil together with a compound S fertilizer. The soil should be
worked to a fine tilth for good germination. Then the bed is watered 24
hours before seed is sown
On the day the seed should be sown the soil should be loosened first. Drills
are made 100 mm apart and 30 mm deep. Seed is dropped along the rows
and covered with fine soil.
A mulch is applied and the nursery is watered with a can fitted with a fine
rose. Thereafter watering is continued daily until seed germinates. Then
water is reduced gradually until the nursery is watered twice per week. The
mulch should be raised gradually as the weak and lengthy seedlings. After
the fifth week the mulch should be thinned to allow more sunshine to reach
the seedlings. By the seventh week all the mulch should have been removed.
Method of Planting
Transplanting
Tomatoes do better when transplanted. This is so because seedling require a
lot of care which can only be provided under nursery conditions.
furthermore tomatoes naturally respond well to transplanting.
Seedlings are transplanted after the eighth week on the permanent seedbeds.
These beds should have adequate organic matter to ensure strong vegetative
growth and effective fruit set.

Fertilizer Application
Tomatoes require adequate amounts of nitrogen phosphorus and potassium.
The selected compound such as S or L should have a high phosphorus
content for effective root development and fruit-set. Compound fertilizers
should be applied at the rate of 250-300 kg per hectare.

Top dressing
When the plants have fully established and approaching the flowering stage
the first application of Ammonium Nitrate should be applied at the rate of
100kg per hectare. This application should be split into two or more
applications throughout the life of the crop.

Crop Rotation
This is a must where tomatoes are produced successfully. Crop rotation is
needed for the following reasons:
- it prevents the spread of diseases.
- the nutrient level of the soil is kept high.
- crop quality is improved.
- yields are increased.
- soil erosion which usually accompanies wide row crops, is reduced.
A rotation may consist of two of more crops. A four crop rotation is given as
an example.

Pests and diseases

Pest control
The most troublesome pests of tomatoes are aphids, eelworm, redspider
mite, semi loopers.
Aphids
These are green insects usually found on the underside of leaves. They feed
by sucking sap from the green leaves at the same time vomit a sticky honey-
like substance which attracts ants. Thus the ants will transmit diseases from
one plant to the other.
Control
Aphids can be controlled easily by spraying with soapy water. Chemicals
such as rogor, malathion and carbaryl are also used.
Eelworms
The microscopic pests are usually found in the soil, although salty water is
another favourite environment. The usual mode of transmission is soiled
tools and irrigation water.

A four crop rotation cycle

Plots
Seasons 1 2 3 4
1 Cabbage Tomatoes Onion seed Beans
2 Beans Cabbage Tomato Onion
3 Onion Beans Cabbage Tomato
4 Tomato Onion beans Cabbage

Crop cultivars
Crop Description
Homestead Fairly resistant to fungal diseases
Money Maker Highly susceptible to fungal diseases.
Red Khaki Low resistance to fungal diseases
Heinz Has good resistance to fungal diseases
Roma Resistance to fungal diseases.
Floradada Fairly resistant to fungal diseases.

Control

The soil should be fumigated with a strong chemical called ethylene

dibromide (EDB). Fumigation is done with the aid if an injector gun.
There are resistant cultivars available on the market and a properly planned
rotation system will be of advantage.

Red spidermite
This is a major pest of tomatoes and creates a lot of problems because it is
hardy and can survive under dry conditions for long periods. It also develops
resistance to chemical treatment within short periods.

Control

All crop residue should be destroyed and fields should be ploughed in good
time to allow decomposition to take place.
Spraying with chemicals should be integrated with other measures such as
garden hygiene and crop rotation. The pesticides which can be used to
control red spider mites include rogor dimethoate and malathion.
Semi-loopers
Unless these pest are allowed to build up they rarely cause serious crop
damage. They should be controlled by means of hand picking and squashing
chemicals sucha s carbaryl 85W.P can be sprayed when populations are
high.

Harvesting

Sign of maturity
Four months after transplanting tomatoes reach physiological maturity. Thus
growth stops and chemical changes occur resulting in colour change and
attainment of the correct taste.

Picking

As soon as physiological maturity has been attained, the fruit can be

harvested. However, picking green tomatoes reduces both quality and taste.
Seven day after this stage the blossom end of the fruit begins to s how a light
colour. The crop remains at this stage for four days, thereafter complete
ripening occurs. Fruit should be marketed immediately because it cannot be
kept for too long.

Marketing

Grading
Tomatoes are graded according to colour size, ripeness and trueness to type.

Packing
Wooden base or cardboard boxes are used to pack tomatoes. These should
measure 400x250x150mm. Such a container will roughly take ten tomatoes
80mmin diameter.

Storage
Tomatoes can be stored in a cold room for up to seven days. Thisis an
important consideration because sometimes there is a glut on the market and
produce may have to be held for a few days.
Tomatoes can be sold through permanent orders secured with large buyers.
A middle-man can also be used to purchase tomatoes for resell. Small units
of tomatoes are usually sold locally, earning reasonable sums of revenue.

Exercise 27

Multiple choice

1. a) What climatic condition increases the occurrence of fungal

diseases?

A. cold and dry

B. cold and wet
C. hot and dry
D. warm and humid.

b) What conditions causes fruit splitting?

A. dry and cold

B. hot and wet
C. dry and wet
D. cold and wet.

c) What should be done soon after tomato seed is sown?

A. mulching and watering

B. leveling and mulching
C. leveling and watering
D. watering and mulching.

d) A method suitable for raising tomatoes is:

 A. by sets
B. transplanting
C. in situ
D. pricking.
e) The rate of compound fertilizer application per ha is:

A. 100 – 150 kg
B. 200 – 250 kg
C. 250 – 300 kg
D. 300 – 350 kg.

f) Which crop sequence follows a good crop rotation pattern?

A. beans: onions
B. beans: cabbage
C. cabbage: broccoli
D. tomato: green pepper.

g) When can harvesting tomatoes begin?

A. physiological maturity
B. tomatoes have light blossom ends
C. tomatoes have complete colour change
D. tomatoes are soft to touch.

Completion items

2. Use the answers listed below to complete the following statements:

- floradada - crop quality
- money maker - humidity
- homestead - eight weeks
- fine rose - soapy water
a) High ……. Increases the chances of fungal diseases.
b) Watering the nursery should be done using a watering can fitted
with a ……………
c) Tomato seedlings can be transplanted after …………
d) Crop rotation improves ………….
e) A cultivar fairly resistant to fungal diseases is …………
f) A cultivar highly susceptible to fungal diseases is ………….
g) Aphids can be controlled by spraying with ……….
Structured items
3. a) Why should the nitrogen application for tomatoes be split?
b) How is eelworm controlled?
c) Why should a legume be planted before a leaf crop in a
rotation?
d) What is the last sign of maturity of tomatoes?
e) What happens to tomatoes picked while still green?
f) State the correct size of box into which tomatoes are packed.

Essays
4. Outline marketing of tomatoes under the following headings:
a) grading
b) packing
c) storage.
5. Describe fully transplanting of tomato seedlings:
6. What are the advantages of crop rotation?
7. Discuss how you would control redspider mite on tomatoes.
 Section Eight

Livestock Husbandry

28. Rearing Pigs

KEY FACTS

Breeds

Table 28.01 Breeds of pigs

Breed Description
Large white Largest pure breed
white coat
suitable for bacon production
Has upright ears and a long body.
produce large litters
slow maturity
good milkers and good mothering ability
susceptible to sun burn
Landrace long body and lop ears
white coat
suitable for bacon production, good litters & mothering
ability
Welsh lop ears
white coat
suitable for bacon production
Saddleback short body
black coat with white band over shoulders, a hardy breed
suitable for pork production, good milkers, good
mothering ability
Large Black black coat
Tamworth used to produce hybrids
related to the wild pig
golden red colour
produces high quality bacon, slow to mature
 Pietrain short body length
poor quality meat, poor litters
Hampshire black coat
lean meat
Poland China good quality lean meat
poor mothering qualities
Duroc long body, efficient food conversion rates & good litters
golden brown coat
produces overweight pigs
Lacombe suitable for cross breeding
golden brown coat

Feeds
The two main classes of feeds are:
- balanced ration
- concentrates.

Table 28.02 Pig feeds

Feeds Crude Fat Crude Ash Calcium Phosphorus
protein % % fibre % % %
%
Pig creep pellets 19.0 5.5 4.0 5.7 0.9 0.8
Pig growth meal 17.0 3.5 4.1 6.4 1.0 0.7
Pig finisher meal 15.4 3.7 4.0 7.0 0.9 0.7
Brood sow meal 15.0 4.0 4.0 7.0 1.0 0.8
Brood sow concentrate 25.5 3.0 6.7 15.0 2.7 1.5
High protein pig
concentrate 28.0 5.5 5.5 16.5 3.8 1.4
Pig growth / finisher
concentrate 30.5 7.0 7.0 14.0 2.7 1.3
Pig creep concentrate 36.0 6.5 6.5 11.8 2.3 1.2

Table 28.02 give an outline of the common feeds used in Zimbae.

Feeding

For economic pig production, meals have to be rationed.

Creep feeding
As the sow‟s milk decreases piglets should be given additional food in the
form of creep feed.

Reasons for creep feeding

- Reduces weaning age by up to 2 weeks.
- Sows can be mated earlier.
- Sows maintain a better condition.
- A healthier litter is produced.
- Prepares the pig‟s digestive system for solid feed.
To wean piglets, the sow should be removed from the pen, and creep feeding
should continue.

Feeding fatteners
At weaning, pigs should either be fed for pork or bacon production. Proper
feeding ahs to be adhered to because the grading system is very strict. Pigs
with the right mass and fat should be aimed for, particularly with high grade
pork.
Initially weaners should be fed ad-lib on growers mash, containing 17%
crude protein. At a mass of 20kg livemass, food rationing should begin. This
continues until porkers are slaughtered at 55-70kg livemass. Pigs intended
for bacon production are given a ration of finisher meal from 55kg livemass
until slaughter at 90kg.

Rationing age
Where pigs are not weighed regularly feed can be rationed according to age.
Table 28.02 shows the feed programme.

Table 28.03
Feeding on age
Type of breed Age in weeks
Creep Feed 2 05
Weaner Meal 6 – 10
Growers 11 – 20
Finisher 21 – 30

On average a porker should consume 1,3kg of meal per day and 2 kg per day
for baconers.

Feeding sows and boars

Sows are fed on sow meal and weaner meal. At weaning the sow is starved
for 1 day to reduce milk production. Thereafter she is flushed to encourage
adequate ovulation at the next heat cycle.
Boars should be fed on sow meal and care should be taken to prevent them
from becoming over fat.

Management

Housing

Points to consider when siting a piggery are:

- protection from the weather;
- good drainage,
- away from water sources,
- away from residential buildings,
- adequate warmth,
- adequate ventilation,
- easy access.

Materials

Housing can be made of bricks and asbestos. Thatch may be used as well.
Floors should be made of concrete and there should be a dunging trench.
Figure 28.01 shows the floor plan of a Danish piggery.

Pig health

Virus diseases

- African swine fever. (notifiable)

- foot and mouth (notifiable)
- swine pox
- virus pneumonia of pigs.

Bacterial diseases

- swine erysipelas
- leptospirosos
- anthrax (notifiable)
 - swine dysentery
- Escherichia coli.

Figure 28.01
Floor plan for a Danish piggery

Table 28.04
Diseases of pigs
Disease Symptoms Control
African swine fever haemorrhage prevent contact with warthogs
pneumonia avoid infected trucks
acute fever
nervousness
death within 24 hours
Foot and mouth lesions on feet and around mouth no treatment
lameness of feet slaughter all infested stock
notifiable disease
Swine pox soars on back and ears maintain strict hygiene
Virus pneumonia of pigs coughing retarded growth improve ventilation
Swine erysipelas diamond shaped eruptions vaccination
inflation of joints
abortion in sows
Leptospirosis yellowing of skin antibiotics (bloodspectrum).
infection of liver penicillin
Anthrax dead animal blood will not clot disinfect pens
difficult breathing vaccination
high temperature
Swine dysentery diarrhea antibiotics (blood spectrum)
dehydration nitrofurns
loss of weight
Escherichia coli scouring colostrums
affects piglets disinfection of pens
death
Table 28.04 gives a summary of pig diseases.

Marketing of pigs

The pig industry in Zimbabwe is serviced by the Pig Industry Board which is
financed from levies and profits from the PIB‟s farm. The board is involved
in:
- genetic improvement
- research work
- national advisory service
- training programmes.
Pigs are marketed under the following classes:
i) suckling pigs
ii) undermass
iii) small porkers – carcass mass of 25 - 35 kg
iv) medium porkers – carcass mass of 35,5 – 45 kg
v) baconers – carcass mass of 55,5 -72 kg
vi) general purpose pigs – carcass mass over 72 kg
vii) general purpose pigs – carcass mass over d72 kg
viii) Manufacturing pigs (sows or mature boars).
The animals are sold to COLCOM on contract terms with the farmers.
Carcasses are graded according to their value. Pigs must be fed properly
from weaning right up to slaughter age so as to avoid under feeding and
overfeeding as these affect carcass quality.

Exercise 28

Multiple choice

1. a) Landrace pigs are characterized by:

 A. short bodies
B. brown colour
C. rough coat
D. lop ears.

b) Which breed has a long body and a golden brown coat?

A. Duroc
B. Hampshire
C. Saddfleback
D. Welsh.

c) Before being fed to animals, concentrate feeds must be:

A. mixed
B. sieved
C. washed
D. weighed.

d) An advantage of rationing pig feeds is:

A. growth rate is increased

B. labour inputs are reduced
C. costs are minimized
D. food conversion is increased.

e) What is creep feed important for?

A. supplements sow‟s milk

B. provides a balanced diet
C. easily digested
D. prevents mortality.

Structured items
2. a) At what age is creep feed introduced to piglets?
b) What is the percentage of crude protein in pig growers‟ mash?
 c) Which class of pigs is slaughtered at 55kg livemass?
d) What ration is used to feed baconers?
e) Complete the table below which gives details about types of
food and ages of pigs.

Type of food Age in weeks

Creep feed 2–5
………….. 6 – 10
Growers …………
Finisher …………
f) What ration is used to feed sows and boars?

True/false
3. Answer the following questions by in serting the letter T for true
statements and F for false statements.
a) Baconers are slaughtered at 70kg livemass ………..
b) Flushing sows means giving additional food before service
………..
c) Piggeries should be sited near residential buildings for easy
management ………….
d) Swine fever is a virus disease …………..
e) Foot and mouth disease is transmitted by warthogs …………..
f) Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease of pigs …………
g) Anthrax is a disease which can affect humans as well ………..

Essays
4. a) Outline the reasons for creep feeding.
b) What factors should be considered when preparing to house
pigs?
5. Discuss the symptoms, control and economic importance of foot and
mouth disease.
29. Sheep and Goats

KEY FACTS

Rearing of sheep

Sheep breeds
- Blackhead Persian (B.H.P.)
- Van Rooy
- Dorper
- Wiltiper
- Mutton Merino
- Corriedale
- Suffolk
- Dorset Horn
- Hampshire Down
- Wiltshire Horn
Indigenous breeds such as the BHP and Van Rooy and Dorper are suited to
hot, dry veld conditions. Wool breeds cannot be kept on pastures because
their wool will pick up weeds such as the star bur, which will later open way
for skin infections.

Breeding
Oestrus
At oestrus the ewe is ovulating and she goes on heat lasting for 2 days. If the
ewe is not served oestrus will reoccur 16-18 days later.
Gestation period
The ewe is pregnant for 5 months. Ewe lambs are sexually mature in five
months, but they are usually mated after 12 months.

Weaning
Weaning is at 4 – 5 months. Naturally the ewes dry up at 20 weeks.

Culling
Deformed and unproductive animals should be culled. Poor mothers are
usually replaced within 12 months in sheep production, to avoid further
losses.

Management

Lambing seasons

Mating ratio 1:40. Lambing should be controlled and restricted to spring and
autumn. It is difficult to tell whether mating has taken place so a dye is
applied between the fore limbs of the ram. Ewes which have been served
will then be identified with the dye on the backs.
Ewes served in spring will lamb in autumn and vice versa.

Autumn lambing
Advantages Disadvantages
Lambs are born from strong ewes Ewes will have to be fed
Grass will be plenty Ewes produce less milk in autumn.
There are less parasites in autumn Lambing may be difficult to time
Spring is free for wool clipping. Fewer lambs are produced in
autumn.
Ewes are flushed on good spring
grass.

Spring lambing
Advantages
Lambing coincides with growth of
new grass.
Plenty of milk is produced.
Sheep naturally
More lambs are produced, including
Disadvantages
Gestation may coincide with wool
clipping.
Milk production may be affected by
too many internal parasites in
summer.
Shelters may have to be made to
protect lambs from rain.
twins.
Some breeds will only come on heat
in autumn

Care during lambing

Animals giving birth unattended may encounter problems resulting in the
death of the young ones. Shepherds should have a knowledge of when birth
will occur.

Signs of birth
- Ewe separates herself.
- Udder is distended.
- Milk comes out when teats are squeezed.
- Vulva is swollen.
These signs are normally followed by birth. If the lamb does not come out
within two hours the shepherd should examine the cause of the delay and
give assistance. Soon after birth the lamb should suckle milk. The brownish
milk produced during the first three days is called colostrums. This milk is
rich in antibodies and these will be transferred to the lamb during this
period. Identification and tail docking can be carried out 3-4 days later.
Figure 29.01 illustrates how sheep are identified through earnotching.

Figure 29.01
Ear-notching of sheep

Dosing and injecting

Lambs pick up internal parasites as they grow, therefore they should be
dosed regularly. Sheep should be dosed every 3 weeks in summer and every
6 weeks in winter, using a dosing gun.
Diseases can be controlled through use of medicines injected into the body.
Two types of injections are:
Subcutaneous injections which are given under the skin.
Intramuscular injections which are given into the muscle i.e. on the rump.
Hoof trimming
Overgrown hooves split and sheep become lame. Trimming is done every 3
or 4 months.
Shearing
This is done once a year, at the end of winter to ensure that the wool is dry
when shearing.
Weighing and recording
Weight records should be maintained for management purposes. Other
information to be recorded include births, deaths, purchases, slaughters,
sales as well as dosing and mating dates.
Docking of lambs
Methods:
- Rubber rings
- Knife
- Hot iron
Castration methods
- Rubber rings
- Burdizzo
- Knife.
Wool
This is not an important product for Zimbabwe because of the long grass on
the pastures.
Properties of wool
- Wool is elastic.
- It is a bad conductor of heat.
- It is not inflammable.
- Felting is very high i.e. entangles to form a mass.
- It is hygroscopic and can absorb moisture up to 33% of its mass.
- It is durable.
Classes of wool
- carpet wool – coarse wool
- clothing wool – fine wool
Goats
Breeds
Indigenous goat - hardy, most popular
- kept for meat.
Boer goat - hardy and bigger
- resistant to disease.
Milch breeds
- These are goats kept for milk production especially in
Europe.
The popular milk breeds are SAANEW and TOGGENBURG. The
ANGORA goat is kept for mohair production. So the three main products
from goats are meat, milk and mohair.

Feeding
Milk goats should reared and fed like dairy cows. Meat breeds are usually
robust and depend entirely on the pastures. However, under drier conditions
supplementary feeding is recommended.
Dosing
Goats are infected with internal parasites although to a lesser extent than
sheep. They should be dosed against tapeworms at an early stage.
Dipping
This will depend on the degree of tick infestation. It is important to control
the mange mite in goats
Mating
Breeding is all year round and one male can serve 40 to 50 females. Male
kids should be castrated at the age of 2 to 3 weeks.
Housing
Goats are usually kraaled at night. Where shelter is required the floor space
should be 1,52m x 0,9m per goat.
Pests and diseases
Pests and disease are similar for both sheep and goats. Table 29.01 on page
151 outlines the most common parasites.
Table 29.02 on page 152 illustrates the diseases which cause problems to
sheep and goats.

Exercise 29

Multiple choice

1. a) Select a goat breed from the list given:

 A. Dorper
B. Saasen
C. Sulfolk
D. Wiltiper.

b) Ewe lambs reach sexual maturity at the age of:

A. 5 months
B. 6 months
C. 8 months
D. 12 months.

c) What happens when an ewe dries up?

A. no milk is produced
B. less milk is produced
C. the young are ready for weaning
D. the ewe is ready for mating.

d) Which sign shows that an ewe is pregnant?

Table 29.01
Common parasites and pests of goats and sheep
Parasites Signs and symptoms Treatment and / or control measures
Roundworms 1. weakness; anaemia 1. regular dosing with any good
2. smaller kid and lamb crop anthelmintics (piprazine, phenothiazine or
3. too little milk and poor growth other organophosphates)
4. stiff dry coat; pale mucus 2. avoid damp areas
membrane of the intestine 3. maintain a good nutritional level
5. sometimes constipation 4. avoid overstocking (practice rotational
occurs, but often diarrhea pastures and
separate young animals from main herd)
Tapeworm 1. dull rough coat 1. dose with any good anthelmintics (copper
2. suffers from anaemia sulphate, dichlorophene, Lintex)
3. grow poorly 2. break life cycle of tapeworm
4. lean and unhealthy
5. diarrhea or constipation
Liverfluke 1. general weakness 1. dose with any good anthelmintics
2. slow growth (tetrachloromethene – administered in
 3. paleness of the membranes of
eyes and mouth
4. watery swelling under he jaw
5. dull and depressed
6. swollen and painful abdomen
7. upset digestion
8. sudden death of a seemingly
healthy animal
gelatine capsule, mebendazole or nitroxylil).
2. control the intermediate host – the snail –
with copper sulphate, cleaning grass on
edges of streams or fencing off heavily
infected areas

A. mucus discharge
B. vulva is shriveled
C. udder is distended
D. ewe mounts others.
e) At what age are sheep docked?

A. 2-3 weeks
B. 3-4 weeks
C. 4-5 weeks
D. 5-6 weeks

f) Why is colostrums important?

A. increases milk quality

B. improves colour of milk
C. contains antibodies
D. reduces immunity.

g) Which tool is used for docking sheep?

A. small burdizzo
B. hot iron
C. hand shears
D. branding iron.

h) Which one of the following goat breeds is used for milk

production?

A. Angora
B. Boer
C. Indigenous
 D. Saanen.

i) The period when a ewe is ovulating is known as:

A. flushing
B. gestation
C. oestrus
D. weaning.

Table 29.02
Common goat and sheep diseases
Disease Causative Signs and symptons Treatment and / or control
agent measures
Black quarter bacteria 1. high fever (limbs are lame and 1. regular vaccination
stiff, usually accompanied by a especially prior to lambing /
swelling with a darkened castration / docking
overlying skin) 2. treat with antibiotics
2. death occurs in 60 hours (penicillin,
chlorotetracycline or
sulphathazole)
3. destroy carcass by
burning
4. treat wounds with
antiseptic
Infectious bacteria 1. coughing 1. preventive vaccine
pneumonia of 2. fever 2. treat with sulphonamides
sheep 3. loss of condition (e.g. sulphadimidine) or
4. lack of appetite streptomycin
5. difficult breathing 3. isolate infected animals
6. running nose 4. provide genercus amouns
of green grass or hay
Pulpy kidney bacteria 1. high fever 1. preventive vaccine
(enterotoxaemia) 2. exhaustion
3. difficult breathing
4. stumbling
Contagious bacteria 1. high fever 1. vaccination of all young
agalactia 2. cessation (stoppage) in milk females
production 2. maintain good hygiene
3. emaciation leading to death and husbandry with
4. yellow green milk clots formalized bacterin and live
5. in acute cases udder is hot, attenuated bacterin
swollen and painful 3. burn infected material
6. joints become stiffened
7. sometimes abortion occurs
Heart water virus-like 1. fever – rise in temperature 1. regular dipping / spraying
organism 2. loss of appetite to reduce the tick
(rickettsia) 3. winking of the eye lids; 2. inoculate young animals
muscular twitches of the limbs, with blood and attenuated
head, ears vaccine
4. moving in circles
5. salivation
7. convulsions and eventual death
Nasal-worm nasal 1. small grey-green fly with 1. spray or dip
(worm) bot prominent black spots on thorax – 2. provide an automatic
fly fly covered with short light-brown dressing of Stockholm tar by
hairs. wrapping a beam of wood
2. sneezing and thick nasal with cloth padding
discharge impregnated with stockhom
tar in the middle of feed
troughs above surface of
feed – this acts as a fly
repellent
Blue wildbeest rickettsia in 1. avoids light Treat with 5% solution of
(eye disease) conjunction 2. cornea becomes opaque zinc sulphate or 1%
with chlorotetracycline
bacteria

Completion items

2. Complete the following statements using the words listed below.

mohair culling.
heartwater lambing season.
dung sampling mange mite
nasal-worm gestation
a) Mange is caused by a vector called ………….
b) A disease which causes sneezing and nasal discharge is ………
 c) A disease caused by rickettsia is ……………
d) Angora goats are used to produce ……………
e) Internal parasites in goats can be controlled by …………
f) The time when ewes give birth is called …………
g) Removal of deformed and unproductive animals is called
………….
h) The period when a female animal is pregnant is …………

Structured items

3. a) During which season will sheep easily conceive?

b) Why are lambs docked?
c) Which class of sheep is usually attacked by internal parasites?
d) What is a subcutaneous injection?
e) Give two methods of docking sheep.
f) Why is wool unlikely to be a major product for Zimbabwe?
g) Which is the most popular breed of goats in Zimbabwe?
h) What instrument is used to give medicines to control internal
parasites?

Essays

4. Outline the management of sheep under the following headings:

a) lambing
b) ear-notching.
5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of spring lambing
6. a) List the properties of wool
b) What are the signs which ewes will show when birth is about to
occur.
30. Beef Cattle

KEY FACTS

Breeds
Table 30.01 shows the beef breeds and their origin.

Nutrition
Cows which are well fed easily conceive and they do not lose condition after
calving. The best time for calving is spring. Therefore mating should be
timed to coincide with this period. Calving cows in good condition improves
the calving percentage.
Heifers need greater attention as they are still growing . The veld should
have a balance of energy, protein, minerals and vitamins. Well fed heifers
can calve earlier than at 3 years of age. Normally heifers are mated when
they have attained a livemass of 350kg.

Calving percentage
The number of calves born on a farm is important as it determines
production profitability. An index to show this performance is called the
calving percentage. This is calculated as follows:

Number of calves born x 100

Number of cows bulled 1
Calves are usually weaned after 6 months.

Breeding herds
Mating ratio: 1 bull: 30 – 40 cows
Classes of cows are as follows:
- in-calf heifers
- in-calf cows
- dry cows
- lactating cows.
After calving cows reach peak milk production in 5 – 6 weeks.

Figure 30.01
Main beef breeds in Southern Africa

Diagram

This should coincide with the growth of green grass.

Bulling
A period of three months should be allowed for bulls to run with breeding
cows. Cows bulled in November – February will calve in September –
November of the following year. This means it is important for every cow
that has been bulled to conceive during this period.
Bulling cows only at certain periods is called controlled breeding. Random
breeding means running cows with bulls all year round.
Advantages of controlled breeding
- Calving and growth of grass are matched.
Management

Bull and heifer management

Young bulls are sexually mature when they are 18-24 months old. Heifers
conceive easily but there are factors which should be taken into
consideration.
- A livemass of 350kg should be attained.
- Bulling should be delayed up to 3 years if heifer size is unsatisfactory.
- Ensure that heifers continue to grow and develop to maturity.
- Provide supplementary feeding soon after calving.

Cow and calf management

After calving cows which have problems should be kept under observation.
Problems such as hostile mothers, retaining afterbirth and diseased udders
can be experienced.

Pedigree bulls
These are bred from specific parents. They are true to type and farmers
breeding pedigree herds obtain their income from bull sales held each year.
Bulls are sold as 2 year olds.

Castration methods
- Rubber ring
- Burdizzo
- Knife.
The rubber ring should be used during the first week of the calf‟s life.
Testicles dry up and drop within 10 days.

Dehorning
A hot iron is used to burn the horn bud.

Weaning
weaning plates are used to stop calves from suckling. This helps to dry the
cows quickly. Weaning plates are removed after 2 weeks.

Dosing
A dosing gun is used. An automatic dosing gun can be used to treat several
animals in a row because it measures the quantity of reach dose. A large
container is used to carry the prepared dose.
Animals should be dosed before they are put into the pens. Animals in pens
are fed on a high energy ration and hay or stover. Water should always be
available.

Feeding

Supplementary feeding
In summer cattle should receive a supply of phosphate because this mineral
is deficient in most soils. It can be fed with a salt mixture, such as:
- 1 part salt: 1 part monocalcium
- 1 part salt: 1 part dicalcium phosphate
- 1 part salt: 1 part monosodium phosphate
In winter the protein content of the veld is low and it should be
supplemented.

Rations for beef cattle

For beef cattle, dry matter intake is based on two and half of the livemass of
the animal. A breeding cow 450 kg livemass will consume 6 – 8 kg dry
matter per day. She will require 0.9 kg D.C.P. and 3,4 kg T.D.N. In winter
veld grass does not have any D.C.P. at all. Supplementary blocks are usually
used in winter. These blocks will provide an extra amount of T.D.N. plus all
the D.C.P. requirements. They are called maintenance blocks.
Examples of supplementary feeds
- Urea Block
- Molasses
- maize meal
- cotton seed meal
- veld hay
- stover (maize, hay, groundnuts)
- groundnut cake.

Pen fattening
Reasons
- There is a continuous supply of high quality beef throughout the year.
- Culls from pedigree herds are used economically.
- Old animals are used to produce high quality meat.
- Better returns are earned from properly finished animals.
- Animals are carefully prepared for shows.
Animals are fed for 90 days before they are marketed. Younger stock may
be kept in the pens for a longer period. Pens should allow a floor space of
12,5 – 15 square meters per animal.

Composition of high energy ration

- crushed maize
- milled hay
- high energy beef concentrate.
Rations can be prepared on the farm and the ingredients required are:
- crushed maize
- milled hay
- monocalcium phosphate
- salt
- urea
- cotton seed sake
- vitamin A.
In all cases the crude protein content should be 12% roughage.

Cattle handling facilities

Facilities are required for sorting, dipping, examining, treating, castration,

dehorning, dosing and identification. The facilities required should have the
following:
- holding pens
- forcing pens
- calf pens
- sorting pens
- sorting gates
- cattle bail.

Housing

Where cattle are reared on an extensive system, they rarely require any
housing apart from kraals at night. Under the intensive system, cattle may
require paddocks and pens in which they can be housed. Some can also be
fattened in pens. Dairy cattle generally need housing especially when they
are being milked so as to confine them to individual milking stalls.
Young calves require calf pens in which bedding, feed, water and milk are
provided.
Livestock products
Beef
Farmers make prior bookings with the Cold Storage Commission which is a
body that purchases beef. The commission operates several abattoirs in the
country such as those found in Harare, Bulawayo, Masvingo, Kadoma,
Mutare and Chinhoyi. However, the C.S.C. also competes with numerous
private abattoirs.
Cattle arrive at the C.S.C. by road, rail or on the hoof and are held in
lairages. On arrival, they are inspected by officials of the veterinary
department. They are then moved through a race to a washing spray after
which they go into a stunning box. The carcass is tipped out of the box, and
hoisted onto a moving conveyer for dressing.
After dressing, the carcass is passed through a washing spray, a drying fan
and into the grading area. Sides are weighed and conveyed to cold rooms.
The carcass is then chilled and sent to holding and sorting areas.
Offals are packed into clean offals and rough offals while meat and hides are
graded. The byproducts include blood, bones and fat which can be milled,
cooled, screened and bagged into meat and bone meal.

Exercise 30

Multiple Choice
1. a) Which nutrient is usually in short supply in the diet of cattle
grazing on the veld in summer:

A. calcium
B. phosphate
C. protein
D. vitamins.

b) At what age can heifers begin calving?

A. 3 years
B. 4 years
C. 5 years
D. 5 and half years.

c) At what age are calves weaned?

 A. 3 months
B. 5 months
C. 6 months
D. 8 months

d) A suitable mating ratio for cattle is:

A. 1:25 – 30
B. 1:30 – 35
C. 1:30 – 40
D. 1:35 – 40.

e) Why should heifers be mated before attaining mature body

mass?

A. that‟s when they conceive best.

B. they have a longer gestation period
C. to have a longer dry period
D. to ensure healthy calves.

Structured items
2. a) What does bulling mean?
b) At what age is a young bull sexually mature?
c) What problems can be encountered after calving?
d) Which supplementary feed provides cattle with protein?

Essays
3. Outline beef cattle management under the following headings:
a) dehorning
b) castration
c) weaning
d) dosing.
4. a) What are the reasons for pen fattening cattle?
b) Describe how you can produce a high energy beef ration on the
farm.
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of controlled and
uncontrolled breeding in beef cattle?
31. Dairy Cattle

KEY FACTS

Dairy breeds
- Ayrshire
- Guernsy
- Jersey
- Friesland
- Holstein
The selection of a breed is usually determined by two factors:
- adaptability to climatic conditions
- quantity and quality of milk produced.

Composition of milk

Table 31.01 illustrates the composition of milk.

Solids – not-fat
This part of milk is made up of:
- lactose
- protein
- ash.
These are the three factors used in determining the quality of milk.

Milk products:
- whole milk - lacto / sour milk
- skimmed milk - powdered milk
- butter - margarine
- cheese
- cream
Functions of minerals in ash
calcium
chlorine bone formation
potassium
iron blood formation
copper
sodium – muscle formation
magnesium – marrow formation
phosphates – nervous system
iodine – goiter metabolism

Lactation cycle
After the calf is born the cow produces colostrums for four days. Milking
then begins after this period. Figure 31.01 outlines the lactation cycle.

Table 31.01
Composition of milk by percentage
Water 88%
Total solids 12%
Milk fat 3,5% Total 12%
Solids – non fat (SNF) 8,5%
Lactose 4,8%
Protein 3,1% Total 8,5%
Ash 0,6%

Figure 31.01
Lactation cycle of a cow
Sixty days after calving, the cow is mated so that as lactation continues a
foetus is also developing. The cow is dried 60 days before calving. A farmer
who manages to have his cows calving within 390 days will be practising
good management. It is also possible for cows to calve within 390 days will
be practising good management. It is also possible for cows to calve within
400 – 500 days where management is poor. The period between two
calvings is the calving index.

Milk production feeding

After the maintenance requirements of a cow have been met, we should add
the production ration. For milking cows the butterfat content of the milk will
affect the amount of production nutrients to be added. Cows with a high
butterfat content will need higher nutrition. As the milk production declines,
the production ration is reduced proportionately.

Ration for milk production

Using concentrates 0,5 kg is fed for every kilogram of milk produced. For
example a cow giving 10 kg milk per day will receive 5 kg of concentrate, as
a production ration. The feed may be made up of:
- D.C.P.: 10%
- T.D.N.: 66%
- Ca: 0,5%
- P: 0,40%
Protein
Maize is low in D.C.P. (6,5%) so it should be fed with high protein feeds
such as soya bean meal, groundnut meal (37% or cotton seed cake. As we
now know that the ration should contain 10% D.C.P. we can use the
Pearson‟s Square method to calculate ingredients, as shown below.
To complete the square, take away 10 from 37 and 6,5 from 10. Now divide
27 by 3,5. This should give 7. Thus 7 parts maize to 1 part groundnut cake,
as only the first number is considered.

Important management
Practices
- grooming
- dosing
- dipping
- injecting
- bulling.

Important data
Total milk produced – 350 – 5000kg/lactation
Heat occurrence - 21 days
Gestation period – 270 days
Lactation period – 300 days
Good calving index – 390 days
Life span of cow – 6-8 years.

Records
Feed record – the amount of milk a cow produces determines the amount of
the feed she gets. A daily milk production record is usually kept for this
purpose. Other records are:
- service
- calving
- butterfat content of milk
- treatment
- stage of lactation i.e. 1st or 2nd. (The 5th lactation produces the largest
quantity of milk.)

Factors affecting milk yields

- breed e.g. Holstein is highest producer
- milking frequency
- method of milking
- age off cow
- calving season
- feeding.

Cooling milk

Low temperatures keep bacteria to a minimum. This means bacteria

responsible for souring milk is controlled and milk lasts longer. Souring
bacteria feed on lactose and break it down to lactic acid.
N.B. Bacteria multiply extremely rapidly in milk because of its high
nutritive value and especially at high temperatures.

Calf rearing
The first milk from the udder is called colostrums. It is yellowish brown in
colour because it contains carotens, which is associated with the production
of vitamin A, D and E. antibodies in colostrums are passed on to the calf
which acquires passive immunity.
Rearing systems
- bucket
- fostering.
Bucket system
The calf is allowed to have colostrums for four days. It is removed from the
dam (mother) into a calf pen, and whole milk is used to feed the calf.
Fostering
After four days up to four calves are given to one mature cow to nurse.
Calves will suckle for twelve weeks before they are weaned. The same cow
is given another set of calves to rear, until she is dried off after nursing three
sets of calves.

Steps to follow in artificial calf rearing

WEEK 1
- allow calf to have colostrum
- remove to pen after four days
- train calf to drink from bucket
- feed with warm milk
- feed three times per day
- give 3 litres of whole milk per day.
WEEK 2
- give 3 litres of milk per day
- introduce fresh hay
- introduce clean water.
WEEK 3
- feed twice per day
- increase milk gradually
- feed at same times every day.
WEEKS 4 – 7
- give 4,5 litres of milk per day
- introduce calf meal with 20% crude protein
- feed meal and hay ad-lib.
WEEK 8-12
- weaning may be at 8 or 12 weeks
- change calf meal to weaner meal
- withdraw milk gradually
- change feed gradually.

Dairy products
The marketing of milk is undertaken by the Dairy Marketing Board which
also deals with the processing of milk. The DMB does not have a monopoly
however.
As a perishable product, milk requires very efficient marketing techniques if
its quality is not to deteriorate due to the presence of bacteria.
Milk can be pasteurized to facilitate its keeping quality. Refrigeration plays
an important role in maintaining this quality. Fresh milk products include the
following:
- cream
- butter
- powdered milk
- evaporated milk
- cheese
- skimmed milk
- condensed milk.

Exercise 31

Multiple choice
1. a) Select the breed which produces the highest amount of milk.

A. Ayrshire
B. Friesland
 C. Holstein
D. Jersey.

b) Which breed produces milk with the highest fat content?

A. Ayrshire
B. Guernsey
C. Holstein
D. Jersey.

c) Which of the following is a component of solids – not fat?

A. glucose
B. lactose
C. maltose
D. sucrose.
d) Select an item which is NOT a product of milk:

A. butter
B. cheese
C. chocolate
D. cream.

e) Select a function of calcium:

A. bone formation
B. muscle movement
C. blood circulation
D. goiter metabolism.

f) Which mineral is responsible for marrow formation?

A. chlorine
B. iodine
C. magnesium
D. phosphate.

g) What is colostrums?

A. cow‟s whole milk

 B. butter fat in milk
C. first milk from a cow
D. milk fed to the calf.

h) The period when a cow is producing milk is called:

A. conception
B. digestion
C. gestation
D. lactation.

i) What does oestrus mean?

A. bulling season
B. ovulation period
C. insemination
D. calving season.

Completion items

2. Use the list of terms provided to complete the following statements:

- Bulling - lactose
- 390 days - passive immunity
- calving index - carotene
- 270 days - fostering
- grooming - fresh hay
- 150 days - concentrate

a) The period between two calves is called …………

b) The gestation period of a cow is …………..
c) Records can be used to show ……………
d) The sweet part of milk is …………….
e) The element which makes colostrums yellowish brown is ……
f) Colostrum provides calves with ……………
g) A method of calf rearing is …………….
h) A feed which is introduced during the second week of artificial
calf rearing is …………..

Structured items
3. a) How much milk is fed to a calf after the fourth week?
 b) What is the percentage of crude protein in calf meal?
c) Why should feed be changed gradually?
d) State the factors which determine the quality of milk.
e) List four byproducts of milk.
f) Define the lactation cycle.

Essays
4. Outline the factors which affect milk production.
5. a) Explain how a calf is trained to drink from the bucket.
b) What is fostering?
6. Discuss dairy management under:
a) bulling
b) legislation.

32. Animal Health

KEY FACTS

An animal is healthy when its movement, appearance, feeding, body

temperature and excreta are normal i.e. similar to the other animals in the
herd or breed. Any deviation from normal suggests that an animal is ill. This
applies even to humans.

Causes of ill-health
- tissue damage through injury which leads to secondary infections.
- degeneration and / or death of cells due to poisonous substances.
- malnourishment due to under or over feeding or using unbalanced
food rations.
- infection by disease causing organisms or pathogens such as bacteria,
fungi, viruses or protozoa.
- infection by endoparasites and ectoparasites.

Common diseases

Table 32.01 shows a sample of diseases caused by ticks, protozoa bacterial,

virus and nutritional deficiency.

Table 32.01 (continued on p.164)

 Sample of diseases and causes
Disease Cause Affected animals & Prevention / Control
symptons
Heartwater Tick-borne cattle, sheep & goats - vaccinate animal
(bont tick - raised body temperature - use tetracycline
transmits - nervous twitching of eyes - control ticks by spraying or
organisms) and lips. dipping
- high stepping gait
- uncoordinated leg
movements
Anaplasmosis Tick-borne cattle - vaccinations
(Gallsickness) (a Protozoa - raised body temperature - control ticks especially the
bloodparasi - rapid breathing and pulse blue tick.
te) - loss of appetite - use tetracycline
- jaundice and anaemia - inject with iron compound
- enlarged spleen, liver and for anaemia
gall bladder
Coccidiosis Protozoa rabbits, chicken - maintain hygienic conditions
(coccidia) - blood stained excreta - use food with a coccidiostat
- inactivity - use drugs like teramycin
- loss of appetite
- loss of body condition
Tyrpanosomiasis Protozoa cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, - eliminate tsetseflies
(Nagana) (blood horses - use dugs like Berenil
parasite) - loss of condition *A notifiable disease
- rough coat
- raised body temperature
- wasting
- Anaemia
contagious Bacteria cattle, goats, sheep pigs - prevent grazing from
abortion - abortion of foetus contamination
(Brucellosis) - retained afterbirth - vaccinate heifers
-permanent or temporary
sterility
Anthrax Bacteria all mammals including man - destroy carcasse
- sudden death without - vaccinations
showing symptoms - use of antibiotics like
- feverish terramycin
- muscle tremours *A notifiable disease
- mucosal congestion
 - swollen neck and chest
Foot and mouth Virus cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo - vaccinations
- raised body temperature - slaughter infected stock
- salivation *A notifiable disease
- blisters on feet and mouth *Quarantine
- which eventually become animals
sores
- blisters muzzle, udder, teats
ricketts Deficiency all young growing animals - access to sunlight
Vitamin D, - bones remain soft, becoming - add bonemeal and
calcium soft and painful monocalcium phosphate, and
Phosphorus - chewing of bones and stones Vitamin A
Livestock parasites
Cattle are easily affected by both external and internal parasites.
Ticks
These parasites have the following effects on cattle:
- irritation and anaemia
- transmission of diseases
- damage tails and parts behind the ears.
Ticks can be one host, two host of three host ticks depending on the numbers
of hosts needed until they develop into adults
Examples of ticks are:
- blue tick (one host)
- red-legged tick (two host)
- bont (two host)
- brown-ear tick (three host)
- bont-tick (three host).

Figure 32.01
Life cycle of the 2- host tick
Tick control
- Dipping and / or spraying with acaricides such as Triatix, Delnaw and
Superdip at recommended intervals. All cattle, except very young
calves, must be dipped.
- The grazing area can also be burnt to destroy the stages in the life
cycle of the ticks.

Internal parasites
These include roundworms, tapeworms and flukes which have the following
effects:
- decreased growth and production
- damage liver
- deprive host of its food.
Roundworms
Types of roundworms include hookworms, wireworms, bankrupt and
nodular worms. Their symptoms include:
- loss of body condition
- anaemia
- development of bottle jaw
- black and tary diarrhea.
Control
- Dose animals with drugs such as Dylox, Riper-col and Banmith.

Exercise 32

Multiple choice
1. a) Wounds can lead to ill health because:

A. of the amount of blood lost

B. the animal is shocked
C. animal movement is stopped
D. bacteria can enter through tissues.

b) Which of the following organisms is an ectoparasite?

A. liver fluke
B. roundworm
C. protozoa
 D. tick.

Figure 32.02
Typical life cycle of roundworm

c) Antibiotics are effective against diseases caused by:

A. bacteria
B. fungus
C. protozoa
D. ticks.

d) A disease whose outbreak must be reported to the veterinary

offices and police is know as:

A. contagious
B. infectious
C. paracute
D. notifiable.

e) An animal which becomes anaemic can be treated by the

addition of:

A. calcium
B. iron
C. phosphorus
D. sodium
 f) Bottle Jaw is associated with the infection of:

A. roundworms
B. liver fluke
C. quarter evil
D. heart water.

True/false items
2. Answer the following questions by inserting T for ture and F for false
statements.
a) Dipping is an effective preventive measure against tick-borne
diseases …………..
b) The blue tick is an example of a one host tick …………
c) Foot and mouth disease is caused by external parasites ……..
d) Symptoms refer to the ways of controlling diseases ………
e) Quarantined animals cannot be treated ………

Structured items
3. a) Explain the meaning of the following terms
i) secondary infection
ii) malnutrition
iii) quarantine
iv) tick-borne disease.
b) Why should animals be vaccinated?
c) Explain why cattle suffering from foot and mouth disease have
difficulties in walking.

Essays
4. a) Discuss the practical measures that a farmer can take to
minimize the occurrence of animal diseases.
b) Describe the causes of ill health in animals.
c) Write short notes on an animal disease you studied under the
following headings:
i) cause
ii) symptoms
iii) prevention
iv) treatment.
 Section Nine

Horticulture and Lawns

33. Ornamental Plants

KEY FACTS

Classification of flowers
The following classification is either by use or growth habits. For practical
purposes students should select from the lists, flowers of their own choice
and production should follow the management practices outlined in this
chapter.
Edging flowers
- Dwarf Ageratum
- Alyssum
- Felicia
- Lobelia
- Dwarf Marigold
- Petunia.
Mass bedding flowers
- Carnation - Daisy
- Clarkia - Lupin
- Petunia - Calendula
- Phlox - Pansy
- Sweat pea - Marigold
- Zinia - Sunflower.
Flowers grown under shade
- Anamone
- Balsam
- Clarkia
- Pausy
- Pyrenthrum.

Pot plants
Pot plants can be classified into these groups:
- flowering plants
- foliage plants
- palms and ferns
- cacti and succulents
- bulbs.
They can be propagated through:
- seeds
- air layering
- divisions.
When potting, clay, plastic or asbestos pots can be used. Clay pots are
porous so they allow water and air to enter through the sides. Plastic pots
should have adequate drainage holes and they require very careful handling
as simple knocks can easily split them.
Asbestos pots also require adequate drainage and when carefully handled,
can last for long periods.
Pots are filled with a growing medium such as compost. Some growers use
loam soils after being heat sterilized and sieved. Sterilization skills disease
causing organisms and certain pests. After potting, certain plants require
repotting.
Pot plants can be managed by:
- regular watering
- feeding
- resting (this refers to a time when feeding is stopped and watering is
reduced).

Flowers
The main uses of flowers include:
- improving the flavour of jellies and ice-creams
- flower arrangements
- beautifying rockeries and buildings
- marking special occasions.
Flowers grow best when the soil is:
- free from stones or rocks
- at least 60cm deep
- well drained
- slightly acidic
- of medium to light texture.

A wide range of flowers can be grown. Some of these can be sold as cut
flowers. Some of the popular flowers in Zimbabwe are:
- carnations - zucchinis
- petunias - dallias
- marigolds - anthuriums
- poppies - geraniums.
The management of flowers includes:
- pricking out. This refers to the transferring of seedlings from the
nursery bed into seed boxes before they are transplanted. The
seedlings must be handled carefully during the process.
- hardening off. This refers to a process of acclimatizing seedlings to
harsher conditions such as by exposing them to more heat and
reducing the watering frequency.
- feeding – a wide range of organic and inorganic fertilizers are used to
supply the necessary nutrients.
- regular watering.
- control of pests and diseases.

Common pests
- Ants – spray with anticides or ant-kill.
- Aphids – control with Dimethoate, Malathion or Diazinon.
- Cutworms – control using a cutworm bait.
- Red spider mite – use malathion, Dimethoate.
- C.M.R. beetles – use carbaryl or pick by hand
- Children

Common diseases

- Black spot – a fungal disease which can be controlled by fungicides

like mancozeb.
- Damping off – a fungal disease which is difficult to control.
- Powdery mildrew – a fungal disease which can be controlled by using
Lime sulphur or Benomyl.

Hedges
These are lines of plants which respond to clipping into various shapes. They
have several uses such as:
- making certain portions private
- screening unsightly areas
- acting as barriers
- beautifying places.
The management of hedges includes:
- feeding with fertilizers
- chipping to encourage branching. The idea is to develop a wide base
and a narrow top.
Shrubs
These are perennial woody plants which branch from the base or near the
base. As woody plants, their stems are made up of hard materials such as
lignin.
Shrubs, just like trees, can be used for ornamental purposes.

Climbers
These are climbing plants which are grown on a support such as wire. Some
climbers are self-supporting so these do not require any form of support.
They are grown for:
- providing canopy
- covering unsightly structures
- decorative purposes.

Exercise 33

Multiple choice

1. a) An example of sexual plant propagation is:

A. cuttings
B. division
C. layering
D. seeds.

b) Potting mixtures are sterilized to:

A. increase temperatures
B. promote drainage
C. strengthen containers
D. control diseases.

c) Transferring seedlings from the nursery bed to a seed box is

known as:

A. hardening off
B. pricking out
C. transplanting
D. thinning.
 d) Hedges are clipped to:

A. encourage branching
B. maintain shape
C. promote rooting
D. avoid gaps.

e) Plants which separate from the base are known as:

A. climbers
B. hedges
C. shrubs
D. trees.

2. a) How can pot plants be classified?

b) What are the advantages of clay pots compared to plastic pots?
c) Why are flowers important?
d) State 2 common diseases of flowers.

Essays
3. Describe how flowers are managed.
4. a) Explain why hedges are established.
b) Outline the effects of two pests attacking flowers and explain
how each can be controlled.
34. Lawns and Grasses

KEY FACTS

Importance of lawns

Lawns are established for a variety of reasons such as:

- to beautify an area making it attractive.
- to create a lovely place where people can relax and obtain a feeling of
satisfaction especially during hot afternoons.
- to act as a carpet especially in gardens or parks.
- lawns cover the ground on which they grow hence the soil is protected
form wind and water erosion.
- lawns greatly help in landscaping an area as they are used to change
the appearance of an area into one for recreation and pleasure
purposes.

Land preparation

Leveling the site is a very important operation in the establishment of lawns.

Land preparation involves the following stages:
- cleaning of obstacles such as trees, stones and rubble.
- Initial leveling such as removing earth from higher portions to lower
ones.
- primary cultivation through ploughing or digging.
secondary cultivation by harrowing. Manure and / or fertilizers are added
during this stage. Most lawns require fertilizers rich in phosphorus such as
single super phosphate at the rate of 100g per square metre.

final leveling so as to produce an acceptable tilth so that seeds germinate

easily and weeds are easily controlled.

Planting

Lawns can be propagated through both seeds and vegetatively. Seed is

broadcast over a portion of the land to be planted or placed in rows which
should be 50 mm deep, a process known as drilling. For vegetative
propagation, runners are removed from plants and cut into short lengths.
These pieces are then thrown into furrows or trenches. The soil will be
 moistened and the pieces of grass are pressed into the moist soil. This
method of planting is called furrow planting, in which the trenches are 20 to
30 cm. apart.
The other method involves planting short pieces of grass with small amounts
of roots. This method is called dibble planting as the pieces are
“transplanted” at a depth of 5 cm. the rows are covered with soil and the
surface is left level.

Type of lawns and grasses

Table 34.01 summarizes the common lawn grasses.

Table 34.01
Common lawn grasses
Name Description Requirements Suitability & Care
Kikuyu Spreads by rhizomes has fertile soil withstands on sport fields for
short flowering stems forms light frost which can grazing cattle
heavy, thick turf grow in cool areas requires adequate
watering and frequent
mowing
Beira grass spreads on the ground has a wide range of in wet areas requires
coarse, deep green leaves surface soils and thorough watering in
climatic conditions low rainfall areas
Couch grass spreads by underground a wide range of grass a general purpose
stems produces a dense turf requires warm grass ideal on
has deep roots weather conditions swimming pools and
rainfall conditions houses occasional
cutting little watering

Other lawn grasses include:

- St Augustine
- Bradley
- Buffalo
- Swazifinger.

General care of lawns

- Watering – this should be done on a regular basis so that the ground is

moistened to a depth of at least 30cm. to achieve this, watering should
 be done at least twice a week on sandy soil and once a week on heavy
soils.
Watering can be done form the bucket, hose pipe or from an overhead
sprinkler unit.
- Fertilizing – initially phosphatic fertilizers are needed for root
development. Straight nitrogen containing fertilizers are required as t
he the grass is established.
In summer 60g compound X, depending on soil type per square metre can be
applied during the first and second months. Later 20g Ammonium Nitrate
per square metre can be applied on a monthly basis.
- Weed control – weeds must be removed as soon as they appear if
damage is to be minimized. Weed control can be done by hand or by
using herbicides especially the broadleaved weeds.
- Mowing – to improve the carpet structure of lawns, the grass must be
constantly cut to a height of 18 – 25mm. mowing is best done by
using a lawn mower. The frequency of mowing is affected by the rate
of grass growth.
- Spiking – it refers to the aeration done to lawns. During land
preparation, rollers compact soil layers leading to poor aeration and
drainage. Spiking therefore improves aeration. A garden fork can be
used for this purpose.

Pests and disease control

The common pests include lawn caterpillars, armyworm, mites and scale.
These pests are responsible for:
- making the grass brownish
- sucking sap
- unthrifty turf.
Pests are controlled by:
- spraying with chemicals like carboryl
- biological control.
Common diseases are brown patch and grey mould which can be controlled
by using Daconil and copper oxycloride respectively.

Exercise 34
Multiple choice
1. a) To prepare a fine tilth, the soil should be:

A. harrowed
B. ploughed
 C. rolled
D. stumped.
b). Which nutrient promotes root development in lawns?

A. Potash
B. Nitrogen
C. Phosphate
D. Sulphur.

c) Cuttings that develop their own roots are known as:

A. coppice
B. stolons
C. truncheon
D. turfs.

d) Spiking refers to the:

A. digging of lawns
B. adding of fertilizers
C. loosening of soil
D. resting of plants.

True/false items
Answer the following questions by inserting the letter T for true statements
and F for false statements.
2. a) Kikuyu grass spreads through rhizomes ………..
b) Lawns are watered so that the top 10cm of soil is moistened .....
c) Spiking improves aeration in lawns ………
d) Established lawns are not invaded with weeds ………..
e) Frequent mowing prevents grass from flowering …………
f) Lawns help in preventing soil erosion ………..

Structured items
3. a) Describe 2 methods of planting lawns.
b) Why is land preparation important in lawns?
c) State 3 grasses used as lawns.
d) Explain how 2 common pests of lawns can be controlled.
Essays
4. a) Outline the steps taken when preparing land for establishing
 lawns.
b) Describe how lawns are managed.
Section Ten

Farm Structures and Machinery

35. Farm Roads

KEY FACTS

Farm roads

Siting of farm roads

Drainage is the single most important factor to consider when siting farm
roads, hence most roads run along crests. In order to provide access across
streams roads may be designed on dam walls.

Farm roads dimensions and shape

Features of a road
- crown is the raised surface of the road on which vehicles run.
- verge is the part on the sides if the road covered with couch grass.
- drainage ditches run along the road collecting water drained from the
crown.
- mitre drains which lead water away from drainage ditches. They
should be constructed at a gradient of 1:50.
- culverts allow water to cross under the road.
- inverts are depressions provided to carry water above the road surface.
- bolsters are humps constructed with gravel across the road to prevent
water from running along the road surface.
The crown is usually raised by adding gravel. In order to improve drainage
the centre of the road is raised slightly to give the surface a camber.
 Figure 35.01
Cross section of a farm road

Road construction
Construction begins with siting the general direction of the road and clearing
bush. The centre line is pegged. Then the outer edges are marked three
metres from the centre lines for a three-metre wide crown.
Materials
Farm roads are built with gravel, usually placed on the surface to form a
camber. Bricks are used to construct culverts and a concrete slab is cast over
the bricks to allow water to flow underneath. Gravel is also used to make
bolsters.

Farm road maintenance

After the rains, roads should be inspected for damage. Maintenance work
should then be done as follows:
- clearing drains
- covering corrugations.
- filling potholes.
- controlling erosion in drains.
- strengthening slippery parts with gravel.
Grading
Grading is done to cover corrugations and ruts on the road surface. A land
plane is used to grade earth surfaced farm roads. Gravel roads are leveled
with graders.

Exercise 35

Multiple choice

(a) Which factor is most important in siting

 A. drainage
B. gradient
C. topography
D. vegetation.

(b) Which part of a road is used by vehicles?

A. camber
B. carriageway
C. invert
D. verge.

(c) What are bolsters needed for:

A. raising the surface

B. slowing traffic
C. diverting runoff
D. crossing vleis.

(d) What is a structure which allows water to cross underneath a

road?

A. verge
B. culvert
C. invert
D. mitre drain.

Structured items
2. a) Where would you site a farm road?
b) Why are dam walls constructed with a provision for roads?
c) What is the term used to describe a raised centre of a road?
d) What machinery is used to construct a road.

Essays
3. Write brief notes on road construction under the following headings:
a) siting
b) road width
c) drainage.
4. Describe farm roads under the following heading.
 a) crown
b) verge
c) mitre drains
d) inverts.
5. Outline how you would maintain a farm road.

36. Farm Tools and Machinery

KEY FACTS

Categories
Cutting tools.
Such as sickle, slasher, hedge shears, matchet and secaturs.
Other tools are used for digging, loading and leveling. A summary of tools
and their functions is outlined in Tables 36.01 and 36.02.

Maintenance of equipment
Maintenance involves:
- sharpening to ensure that they function effectively.
- greasing moving parts, such as the exle of a wheelbarrow.
- painting to replace worn out paint on exposed surfaces.

Table 36.01
Tools for cutting
Name of tool Function
slasher cutting standing grass, weeds or stova.
sickle cutting grass for mulching or thatching; harvesting certain cereal crops
such as sorghum, rice, wheat, as well as Lucerne.
matche / panga clearing vegetation such as shrubs; cutting sticks or pegs for stacks.
hedge shears cutting and shaping of hedges and other ornamental shrubs.
secaterus pruning small branches of trees or ornamental plants.

Table 36.02
Tools for digging, loading or mixing
Name of tool Function
pick deep digging of hard soil surfaces and trenches or pits.
mattock digging shallow pits, trenches; stumpimp trees.
axe stumping or felling trees.
hoe shallow digging; weeding cultivating; ridging.
garden fork digging/loosening soil; moving or turning compost or other vegetable matter
moving or mixing materials such as soil, manure, grain, fertilizers.
shovel digging, mixing (turning), moving such materials as soil, compost, manure.
spade Digging in between young plants and in nursery beds.
hand fork Making planting stations for seedlings; removing seedlings from nursery
garden trowel beds when transplanting
- coating with oil to prevent rust.
- cleaning and storage, on rocks to prevent damage of delicate
equipment such as watering cans and knapsack sprayers.
Types of saws:
Figures 36.04 show two types of wood saws.

Figure 36.03
Rip saw
 Figure 36.04
Cross-cut saw

Screw drivers
Figure 36.06 on page 181 shows the types of screwdrivers and the screws on
which they are used. It is important to use the correct size of screw driver for
the right size screw head to avoid damage to either the screw head or the
screw driver.
Maintenance
Specialized tools such as saws, screw drivers and files need correct
maintenance. For example you should use the correct size tool for correct
job. Sharp ends should be sharpened regularly and screw drivers should
never be used as centre punches.

Sprayers
The knapsack sprayer is usually used for most spraying operations on the
farm. It however needs careful maintenance especially the nozzles, which
can be damaged quite easily. The most important maintenance task is to
ensure that the nozzle is washed with clean water immediately after
spraying. This prevents blockages and reduces corrosion of internal parts.
 Figure 36.05
Knapsack sprayer

Machinery

Types of mouldboards
Most ox-drawn ploughs are fitted with a Digger type of mouldboard. Figure
36.07 on page 182 shows three types of mouldboards.
Mouldboard ploughs have the advantage of turning the soil completely, and
they can plough hard and gravelly soil. However, disc ploughs cut deeper
furrows and large areas are ploughed in a shorter time. Maintenance includes
removal of worn out parts such as share or discs. The parts which work the
soil are prone to corrosion by rust, so they should be coated with used oil.
Worn out parts should also be renovated.
 Figure 36.06
Screwdrivers

Harrows

Types:
- Disc harrow, usually tractor drawn.
- Spike – tooth, light and ox-drawn.
- Spring time.
Harrows are used for secondary tillage to:
- cover seed, especially small seed sown by broadcasting.
- incorporate manure and fertilizer
- remove weeds after ploughing
- prepare a fine seedbed which encourages a high germination
percentage.
Figure 36.08 illustrates the spring tine and spike tooth harrows.

Planters

Method of sowing seed include

- broadcasting
- drilling
- planting.
Seed drills are used for small seeded crops such as grass, while planters are
used for large seed such as maize.
Drilling has an advantage over broadcasting because interrow cultivation can
be done and lower seedrates can be used, i.e. farmers save money on seed.

Uses of a planter
- It opens the furrows.
- It drops seed at correct distance apart.
- It covers the seed.
- It applies fertilizer.
The planter has a seed hopper for carrying the seed. Coulters are fitted for
cutting the furrows. A fertilizer hopper is also fitted to carry fertilizer. Both
the seed and fertilizer hoppers are connected to the axle. The discs at the
base of the seed hopper are marked with holes which will drop seed at the
correct planting distances. Figure 36.09 illustrates an ox drawn planter.

Maintenance

Land wheel bearings, sowing spindles, disc coulters should be lubricated

daily. The fertilizer hooper should be cleaned after use to avoid corrosion.

Figure 36.07
Types of mouldboard
Maize shellers

How the sheller functions

Basically an axle with projecting knobs dislodges grain from the cob. A
sieve allows the grain to pass through while the cobs are thrown outside.
Figure 39.10 illustrates a pedal powered sheller.

Figure 36.08
Spike tooth and spring tine harrows

Figure 36.09 Figure 36.10

Sowing and applying fertilizer Pedal powered sheller
A combine harvester will:
- harvest,
- thresh / shell,
- clean,
- bag in one operation.

The bicycle
Motion is gained by means of gears. The small gear or the rear wheel
increases the power of each stroke, while the large gear attached to the
pedals reduces the amount of force required to produce motion. Figure 36.11
shows the parts of a bicycle.

Figure 36.11
Parts of a bicycle

Maintenance
Wheels should be checked for the correct pressure before use. To remove the
tyre both sides should be pushed into the well of the rim. A lever is then
used to pull out the tyre. Care should be taken not to damage the tyre casing.
Chains are kept taut by means of chain adjusters. Wear of chains should be
reduced through regular oiling.

Engines
The internal combustion on engine
Combustion takes place in the cylinders. A mixture of petrol and air is
ignited by a spark plug. Diesel is atomized in the injectors and the vapour is
mixed with highly compressed air to give an explosion. No spark plugs are
required.

The four stroke petrol engine

The piston travels up and down four times before poer is produced. The head
travels between the top dead centre (T.D.C.) and the bottom dead centre
(B.D>C.) Power is produced when he piston is at T.D.C.
Inlet stroke induction
As the piston moves down a vaccum is created, which sucks arir and petrol
into the cylinder.
Compression
The air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve while
the exhaust valve is closed. On the return stroke the inlet valve is closed.
The mixture is therefore compressed inside the cylinder.
Power stroke
A stroke from the spark plug ignites the compressed mixture at T.D.C. There
is an explosion and power is produced, forcing the piston downwards. Both
valves will be closed. The piston is attached to the crankshaft which is
forced to turn producing motion. The motion produced is maintained
through the momentum of a heavy fly wheel, which is also important for
maintaining the smooth motion of the engine.
Exhaust
The inlet valve is still closed and the exhaust valve is opened. The piston
moves upwards pushing the burnt gases out through the exhaust valve. This
completes the fourth stroke. Figure 36.12 illustrates how the four-stroke
engine functions.
The two stroke engine
The two stroke cycle is illustrated in Figure 36.13.
The main features are, inlet, exhaust, and transfer ports and the carburetor.
There is an angled piston head which covers and uncovers the three ports,
and at the same time compresses the air-fuel mixture in the crank-case.
First, the piston moves upwards closing the three ports about midway up.
Second, the piston reaches T.D.C., and at the same time opens the inlet port
to allow a fresh mixture into the crankcase. Third, the piston moves down, as
the compressed mixture is ignited and power is produced. This downward
stroke of the piston also compresses the air-fuel mixture in the crankcase.
Fourth the piston still descending to B.D.C., opening the exhaust port. The
compressed mixture is forced up the transfer port into the top part of the
cylinder. The piston moves up to cover the exhaust port, and compressing
the air-fuel mixture in the top part of the cylinder. Because of the specially
designed piston head, induction and power occur on the same stroke and
exhaust and compression on the second.

Figure 36.12
The operation of an engine on the four stroke cycle

Figure 36.13
The operation of an engine on the two stroke cycle
Power
While the piston is at T.D.C. a mist of atomized diesel is injected not the hot
air. The explosion of the gases creates the power and the piston descends.
Both ports are closed.
Exhaust
The piston is ascending forcing exhaust gases out through the open port. The
inlet port is closed. Then the cycle starts all over again.

The fuel system

The system consists of a fuel tank, fuel pump and a carburetor.
The ignition system
Figure 36.14 illustrates the ignition system in the four stroke engine.
An electric current moves from the battery to the coil, where it is stepped up
to high voltage. The coil passes the voltage to the distributor whose function
is to release a charge to each plug at the right time. this is achieved through
correct timing of the distributor. The plugs will in turn release sparks to
ignite the air fuel mixture in the cylinders in order to produce a power
stroke. The battery is supported by an alternator which generates electricity.

Figure 36.14
Layout of a coil-ignition system
Lubrication
Oil is stored in the oil sump. An oil pump in the sump pumps oil upwards
through the oil filter into the crankcase and upper cylinder. This ensures that
the pistons are lubricated.

Difference between a diesel and petrol engine

Diesel engine Petrol engine
Uses diesel as fuel Uses petrol as fuel
Only air enters on the induction A mixture of air and fuel enters
stroke
Has no spark plugs Each cylinder has a spark plug
Ignition is a result of highly Spark plug releases a spark to ignite
compressed air air-fuel mixture
Fuel is atomized by the injector Fuel is mixed with air in the
pump carburetor
Less fuel is burnt More fuel is burnt
More durable and heavier. Less durable and lighter
Produces more noise and emits more Produces less noise and less exhaust
exhaust gases gases

Difference between a four stroke engine and a two stroke engine

Four stroke engine Two stroke engine
Has flat piston heads Has an angled piston head
Has inlet and outlet valves Has three transfer ports
Only air enters the cylinder An air-fuel mixture enters
Has an injector pump Has a carburetor, and a spark plug
Ignition is through high compression A spark ignites the air-fuel mixture
Oil is introduced separately. Oil is added to the fuel
There are four separate strokes for There are two strokes combining
induction, compression, power and induction and compression
exhaust.

Maintenance of an engine
After a certain number of kilometers an engine should be serviced. This
means that old oil and certain components have to be replaced. Oil should be
drained out through the sump and fresh oil filled in. care should be taken to
ensure that the correct oil thickness (viscosity) is selected. Heavier engines
require thicker oils than lighter engines. The oil filter screens all debris and
iron filings in the oil so it should also be replaced each time new oil is filled
in.
All air filter is also fitted to prevent dust from entering the engine. This filter
has an oil well. The oil and the element should be replaced regularly. Some
air filters have dry elements.

Exercise 36
Multiple choice
1. a) Which one of the following is used for spraying chemicals?

A. secateur
B. strainer
C. knapsack
D. garden horse
b) Which set consists of cutting tools?

A. slasher, mathet, secateurs

B. sickle, hoe, mattock
C. pail, rake, axe
D. spade, pick, shovel

c) The function of a harrow is to:

A. level the soil

B. make ridges
C. trash
D. cover seed.

d) Which operation is not carried out by a combine harvester?

A. bagging
B. cleaning
C. drying
D. threshing.

e) In which part of an engine does combustion occur?

A. carburetor
B. crankcase
C. cylinder
 D. conrod.

f) What takes the place of spark plugs in a diesel engine?

A. alternator
B. distributor
C. injector
D. ports.

g) Which part of the engine is responsible for maintaining

momentum?

A. crankshaft
B. clutchplate
C. flywheel
D. spark plug.

Structured items

2. a) What is the function of the crankshaft?

b) Which part closes and opens the ports in a two stroke engine?
c) What is the source of electricity in an engine?
d) What part is used to carry water for cooling the engine?
e) Where is the oil pump located?
f) In which direction is the piston moving during the compression
stroke?

Completion items

3. Select the statement which completes the following questions from

the list given below.
- spring tine
- digger
- bicycle
- secateurs
- spacing
- nozzles
- drilling
- B.D.C.
 - wheelbarrow - T.C.
a) A tool used for pruning fruit trees is ……….
b) The part on the knapsack sprayer which needs careful
maintenance is the ……………
c) Most ox-driven ploughs are fitted with a ……………. Type of
mouldboard.
d) An example of equipment used fro harrowing is ……………
e) An example of a method of sowing seed is a …………….
f) ………… is a means of transport.
g) The highest point which a piston will reach during a stroke is
called …………..

Essays

4. Write notes on the functions of the following:

a) carburetor
b) spark plugs
c) distributor
d) ignition coil.
5. Outline the differences between a petrol and a diesel engine.
6. Discuss the functioning of a bicycle under:
a) motion power
b) maintenance.
7. Outline the differences between the four stroke and two stroke
engines.
37. Farm Buildings and Water Supply

KEY FACTS

Buildings

Site selection
Buildings should be located on accessible sites, near the main farm house for
effective management and security. Animal sheds should as much as
possible be located on the down wind side, so that smells are carried away
from residential buildings.
The ground on which the building is sited should be firm and adequately
drained. Sands and vleis should be avoided.

Building materials
Types of bricks
- common farm bricks
- face bricks
- glazed bricks
- fire bricks.
Face bricks are used for decorating while glazed bricks are suitable for
surfaces which are washed regularly. Fire bricks are resistant to heat and
they are used in furnaces.
Farm bricks are made of good ant-hill soil to prevent breakages. Forms are
made to the required size of brick, and used to mould the mortar into bricks.
After drying bricks are burnt in bins or ovens.
Bricks can be made with sand and cement and dried in the sun. One part of
cement mixed with 15 parts of sand will produce bricks which are strong
enough to build farm houses.

Floors
Foundation trenches are dug 300 mm. deep and stones or bricks are used to
build the foundation. The foundation walls are raised 300mm. above the
ground and the space inside filled with rubble up to 200mm. concrete is then
used to fill the balance and form a slab. The concrete is a mixture of cement
sand and gravel in the proportion of 2 parts cement, 5 parts river sand and 10
parts gravel. The thickness of the slab is increased for more permanent
buildings.
Roofs
A roof ahs a pitch which allows rain to drain away. Thatched roofs should
have a steeper pitch (slope) so that rain does not get into the building. Roof
poles are fixed together with bolts and nuts or strong twine. Nails are also
commonly used for fixing roof poles. Zinc or asbestos roofs can have a low
pitch as there is no problem of drainage. Trusses are used to carry the roof,
as shown in figure 37.01

Figure 37.01
Standard wooden roof truss

Farm water supply

The main uses of water on a farm are

- irrigation of crops.
- livestock management.
- human consumption.

Sources of farm water

- Natural rain which feeds grazing land.

- Rivers, streams and wells.
- Boreholes and springs
- Dams and wiers
- harvested rainwater.
Figure 37.02 shows the parts of a borehole
 Figure 37.02
Parts of a borehole

Dams and weirs are used to store water which is collected during the rainy
season. This ensures that all farm activities are sustained throughout the
year. Figure 37.03 shows diagrams of a dam and a weir.

Water reticulation
Stored water should be directed from dams and boreholes in pipes or
cannals. Both methods depend on gravity for the water to flow. A pump is
therefore used to raise water to a reservoir usually sited at a high place. Thus
the water will then flow to the fields and the rest of the farm buildings due to
the force of gravity.
 Figure 37.03
Dam and weir

Piping
Plastic pipes have an advantage over metal ones because they do not rust and
they are relatively easy to work with. Figure 37.04 illustrates the movement
of water from a high point to various sections through pipes.

Figure 37.04 Movement of water from a high point to various sections

through pipes.
Joining pipes
Pipe connectors are used to join lengths of pipes as they are laid along
trenches dug 400mm deep. Figure 37.05 shows two pieces of pipes and a
pipe connector.

Figure 37.05
Pipes and a pipe connector

Over gradual bends pipes can be laid without the need to cut them. However,
where sharp turns have to be made several fittings will be required. For
example a T-piece is used to join a branding pipe as shown in figure 37.06
An elbow shown in figure 37.07 is used to enable pipes to turn around right
angles. At the end of the pipe, when a tap is required to raise the water above
ground level a reducer is used. Figure 37.08 shows a reducer.

Figure 37.06
A T-piece pipe
 Figure 37.07 An elbow

Figure 37.08
A reducer

Fitting a tap washer.

A rubber or leather washer is used to stop water from flowing out of the tap,
when the tap is closed. With regular use, the washer gets worn out and it has
to be replaced. Figure 36.09 shows a section through a tap.
Figure 37.09
Section through a tap

Exercise 37

Multiple choice
1. (a) Which type of brick is used for building cow sheds?

A. face bricks
B. farm brick
C. fire brick
D. glazed brick.

(b) Select a cement – sand mixture suitable for making cement

bricks.

A. 1 : 10
B. 1 : 15
C. 1 : 20
D. 1 : 25

(c) What are roof trusses used for?

A. strengthen wall
B. shape roof
C. ventilate building
D. carry roof.

(d) A more permanent source of water is

 A. borehole
B. spring
C. well
D. weir.

(e) What is used to join lengths of pipes?

A. connector
B. elbow
C. reducer
D. tap.

True/False items
2. Answer the following questions using T. for true and F. for false
statements.
(a) Animal sheds are located on the wind ward side of residential
buildings ……………
(b) Cement bricks are burnt after drying …………
(c) A roof pitch allows water to drain away ………….
(d) Human consumption is a main use of water …………
(e) The main source of farm water is rain ………….
(f) A weir is used to store water …………..
(g) Water reticulation means pumping water into a reservoir
……………..
(h) Plastic pipes corrode easily due to rust ……………
(i) Taps are used to raise water from underground ……………
(j) A reducer allows a bigger diameter pipe to be fitted easily
………….

Structured items
3. (a) What is a T-piece used for? …………….
(b) What are elbows used for? …………….
(c) How deep should underground pipes be laid? ……………
(d) What ensures that piped water continues to flow to all sections
of the farm ……………
(e) What is the differences between a dam and a weir? …………..

Essays
4. Describe farm water reticulation with the aid of a clearly labeled
diagram.
5. (a) Outline the main sources of farm water.
(b) Discuss uses of farm water, stating how water is lost.
6. With the aid of a diagram describe the main features of a roof on a
farm building.

38. Animal handling facilities

KEY FACTS

Large livestock such as cattle and donkeys need special handling facilities
during certain operations such as dehorning, and so forth.

A crush

A cattle crush is used to bring animals into a single file so that they can be
enumerated. At the end of the crush a neck clamp is provided. The head of
the animal is held in the neck clamp holding the animal severely.

Sorting pens
Cattle are usually brought into a large V – shaped pen where they are led
into small compartments called sorting pens. Groups of animals such as
cows, heifers, steers, weaners and calves are separated for management
purposes. Sorting pens usually end with a crush and a head clamp. Figure
38.01 shows how the head clamp works.

Figure 38.01
Dipping
Ticks are an important pest in livestock management. They should be
controlled because they transmit diseases.
The plunge dip
Cattle are led into a catching pen and forced through a crush. At the end of
the crush they plunge into the dip, submerging the whole body. A drying pen
is provided so that the dip mixture drain back into the dip tank.
Spray race
Chemicals called accaricides are poured into a container and pumped
through nozzles, all over the body of the animal. Only small volumes are
required as the prepared chemical is recycled.
Advantages of a plunge dip
- The system is easy to maintain.
- Less skilled labour is required.
- The prepared dip mixture is used over a long period.
- Provides a better control of ticks as the whole body of the animal is
submerged.
- Large numbers of animals are handled.
Disadvantages of a plunge dip
- Large volumes of water are required.
- There is a danger of small and weak animals drowning.
- Animals occasionally swallow the dip.
- Difficult to maintain correct dip concentration.
Advantages of a spray race
- Only requires a small amount of water.
- Suitable for a small herd.
- Easy to clean after use.
- Young animals can be dipped easily.
Disadvantages of a spray race
- The system is expensive to construct.
- Needs a pump to circulate the dip.
- Nozzles easily get blocked.
- Skilled manpower is required to operate the system.
- There is need to clean the system every time the spray race is used.
Dipping frequency
Cattle should be dipped once fortnightly during the dry season, and weekly
in summer. All animals should be dipped because any ticks which are not
destroyed will be allowed to complete their life cycle. In this way more ticks
are produced.
Harnesses and yokes
Harnesses are used in conjunction with ropes made out of twine or animal
hides. In order to carry large loads, it is sometimes necessary to use ropes to
secure the load. Animals should be led with ropes as they perform various
functions. It is therefore important to learn how to tie knots which can easily
be released when the need arises – figure 38.02 illustrates how a knot is tied.

Yokes
The traditional double neck yoke is commonly used in Zimbabwe. It is
versatile and can be used with oxen or donkeys. Figure 38.03 shows the
measurements on a traditional yoke. The length of the double neck yoke is
increased when intended for tasks such as pulling wagons, carts or
cultivating row crops. Figure 38.04 shows how the yoke fits into the rows of
crops.

Figure 38.04

Harnesses
Breast bands are used on horses and donkeys. They are made out of flat
durable material such as canvas, leather or rubber. Figure 38.05 shows how
the brest strap is positioned. Loads such as a cart or a plough are then
attached to the breast band.

Figure 38.02 Figure 38.05

Diagram
Figure 38.03

Exercise 38
Multiple choice
1. (a) Select structure which is used when classifying livestock.

A. catching pen
B. drying pen
C. sorting pen
D. crush pen.

(b) On a spray race the part which produces the spray mist is:

A. reservoir
B. valve
C. pump
D. nozzle

(c) How often should cattle be diped in Summer?

A. weekly
B. monthly
C. fortnightly
D. bi-monthly.
 (d) Which of the following are the main components of a double
neck yoke?

A. frame : skeis
B. frame : chains
C. harness : clamp
D. clamp : strope

(e) Why should ticks be controlled?

A. spread disease
B. suck blood
C. cause sores
D. breed on cattle.

Completion items
Use the words listed below to complete the following statements.
- plunge - two
- spray race - four
- harness - acaricide
- breast bank - pesticide.
2. (a) A double neck yoke is used with ………….. animals.
(b) The type of harness used for horses is called ………….
(c) A chemical used to kill ticks is called …………….
(d) The type of dip which requires less skilled labour to operate is
……………
(e) An expensive dipping system suitable for small herds is ………

Structure items
3. (a) What is a crush used for? …………….
(b) On which facility would you find a head clamp? ……………
(c) Why should cattle be dipped? …………..
(d) Give a list of classes of animals which can be separated in
sorting pens.
……………………..
……………………..
……………………..
……………………..
(e) State 3 uses of ropes.
 ……………………..
……………………..
……………………..

Essays
4. (a) Briefly describe the features of a plunge dip.
(b) Outline how a spray race operates.
5. Explain the differences between a spray race and a plunge dip.
39. Typical Examination Paper

SECTION A

ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS

Instructions

In the box provided place the letter (A-D) which indicates the correct answer
to each of the following questions
1. Hardening seedlings means

A. applying little water

B. watering at intervals
C. allowing soil to become hard
D. allowing seedlings to wilt.

2. A nutrient supplied by groundnut cake is

A. crude protein
B. soluble fats
C. carbohydrates
D. cellulose.

3. Which breed of pigs has a long body and a golden brown coat?

A. Duroc
B. Hampshire
C. Saddleback
D. Welsh.

4. What is creep feed important for?

 A. supplements sow‟s milk
B. provides a balanced diet
C. easily digested
D. prevents mortality.

5. Why is colostrums important?

A. increases milk quality

B. improves colour of milk
C. contains antibiotics
D. reduces immunity.

6. At what age are calves weaned?

A. 3 months
B. 5 months
C. 6 months
D. 8 months

7. Select a breed which produces the highest amount of milk.

A. Ayrshire
B. Friesland
C. Holsten
D. Jersey

8. Which breed produces milk with the highest fat content?

A. Ayrshire
B. Guernsey
C. Holstein
D. Jersey

9. Select a function of calcium:

A. bone formation
B. movement
 C. blood circulation
D. goiter metabolism.

10. The period when a sow is producing milk is called

A. conception
B. digestion
C. gestation
D. lactation.

11. What does oestrus mean?

A. bulling season
B. ovulation period
C. insemination period
D. calving season.

12. Production ration is utilized for

A. respiration
B. digestion
C. milk secretion
D. energy production.

13. What are energy foods such as carbohydrates used for?

A. protein production
B. supplying minerals
C. disease prevention
D. animal fattening.