Geo 200 Module 1

GEOG 311: GEOGRAPHY OF ZAMBIA
THE GEOGRAPHY OF ZAMBIA

Introduction
Welcome to this module which covers the Geography of Zambia. In this module, we
explore both Zambia’s physical as well as socio-economic geography. There is an
interrelationship between the physical terrain of a country and the human activities taking
place in that country. We begin by looking at the country’s location in the middle of south
Central Africa and the implication this location has on the nation. We then explore the
physical background before moving on to the economic profile of the country. We have
also specially looked at the major natural disasters and environmental problems that
Zambia experiences.
You are advised to have an atlas which depicts the geography of Zambia clearly. This
should supplement the maps provided in this module. You may also need additional
reading for a similar purpose.
Work through the module diligently. The module is divided into Units. Each Unit begins
with its own objectives and a pre-test exercise. Please make sure you understand the
objectives before you begin to study the unit and also attempt the pre-test exercise. At the
end of the Unit is another exercise. This should help you to see whether or not the
objectives the Unit have been realised.
Contents
This module covers the following topics:
Unit 1: Political Geography and Aspects of Location

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Pre-Lesson Activity
1.4 Problems faced at Independence
1.5 Socio-economic and political problems
1.6 Shape and size
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1.6.1 Advantages
1.6.2 Disadvantages
1.7 Location
1.7.1 The Tropical Location
1.7.2 Location on the High African Plateau
1.7.3 Landlocked and Interior Location
1.7.4 Location in the Middle of Many Neighbours (Geo-political
Location)
1.8 Exercise
Unit 2: Relief
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.4 Nature of Zambia’s relief
2.5 Forces responsible for shaping Zambia’s landscape
2.4.1
2.6 Exercise
Unit 3: Geology
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.4 How are rocks studied?
3.5 Zambia’s rock systems
3.5.1 the Basement Complex
3.5.2 The Katanga System
3.5.3 The Karroo System
3.5.4 The Kalahari System
3.5.5 The Alluvium System
3.6 Exercise
Unit 4: Soils
4.1 Introduction
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4.2 Objectives
4.4
Unit 5: Climate
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.4 Temperature
5.5 Rainfall
5.6 Seasons
5.7 Exercise
Unit 6 Vegetation
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.4 Types of vegetation
6.4.1 Forest
6.4.2 Woodland
6.4.3 Grassland
6.4.4 Other types of vegetation
6.5 Importance of vegetation
6.6 Exercise
Unit 7 Natural hazards
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.4 Nature of a hazard
7.4.1 Mode of a hazard
7.4.2 Classifying hazards
7.4.3 Causes of hazards
7.4.4 Phases in dealing with a hazard
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7.5 Common hazards in Zambia

7.6 Exercise
Unit 8 Zambia’s Food Security
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.4 Sources of food insecurity
8.5 Coping strategies
8.6 Achieving food security in Zambia
8.7 Exercise
Unit 9 Environmental Issues and Risks in Zambia
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.4 Major environmental issues and risks
9.4.1 Water pollution
9.4.2 Inadequate sanitation
9.4.3 Soil degradation and contamination
9.4.4 Air pollution
9.4.5 Wildlife depletion
9.4.6 Over fishing
9.4.7 Deforestation
9.4.8 Land dereliction
9.4.9 Noise pollution
9.4.10 Visual pollution
9.4.11 Bush fires
9.5 Exercise
Unit 10 Socio-Economic History
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
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10.4 Economic history of Zambia

10.5 Economic activities
10.6 Inflation
10.7 Economic growth
10.8 Exercise
Unit 11 Economic
Unit 12 Population
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.4 Population size
11.5 Population growth rate
11.6 Mortality
11.7 Population structure
11.8 Sex ratio
11.9 Population distribution
11.10 Migration
11.11 Urbanisation
11.12 Implications of Zambia’s population situation
11.13 Zambia’s National Population Policy
11.14 Health issues in Zambia
11.15 Exercise
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UNIT 1
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ASPECTS OF LOCATION
1.1 Introduction
Zambia’s size, shape and location are all important aspects of the country’s geography. In
this Unit, we will look at how these factors affect the socio-economic and political welfare
of the country.
1.2 Objectives
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
(a) Describe Zambia’s location in central Southern Africa.
(b) State the various problems that the country had faced at independence.
(c) Discuss the problems that the country faces as a result of its vastness.
(d) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Zambia’s various location
situations.

A Zambian proverb: Trees growing in close proximity may not avoid contact. Think about
this proverb in relation to Zambia, which is surrounded by eight neighbours. Suggest the
problems which the country is likely to face as a result of being surrounded by so many
neighbours.
1.4 Problems faced at Independence

• The country’s vast natural resources were grossly underutilised – except copper.
• The limited development was over concentrated along the line of rail, from Livingstone
to the Copperbelt.
• 75% of the country’s population lived close to subsistence level in rural areas.
• The country’s human resource was not developed, for example, there were only 100
university graduates.
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1.5 Socio-economic and political challenges

• Transforming the rural population from semi-subsistence to a commercial way of life.
• Dealing with the influx of the rural population into urban areas.
• Unifying the over 70 culturally diverse and historically disunited ethnic groups and
languages (One Zambia, One Nation).
• Dealing with locational vulnerability – being surrounded by mostly hostile nations
before they became independent.
1.6 Shape and size

• With an area of 762 600 km2, Zambia is a medium sized country compared to other
African countries.
• The country has a population of about 11 000 000 (2008 estimates). This is a
comparatively small population in relation to the size of the country
1.6.1 Advantages
(a) There is an ample usable ‘land bank’ for development in spite of large areas of infertile
land.
(b) Space-wasting traditional methods of agriculture, for example, chitemene, can be
tolerated because there are large tracts of unused land. Note, however, that the
population pressure for land is now mounting.
1.6.2 Disadvantages
The country’s vastness and emptiness pose some problems:
(a) Interior distances are very long and settlements far apart.
(b) There are numerous physical impediments, such as lakes, swamps, and escarpments.
These problems:
• Foster separatism (regionalism) and tribalism.
• Make it difficult to provide infrastructure and amenities such as roads, schools, health
institutions, electricity and clean water.
• Make it difficult to maintain security and deliver economic development quickly from
Lusaka.
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• Make it difficult to organise and unify the country.
The long and remote boundary makes it difficult for military patrol and defence.
1.7 Location
Zambia is located in central Southern Africa, between latitudes 8oS and 18oS and
longitudes 22oE and 34oE. Location is an imperative geographical factor in Zambia. Four
important aspects of Zambia’s location can be determined.
1.7.1 The Tropical Location

Lying between latitudes 8oS and 18oS, the country has a tropical location.
This gives the country a tropical climate, that is, a hot climate. This has however been
modified by the country’s high altitude.
The modified tropical climate is important for Zambia’s economy which is highly
dependent on agriculture. Some temperate crops (fruits and vegetables) can be grown as a
result.
1.7.2 Location on the High African Plateau

Zambia is located on the Central African plateau whose average altitude is 1 127 metres
above sea level.
The plateau is composed of old rocks which are highly mineralised but produce very poor
soils.
This means that Zambia has valuable mineral resources (for example, copper, cobalt, lead,
zinc, silver, etc) which form the basis for a rich mineral extractive industry.
However, the soils are largely poor and may not sustain productive arable farming.
Nevertheless, the high altitude ameliorates (modifies) the climate, making it suitable for an
array of temperate crops, like vegetables and fruits.
1.7.3 Landlocked and interior location

Landlocked countries have no territorial access to the sea and are transit dependent.
This is the most crucial location factor for Zambia.
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The long distances to the sea, up to 2000 km, have implications, such as:
High costs of transporting exports and imports.
Goods are lost along the way through breakages, pilfering and perishing. This
necessitates that the goods are insured.
Having to pay tolls, tariffs, storage and handling fees, and railage when goods pass
through other countries. This makes the cost of transit trade expensive.
Various restrictions on goods and vehicles passing through other countries.
Disruption on major routes to the sea’
Economic blockage
Sabotage
Congestion at ports
Landlocked developing countries (LLDCs) are generally among the poorest of the developing
countries, with the weakest growth rates and are typically heavily dependent on a very limited
number of commodities for their export earnings.
Due to their remoteness, landlocked countries are dependent on neighbouring transit countries
for their external trade and suffer from high trade transaction costs. Huge transport costs,
inadequate infrastructure and bottlenecks associated with importation and exportation
requirements can be a serious stumbling block to their integration into the global economy,
impairing export competitiveness or inflow of foreign investment.
According to the World Bank (1999), landlocked developing countries (LLDCs) area around
50% more in transport costs than coastal countries, and have up to 60% lower volumes of
trade. Inefficient customs and transit transport procedures are considered to be the main cause
of delays and high transport costs and represent a greater obstacle to trade than tariffs.
As a result of their marginalisation in global trade … LLDCs’ proportion developing country

global exports had fallen from an already small portion of 2.4% in 1990 to only 2% in 2000.
1.7.4 Location in the middle of many neighbours (geo-political location)

Zambia is surrounded by eight neighbours, namely Tanzania, Congo D R, Angola,
Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Malawi. Before most of these became
independent, they were hostile to Zambia, making the country politically unstable. The
country therefore had to champion the liberation struggles in these countries. As a result,
the country suffered many incursions and attacks from subversive agents from
neighbouring countries and also spent substantial sums of money to help the freedom
fighters. This money could have been used in the country for economic development.
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When the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) was declared in Zimbabwe (then
Rhodesia) in 1965, the southern route to the sea could not be used. This could have
effectively strangled the country’s economy. Zambia had to look for alternative routes to
the north, hence the construction of the Tanzania-Zambia Railway (TAZARA)(completed
in 1975) and the tarring of the Great North Road (GNR).
Zambia also suffers from an influx of refugees running away from civil strife in
neighbouring countries. These may be a source of vices such as crime and prostitution
while funds meant fro economic development may be channelled to their up-keep.
Nevertheless, the country’s central position also gives it some advantages. On the
economic front, the neighbouring countries may provide a market for Zambia’s budding
agriculture, mining and manufacturing industries. To this end, the country has played a
major role in regional integration and economic cooperation in the southern Africa sub-
region. Zambia was key in the formation of both the Common Market for Eastern and
Southern Africa (COMESA) and the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC).
1.8 Exercise
Please attempt the following questions:
1.8.1 Zambia has been placed by ‘a cruel geography’ in the middle of southern
Africa. Discuss.
1.8.2 What are the advantages of Zambia’s membership to regional economic blocs
like SADC and COMESA?
1.8.3 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Zambia’s dual membership of
COMESA and SADC.
1.8.4 Zambia’s vast emptiness is more of an advantage than a disadvantage. Discuss.
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UNIT 2
RELIEF
2.1 Introduction
Relief is the configuration (shape) of the land. It is the difference between lowlands (plains
and valleys) and highlands (mountains, hills and plateaus). The relief of a place is
important because it influences climate, vegetation, the shape of the water-table, formation
and development of soils and inevitably human activities. Relief also in turn signifies the
type of underlying relief. For example, bold relief may indicate the presence of rocks which
are resistant to erosion while flat areas may be underlain by weak rocks. Relief is,
therefore, an important geographical factor. In this Unit, we discuss the relief of Zambia
and how it affects climate, vegetation, soils and human occupancy.
2.2 Objectives
(a) Describe the nature of Zambia’s relief.
(b) Describe the forces shaping Zambia’s relief.
(c) Explain how the various relief levels found in the country differ in terms of
climate, vegetation, soils and human activities.

Consider the nature of the terrain (topography) in your local area. Is the land flat or does it
rise and fall? What explanations do the local people have about how this topography was
formed? Is the explanation mythical or modern?
2.4 Nature of Zambia’s relief

Zambia’s relief mainly consists of a series of gently undulating to flat plateaus. The
plateaus are occasionally broken by isolated hills or low ranges of resistant rocks (called
monadnocks or inselbergs).
The plateaus at different levels may merge gradually or may be separated by intensely
dissected and steep escarpment zones. The highest part of the plateau surface lies in the
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north-east and east, the area of the hard and resistant Basement Complex rocks. Here, on
the border with Malawi, the plateau reaches 2 164 metres above sea level in the
Makutu/Mafinga Mountains.
The plateau decreases in height towards the south and south-west as the rocks become
progressively younger. The lowest point in the country (325 metres) occurs where the
Zambezi River leaves Zambia to enter Mozambique, at Luangwa (formerly Feira).
2.5 Forces responsible for shaping Zambia’s relief

Zambia’s relief surface is a result of interplay of the following geomorphic processes:
2.5.1 Gradation: This is a process which involves both erosion (degradation) of

highland areas and deposition (aggradation) in lowlying areas. The end result is the general
lowering down and flattening of the land, called planation and leading to the formation of a
feature called a peneplain.
(i) Differential erosion – cycles of erosion have worked alternately with uplift of the
land. The cycles of erosion have produced nearly level peneplains across rocks of varying
resistance, causing differential erosion.
Uplift of these peneplains have initiated new cycles of erosion or planation. This sequence
of planation and uplift occurring several times has caused remnants of the plateau at
different ages to be found at different levels.
The plateau can, therefore, appropriately be referred to as an ‘erosion surface’.
The remnants form the high level plateau surface called the high veld (pronounced ‘felt’).
They include:
• The Mafinga/Makutu Mountains (2 134 metres). This is the oldest plateau surface,
believed to be part of the Gondwana surface, the original surface of the ancient super
continent of Gondwanaland.
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• The Mbala Highlands (1 646 metres). This is made up of the post-Gondwana surface.
• The Muchinga Mountains (1 500 metres) and the higher plateau watershed areas of
Northern and Luapula Provinces, formed during the early Tertiary African surface.
• Other areas of high elevation are the Lusaka Plateau, the Tonga Plateau, the Luangwa-
Lake Malawi Watershed and the Zambezi-Congo Watershed.
The highland areas are characterised by high rainfall and low temperatures. In the high
mountain areas of the Mafinga and Nyika Plateau, this climate favours the growth of the
montane type of vegetation.
The middle level plateau is called the middle veld. It is characterised by undulating relief
created by the numerous rivers that traverse it. Both rainfall and temperature are moderate
in this region. It is covered by the miombo woodlands, the vegetation type which covers the
largest portion of the country. Towards the rainier northern part of Zambia, a closed type of
vegetation called mateshi, itigi or Livunda grows.
(ii) Deposition - This has taken place from time to time in western Zambia. Wind
deposited sand covers the plateau up to a depth of 61 metres. This deposit is called the
Kalahari sand.
Deposition has also taken place along river courses, resulting in what are referred to as
flats, for example, the Kafue Flats, Luena Flats, and Chambeshi (or Bwela) Flats.
2.2.2 Down-warping: This is the sagging or inward bending of the land surface. It is
the result of either of two processes:
• Gentle earth movements which cause gentle ripples in the earth’s crust.
• Pressure created by material deposited on top of the earth’s crust.
Down-warping leads to the formation of depressions or basins which are later filled with
water to form depression lakes and swamps, such as the Bangweulu, the southern end of
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Lake Mweru, and the Lukanga swamps. The lakes take a circular shape and are usually
shallow.
2.2.3 Faulting: This is the cracking and eventual subsidence of the land or earth’s crust.
In Zambia, this has led to the formation of rift valleys, rift valley lakes, and escarpments.
In Zambia, rifted valleys include the mid-Zambezi Valley (bound by the Zambezi
Escarpment), the Luangwa Valley (the longest trough in the country bound by the
Muchinga Escarpment), the tributaries of the Luangwa (Lukusashi, Lunsemfwa, Rufunsa
and Mulungushi), the area around Lake Tanganyika, and the area between Lake
Tanganyika and Lake Mweru.
Lake Tanganyika is exclusively a rift valley lake while Lake Mweru’s northern part
occupies a rift valley while the southern part occupies a shallow depression. The main
characteristics of a rift valley lake are that it is deep, elongated, with steep sides.
The rifted zone forms the lowest part of the country. It is characterised by hot and dry
climate which favours the mopane type of woodland.
2.3 Exercise
Please attempt the following questions:
1. Discuss the assertion that Zambia’s relief is a consequence of geomorphic and tectonic
processes working on an ancient plateau surface over a long period of time.
2. With clear examples and illustrations, describe the relationship between relief and
climate in Zambia.
3. Draw a north-east to south-west section across Zambia to depict changes in relief across
the country. On it, label the Mafinga Mountains, the Luangwa River, Muchinga
escarpment, Lusaka, the Kafue River and the Zambezi Floodplain
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UNIT 3
GEOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Geology is the structure and arrangement of rocks that make up the earth’s surface. Rocks
are important because they are the parent materials of soil; they influence the topography of
an area and therefore climate, vegetation and human activities. In Zambia, the highly
mineralised rocks form the basis for the rich mining industry but produce very poor soils,
hence cannot support large-scale arable farming.
Objectives
By the end of the Unit, you should be able to:
(a) Explain how rocks are studied.
(b) Show the relationship between rock type and topography in different parts of
Zambia.
(c) Describe the main rock systems found in Zambia.
Pre-Lesson Exercise
Before you begin to work through this Unit, look for a piece of rock and then carefully
study it. List all the possible ways in which the rock could be used. Think about how the
rock affects soil (hence food production), vegetation, climate, the water cycle, wildlife, and
human activities. It should be clear to you that rocks are very important and affect the very
fabric of human life.
How are rocks studied?

To read a rock, you need to know what clues to look for. Some of these clues are:
(a) The law of superposition – This states that if rocks were laid in layers and the layers
have not been turned, the youngest layer will be on top and the oldest layer will be at
the bottom.
(b) The law of cross-cutting relationships –This states that younger features cut across
older features. Faults are, therefore, younger than the rocks they cut, intrusions of
magma are similarly younger than they rocks they cut across.
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(c) Principle of uniformity - This states that the earth’s features formed long ago were
made by the same processes operating in the same way as they do today. Therefore, by
studying the present, you can infer the behaviour of these processes in the past.
(d) Unconformity – This describes a break in the rock record. It shows a lapse of time. For
example, if a rock is being eroded and after a period of time new layers of sediments
are deposited and consolidate into rock on top, an examination of the layers will show a
time lapse between the top of the eroded layers and the new layers.
3.5 Zambia’s rock systems

Zambia’s rock systems can broadly be divided into five groups, namely:
• The Basement Complex Oldest rock system
• The Katanga system
• The Karroo system
• The Kalahari system
• Alluvium deposits Youngest rock system
Within these systems are intrusions of igneous rocks (basalt, porphyry and granite).
3.6.1 The Basement Complex

This is the oldest rock system in Zambia. It is mostly exposed in the east and south-east of
the country.
It has limited mineralization with gold, silver, mica, iron, tin, asbestos and graphite.
It is extremely intruded by granites.
It may be divided into lower and upper parts, separated by a major unconformity
representing a period of about 1 billion years.
The lower part is called the Lufubu group, the upper part the Muva group.
(a) The Lufubu Group is structurally complex, having undergone folding, faulting and
repeated metamorphism. These processes have completely changed the original
character of the rocks.
The main rock types are gneiss, mica, hornblende, schist, and micaceous quartzite.
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The system occupies a large part of Eastern and Northern Provinces, and is also
exposed on the higher plateau areas of Southern Province and dome-shaped dolomites
in Solwezi.
(e) The Muva Group has undergone less metamorphism and structural change than the
Lufubu system.
The main rock types are quartzite, schist, and conglomerate.
It covers a fairly small area of scattered outcrops bordering the Lufubu system.
It is common in Eastern, Northern, Southern (near Zimba) and the Copperbelt
Provinces.
3.6.2 The Katanga System

This is made up of sediments which were deposited on top of the irregular surface of the
Basement Complex after it had undergone considerable erosion.
This rock system is found in Northern, Luapula, Copperbelt, North-western, and Central
Provinces.
On the Copperbelt, the system has been divided into the Roan, Mwashia and Kundelungu
groups.
(a) The Roan Group is the main group of copper mineralization.

Copper minerals like chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, malachite, and azurite occur in
local synclinal basins in shales, sandstones, dolomites and quartzites on the margins of
the Kafue anticline.
(f) The Mwasia Group is made up of carbonaceous shales, argillites and quartzites.
(g) The Kundelungu Group lies on top of the Mwashia group.
Its lower part is composed of a conglomerate of glacial origin, dolomites, limestones, and
carbonaceous shales.
The upper part is predominated by sandstones, quartzites and shales.
The lead and zinc deposits in Kabwe occur in dolomites and argillites.
The limestones are used in metallurgical processing, cement making, production of
agricultural lime and stones used for road construction.
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3.6.3 The Karroo System

This system of rocks is best represented in the rift valleys of the Luangwa, Lukusashi,
Lunsmfwa, Rufunsa and the mid-Zambezi Valley.
It includes the Gwembe coal formation, with the best coal seams occurring in the Maamba-
Nkandabwe area.
It consists mainly of mudstones, grit, and sandstones.
The upper part may be overlain by basalt. The basalt outcrops in the Livingstone area,
forming the rock surface and the precipice over which the Zambezi River tumbles to form
the Victoria Falls.
3.6.4 The Kalahari System

This rock system consists of poorly consolidated sandstones and unconsolidated wind-
blown sands.
It covers large areas of Western Province, and parts of North-western, Central and Southern
Provinces.
The sands, reaching up to a depth of 61 metres, were deposited during an arid period when
the Kalahari Desert had increased considerably in size.
3.5.5 The Alluvium Deposits

The alluvium is made up of river deposits (silt, mud and sand).
It occurs in the upper Zambezi and its tributaries (for example, Bulozi Floodplain), the
Lukanga swamps, the Kafue flats, the Bangweulu swamps and the upper Chambeshi River
(the Chambeshi or Bwela flats).
3.5.6 Underground aquifers

An aquifer is a rock layers which stores water underground. The best aquifers in Zambia
occur within the limestone and dolomite horizons of the Katanga system. Water yields in
these are highest in the top 30 metres or so of the sediment strata where fissures are best
developed. These aquifers provide a significant proportion of the water supply for the
municipalities of Lusaka, Kabwe, and Ndola in particular where boreholes yield up to 35 –
50 litres per second in karstic sections of the aquifers (Geological survey, 2001).
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3.6 Exercise
1. What is an unconformity? How does it help to determine the age of rocks?
2. Describe the main rock system of copper mineralization on the Copperbelt?
3. Why does the eastern part of Zambia have a loftier relief than the western part?
4. Of what economic value are the Kalahari sands of western Zambia and the Karroo
system of the middle Zambezi Valley?
UNIT 4
SOILS
4.1 Introduction
Soil types are influenced by five factors: climate, parent rock material, topography, time
and biotic factor. In Zambia, rainfall is the most important climatic factor. It affects the
degree of soil weathering and leaching. In the northern part of Zambia with annual rainfall
totals up to 1 250 millimetres weathering and leaching are more pronounced than in the
drier southern part. The underlying rock modifies the extent of leaching, influencing the
soil texture, colour, structure and other physical characteristics. In this Unit, we describe
Zambia’s different types of soil and how they affect such things as agriculture and
vegetation.
4.2 Objectives
(a) Describe the main type of soil found in Zambia.
(b) Explain the relationship between soil and agricultural activities in the country.
(c) Show how soils affect vegetation distribution in Zambia.
4.4 Types of soil found in Zambia

Different types of soil are found in Zambia. Naidoo and Bwalya (1995) have identified five
main groups, namely:
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4.4.1 Plateau soils

These soils are found on the high rainfall plateau areas of North-western, Copperbelt,
Luapula and Northern Provinces. They are shallow, acid and pale in colour. They are
underlain by quartz gravel and laterite. Although the soils have a high humus content on
the surface, this decreases rapidly downwards.
They soils are generally good for growing Virginia tobacco but are not fertile enough for
maize growing (unless a lot of fertiliser is applied). The area is well known for the
Chitemene system of agriculture, a type of shifting cultivation. The laterite can be used in
road construction as ballast.
The dominant vegetation cover is the Miombo woodland.
4.4.2 Upper valley soils

These soils are red to brown in colour. Made up of clays to heavy clay loams, the soils are
neutral to alkaline. They are some of the most fertile soils in Zambia, suitable for maize
growing. They are found to the north-east (Lusaka and Chisamba) and south (Mazabuka-
Monze area) of the Kafue Flats and around Katete and Petauke. These are the main maize
producing areas in the country.
The main vegetation cover is Munga woodland.
4.4.3 Lower valley soils

These soils range from alluvial clays to sands. They are found in the lower valleys of the
Luangwa, Lunsemfwa and Zambezi Rivers. They are used for the subsistence cultivation of
cassava, maize, and millet. Found in an area with a hot climate, these relatively poor soils
support the drought-resistant Mopane woodland with stand of Adansonia digitata (baobab).
4.4.4 Lake basin soils

In this category are sandy, pale yellow to brown soils, which are very acid and poor in
humus content. They are able to retain moisture for a long time. Found in the swampy areas
of the lower Chambeshi-Bangweulu Basin, Bulozi Floodplain, Kafue Flats, and Lukanga
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Swamps, the soils provide good grasslands for dry season grazing. In some areas, e.g. the
Bulozi Floodplains and the Bangweulu swamps, the waterlogged soils are used to grow rice
(for example, the popular Mongu rice). Because of inundation by water, the dominant
vegetation type on this soil is grass.
4.4.5 Kalahari sands

The Kalahari sands are found throughout the Western Province. They are very light brown
to orange infertile sands, fairly acid with low silt content. They are good for permanent
vegetation cover, for cattle grazing, and for timber production. The Zambian teak or
Mukusi grows on the Kalahari sands.
4.5 Exercise
UNIT 5
CLIMATE
5.1 Introduction
Zambia experiences a tropical continental type of climate. This means that the country
experiences a hot climate which is little affected by the sea, because of the country’s
interior location. The major influences on Zambia’s climate are relief (and altitude) and
latitude. Climate in turn influences what people do, especially those in rural areas who have
to depend on the rains to cultivate their crops. In this Unit, therefore, we concern ourselves
with the climate of Zambia. Temperature and rainfall are the most important elements in
distinguishing seasons in Zambia.
5.2 Objectives
(a) State the factors that affect temperature in Zambia.
(b) Describe the various sources of rainfall in the country.
(c) Describe the different types of rainfall in Zambia
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(d) Show how the movement of the overhead sun causes seasons in Zambia
(e) Explain rainfall variation in Zambia.

Is climate important? List at least five things that would not work properly if climate in
your area changed drastically.
5.4 Temperature
5.4.1 Factors affecting temperature in Zambia
In Zambia, temperature is influenced by the following factors:
• Tropical location – because of the tropical location (see Unit 1), temperatures in
Zambia are generally high, averaging 21oC.
• High altitude – Zambia’s location on the high African plateau has a moderating effect
on the country’s temperatures. Though the country is located in the tropics,
temperatures are not very high because location on the plateau has a lowering effect on
the temperatures. It is for this reason that Zambia has been nicknamed ‘the air-
conditioned state’.
• Relief – although the country experiences a tropical climate, variations in relief across
the country means that high elevation areas, such as the Mafinga, Mbala and Lusaka
highlands, are cooler than low-lying areas, such as the Luangwa and Zambezi valleys).
This is especially evident in the hot, dry season when the sun is overhead over Zambia.
The valleys become very hot with temperatures reaching 38oC while the high elevation
areas remain relatively cooler (below 18oC).
• Latitude – In the cool dry season when the sun is overhead in the northern hemisphere,
the temperatures are generally low. However, places (like Mbala) to the east and north-
east of Zambia, which are nearer to the overhead sun, have higher temperatures,
ranging from 10oC to 13oC (except in higher areas of Muchinga and the Malawi
border). On the other hand, places to the south and south-west of the country, which are
further from the overhead sun, become very cold with Sesheke recording temperatures
of -7oC.
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• Continental location – Zambia’ interior location gives it a continental climate. This

type of climate is not influenced by the sea. Lands which are not influenced by the sea
become very hot in the hot season, because there is no cooling effect of the sea. They
become very cold in the cold season because there is no warming effect of the sea. This
gives Zambia a big annual range of temperature of about 8oC (hot season 21oC, cold
season 13oC on average).
5.5 Rainfall
5.5.1 Sources of rainfall
There are three sources of rainfall in Zambia. You should be able to distinguish them from
the types of rainfall, which are discussed later below. The sources are:
• The advent of the ITCZ: This is the most important source of rainfall in Zambia.
During the warm wet season, the equatorial low pressure belt moves southwards following
the apparent movement of the overhead sun.
This attracts air streams to converge on this low pressure belt either in a distinct line or in a
broad zone.
The meeting place of air streams is called the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
The three main air streams affecting Zambia in the rainy season are the Congo Air, the
South-east Trades and the North-east Monsoon.
The Congo Air brings most of the moisture to Zambia. Therefore, most of the rainfall
occurs near the margins of the ITCZ, along the Congo Air Boundary.
• Invasion of high pressure cells from the Atlantic Ocean

Precipitation in Zambia also occurs when high pressure cells detach themselves from the
semi-permanent Atlantic Ocean anticyclones and move eastwards across the continent.
This is associated with cloudy weather with persistent rain or drizzle where the air is lifted
over mountains.
Common in the east and south, referred to as guti. The infrequent occurrences of
precipitation during the dry season are normally of this type.
• Incursion of tropical cyclones from the Indian Ocean
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Tropical cyclones originating in the southern Indian Ocean may reach Zambia. They are
usually slow moving accompanied by high speed winds.
They may produce heavy rainfall.
5.5.2 Types of rainfall in Zambia

(a) Convectional rainfall this type of rainfall is associated with the intense heat created
by the overhead sun, especially at the beginning of the rainy season. The air becomes hot
and rises in convectional currents. As the air rises, it is cooled, the water vapour in it
condenses, clouds are formed and it rains. This type of rain mainly occurs in the afternoon
and results in heavy torrential rain fall.
(b) Convergence rainfall results when two air masses of different moisture content or
temperature meet. In Zambia, air masses begin to meet when the ITCZ has arrived in the
country. When the air masses meet, one of them is forced rise and the vapour in it
condenses to produce rain.
(c) Relief rainfall also called frontal rainfall. This occurs when a moisture laden air
mass is forced over a mountain. As the air rises it is cooled and precipitation results. This
type of rainfall is common in high mountain areas, such as the Makutu and Mafinga
Mountains.
5.5.3 Factors affecting rainfall distribution in Zambia

(a) Latitude: In Zambia, mean annual rainfall generally decreases in amount from north
to south. The northern half receives about 1 015 to 1 520 millimetres of rainfall; the
southern half receives 625 to 1 015 millimetres.
This is because the ITCZ spends more time in the northern part than in the southern part.
Also, the rain-bearing winds, the Congo Air, reach the northern part of Zambia first,
leaving more moisture there than in the southern part.
The South-east Trades which influence the southern part are mostly dry winds.
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(b) Relief: Areas of above average altitude (the mountains and high level plateaus)
receive higher rainfall than lower altitude areas.
For example, the Muchinga Mountains receive 1 220 millimetres of rainfall while the
Luangwa Valley receives less than 815 millimetres.
This is because the high altitude areas receive additional precipitation from relief sources,
while low-lying areas are in rain shadow conditions.
(c) Proximity to large water bodies: Areas close to lakes and swamps receive more
rainfall than those areas which are further away.
For example, areas north-east of Lake Bangweulu and those around Lake Tanganyika
receive high precipitation of 1 520 millimetres and 1 270 millimetres, respectively.
5.5.4 Seasonal distribution of rainfall

The rains start in the north-west (followed shortly by the north-east), and progress south-
eastward, arriving about a month later in the south-east.
There is a single rainfall peak over most of the country.
The rainiest month is January.
The average length of the rainy season varies from more than 190 days in parts of Luapula
and Northern Provinces, to less than 120 days in the mid-Zambezi Valley.
The end of the rains comes first in the south-west and moves almost directly northward, the
last rains coming in early May in the Mbala area.
The amount and duration of the rainfall varies from year to year. This is called rainfall
variability. The greatest variability is in areas of lowest rainfall and least in areas of high
rainfall.
Variable rainfall is not reliable, that is, it cannot be depended upon. Farmers need reliable
rainfall in order to plan their farming activities; rainfall reliability is also necessary for HEP
generation, livestock farming, groundwater replenishment, etc.
5.6 Seasons
Zambia has three seasons, defined by temperature, humidity, sunshine, winds and rainfall.
The three seasons are:
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• The cool dry season (April to August)

• The hot dry season (August to November)
• The warm wet season (November to April)
5.6.1 The Cool, Dry Season

At this time:
• The sun is overhead far in the northern hemisphere.
• The country experiences its lowest temperatures.
• July and June vie (compete) as the coldest months; night temperatures falling to 7oC to
10oC in the west of the country.
• Sesheke district in the south-west of Western Province is the coldest, with temperatures
less than -7oC.
• Over the east and north-east, minimum temperatures are higher, ranging from 10oC to
13oC.
• The valleys (Luangwa and Zambezi) and the area between Lake Tanganyika and Lake
Mweru, which are low-lying, record the highest temperatures of 27oC to 31oC.
• In the Muchinga Mountains, mean maximum temperatures are lower, being 20oC
to22oC.
5.6.2 The Hot, Dry Season

This season begins at the end of August when temperatures begin to rise sharply.
October is the hottest month, and November when the rains are delayed.
The highest temperatures occur in the low-lying areas in the south, with the Luangwa
Valley recording temperatures of over 38oC in October and November.
The winds begin to strengthen and the North-east winds become more prominent.
By October, humidity begins to rise as the wet Congo Air begins to reach Zambia.
Thunderstorms begin to occur in the north-west.
5.6.3 The Warm, Wet Season
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This normally arrives throughout the country by the end of November. Temperatures drop
sharply due to greater cloud cover and the effect of the falling rain. The cloud cover also
reduces the loss of heat from the surface at night, so that January mean minimum
temperatures are slightly higher than those in October over most of the country.
The Congo Air mass becomes prevalent, although the south-east trades continue to
influence the south and east. Relative humidity increases to 95% in the morning and 65 –
70% in the afternoon in January, which is the rainiest month.
5.7. Exercise
UNIT 6
VEGETATION
6.1 Introduction
Zambia’s vegetation can generally be described as tropical savanna type. There are many
interrelated factors which determine the type of vegetation found in area. In Zambia, the
most important factors are the amount of rainfall and length of the dry season, the range of
temperatures, the slope of the land, soil type and the activity of man. The activity of man
has over the last 200 years brought about the most drastic changes, usually for the worst.
6.2 Objectives
(a) Mention the main types of vegetation found in Zambia.
(b) Describe the major types of vegetation found in Zambia.
(c) State the factors that influence the distribution of vegetation in Zambia.
(d) Explain the importance of vegetation.

Try to identify the type of vegetation found in your local area. What factors do you affect
the type of vegetation growing in your area?
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6.4 Types of vegetation found in Zambia

Zambia’s vegetation can broadly be subdivided into three categories:
• Forest
• Woodland
• Grassland
The destruction of forest will lead to the formation of woodland, and in turn, the
destruction of woodland will eventually result in open grassland.
6.4.1 Forest
The forest is characterised by three layers:
• An upper tree layer which is mostly closed.
• A middle layer of dense thicket understorey.
• A discontinuous grass cover.
The forests have been degraded by human influence – burning and cultivation as well as
settlement. Fire is the dominant single factor in maintaining a fairly open vegetation.
Types of forest
Livunda – This covers parts of north-western. It is a dry evergreen low forest characterised
by Chryptosepalum pseudotaxus (Livunda), with lianas forming a fairly dense understorey.
Southward, Livunda merges into Mushibe woodland. In Northern and Luapula Provinces,
the dry evergreen forest is called Mateshi. It has been degraded into the fire-hardy Chipya
woodland by drier climate, fire and cultivation.
Mutemwa forest is a dry deciduous forest growing on the areas of Kalahari sand in
southern Western Province and as relics in Kabompo, Zambezi, and Sesheke districts.
It is dominated by Baikiaea plurijuga (also called the Zambian teak, Zambezi Redwood,
Mukusi) and Pterocarpus antunesii (Mwangula, Mzundalima, Mukambo).
Itigi forest grows in the Mweru-Chishi-Tanganyika lowlands of Northern Province.
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It has a poorly developed upper storey and a dense thicket layer. It is characterised by
Bussa massaiensis, Baphia massaiensis (Munwena, Mwama, Isunde, Mvunganyati), and
Combretum ssp.
6.4.2 Woodland
This shows a dense tree cover with more or less closed canopy. The middle layer, however,
is open and there is only a sparse grass cover.
Types of woodland
(e) Mushibe woodland occurs widely on Kalahari sand in Western Province. Typical
species are Guibortia coleosperma (Muzauli, Mushibe), Burkea africana (Kapanga,
Musese, Kawizi, Museshe) and Erythrophleum africanum (Kayimbi, Mubako,
Kalunguti, Mungasa).
(f) Muombo woodland covers one half of Zambia, mainly on the plateau and escarpment
country. This is characterised by:
Brachystegia This genus has 16 woody species present in Zambia, for example,
Brachystegia manga (Musompa, Mtuwa), Brachystegia longifolia (Muombo, Mchenga,
Musamba, Mubombo).
Isoberlinia angolensis (Mutobo, Kapane).
Julbernadia, for example, Julbernadia globiflora (Mpasa, Mwanza) and Julbernadia

paniculata (Mutondo, Mwanda, Mtondo).
In the west, miombo species, especially Brachystegia spiciformis (Muputu, Manga,

Mpazhi, Mutuya, Mputi, Musewe), have invaded Mushibe woodland. Soils in miombo
woodland are generally poor, shallow and slightly acid, having rubble or laterite
underneath.
(g) Munga woodland occurs in Central Province, Mazabuka – Monze districts and Petauke
district. It is dominated by Acacia (Munga), Combretum and Terminalia species
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growing among tall grass. Munga woodland is usually found on flat ground and on rich
clayey soils.
(h) Mopane woodand covers much of the hot, dry southern valleys of the Zambezi and
Luangwa. It is dominated by Colophospermum mopane (Turpentine tree, Mupane,
Mwane, Sanye). Mopane may be mixed with Kirkia acuminate (Mulemba, Mtumbwi,
Musamba), Sterculia africana (Mukosa, Mgosa) and significant stands of Adansoni
digitata (baobab, Mubuyu, Muyu, Mbuyu, Mlambe).
(i) Chipya woodland is a fire-hardy type of vegetation which occurs particularly around
Lake Bangweulu and also around Lake Mweru, the Luapula Valley and north-east of
Mwinilunga. Trees grow mixed together – Pterocarpus angolensis (Mulombwa,
Mukwa, Mlombe, Mlombwa), Erythrophleum africanum (Kayimbi, Mukoso,
Mungansa), Painari curatellifolia (Mupundu, Mubula, Mpundu, Mula), with small
trees (Terminalia, Combretum, etc) standing in tall grass and herbs.
(j) Lusase woodland found in Western Province and Namwala district. It is an open grassy
woodland, dominated by Burkea africana (wild syringe, Kapanga, Mwandakasi,
ngalati), Dialium englenum and species of Baikiaea and Colophospermum
6.4.3 Grassland
Larger grasslands occupy seasonally flooded Kalahari sands (Loudetia grassland, Ulweo)
and greta swampy depressions, such as Lukanga, Bangweulu and Kafue (Hyparrhenia
grasslands, Ibamba). Smaller grasslands line dambos, streams and rivers.
Permanently flooded areas of Hyparrhenia grassland are occupied by swamps and papyrus
sudd.
Grasslands are also found on the plateau where forests and woodlands have been degraded
by burning and cultivation.
6.4.4 Other types of vegetation
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• Swamp forests (Mushitu) growing at stream heads, along the upper reaches of streams
and on river estuaries of lakes where the water table is at or near the surface throughout
the year. They are found in the high rainfall areas stretching from Mwinilunga to
Northern Province.
• Riparian or Gallery forests (Mushingu) growing in narrow strips along streams and
on wide ‘flats’ beside rivers and lakes.
• Termitalia growing on termite mounds or anthills.
6.5 Importance of vegetation

Forests play an important role in building the economy of a country. They provide both
economic and non-economic benefits, as presented below:
Economic benefits
The chief economic product of forests is timber. The main source of timber for building
and furniture-making are the natural forests. Wood pulp is the primary source of raw
material for paper industry.
Forests also provide raw material for a number of other industries like the manufacture of
sports goods and matches. Many kinds of pharmaceuticals, rayon and other useful materials
like gums, resin, turpentine oil, are made from raw materials that can be found in forests.
Forests are a source of woodfuel, including charcoal as well as the firewood.
Non-economic benefits
There are other benefits from forests, such as climate control, pollution abatement, and
wildlife maintenance.
The forest is vital for water retention in the soil. Because of the thick humus layer, loose
soil, and soil-retaining powers of the trees’ long roots, forests are vitally important for
preserving adequate water supplies. Almost all the water ultimately feeds into the
underground water, and eventually into the streams and rivers.
In addition, the forest provides shelter for wildlife, recreation and aesthetic renewal for
people, and irreplaceable supplies of oxygen and soil nutrients.
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They help to preserve agricultural land from the danger of erosion.
The trees also anchor the soil and prevent the winds from blowing the surface soil away.
Rivers and streams receive water that flows down from very steep mountain rocks; forests
on these slopes restrict the speed which would otherwise produce floods.
Forests keep the environment pleasant because they got moisture from earth through their
roots and spread it in the air through their leaves.
Decomposed leaves from humus which is the biggest source of soil fertility.
Forests cause rainfall through the process of transpiration.
Forests are the biggest source of oxygen which is essential for animals and plant life on the
globe. Increasing green house effect is a growing menace for all sorts of life on the globe.
Only forests can fight this danger in an effective manner.
Deforestation has become a major environmental concern. It can destabilize temperature,
humidity, and carbon dioxide levels.
6.6 Exercise
UNIT 7
NATURAL HAZARDS
7.1 Introduction
In recent years, Zambia has faced several incidences of natural disasters which have led to
the destruction of property and displacement of people and their animals. Natural disasters
disrupt human lives and may have an impact on the economy of the country. In this Unit,
therefore, we discuss some of the common natural hazards in the country.
7.2 Objectives
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By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

(a) Define a natural hazard.
(b) Distinguish between a hazard and a disaster.
(c) Explain the causes of natural hazards.
(d) Explain how a natural hazard can be dealt with.
(e) Discuss the common hazards in Zambia

What is a hazard? What hazards occur in your local area?
7.4 Definition of a Hazard

A natural disaster or calamity is the consequence of a natural hazard (for example, a
volcanic eruption, earthquake, landslide, flood, drought, etc), which moves from potential
into active phase and, as a result, affects human activities.
Disasters, by definition, are events which appear suddenly and with little warning. They are
usually short-lived, with extreme events bringing death, injury and destruction of property,
buildings and communication lines (Mulando, 2001).
A hazard is a situation which poses a threat to life, health, property or environment. Most
hazards are dormant or potential, with only a theoretical risk or harm. However, once a
hazard becomes ‘active’, it can create an emergency situation.
Vulnerability is the susceptibility to physical or emotional injury or attack brought about by
a hazard. It refers to a person’s state of being able to succumb to the destruction brought by
a hazard.
Human vulnerability leads to financial, structural and human losses. The resulting loss
depends on the capacity of the population to support or resist the disaster, that is, their
resilience, hence the saying disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability.
Hazards or disasters are not without human involvement.
7.5 Nature of a Hazard

7.5.1 Mode of a Hazard
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A hazard is usually used to describe a potentially harmful situation. Once the incident has
started, it is classified as an emergence or incident. There are a number of modes of
occurrence for a hazard, which include:
(a) Dormant – A dormant hazard is one which has the potential to be hazardous but no
people, property or environment is currently affected by it. For instance, a hillside
may be unstable, with the potential for a landslide, but there is nothing below or on
the hillside which could be affected. Or a river floods a valley where no-one lives.
(b) Potential (or armed) – This is a situation where the hazard is in the position to affect
people, property, or the environment. This type of hazard is likely to require further
risk assessment.
(c) Active The hazard is certain to cause harm, as no intervention is possible before the
incident occurs.
(d) Mitigated – A potential hazard has been identified, but actions have been taken in
order to ensure it does not become an incident. This may not be an absolute guarantee
of no risk, but it is likely to have been undertaken to significantly reduce the danger.
7.5.2 Classifying hazards

One way of classifying a hazard uses variations on the factors of likelihood of the hazard
turning into an incident and the seriousness of the incident if it were to occur.
Therefore, RISK = Likelihood of occurrence + Seriousness if incident occurred.
The score obtained can be used to identify which hazards may need to be mitigated. A low
score means the hazard is dormant; a high score means the hazard is active.
7.5.3 Causes of hazards
Causes of hazards can be broadly divided into:
Natural, including anything which is caused by a natural process, such as dangerous

weather conditions or earth movements. They can be small, for example, loose rocks on a
hillside, or big, such as volcanic eruption.
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Man-made, created by humans, mostly long-term, for instance global warming, or

immediate, for example, at a building site.
Activity-related, created by the undertaking of a certain activity. When the activity ceases,
the risk also stops, for example, flying.
7.5.4 Phases in dealing with a hazard

Emergency Management (or Disaster Management) is the discipline of dealing with or
avoiding risks.
It is a discipline that involves preparing, supporting and rebuilding society when natural or
man-made disasters occur.
The following phases are involved:
Mitigation, Mitigation activities are aimed at preventing a disaster from occurring. It is
mainly about knowing and avoiding unnecessary risks, for example, avoid building
property or building in a floodplain, or building houses on stilts/poles in flood prone areas,
construction of drainage channels, etc.
Preparedness, focuses on preparing equipment and procedures for use when a disaster
occurs. This is called planning. This can include construction of shelters, rehearsing
evacuation plans, creation of back-up life-line services (for example, power, water, sewage)
and installation of warning devices.
Response, this phase will include:
• Search and rescue
• Fulfilling the basic humanitarian needs. This can be done by national or international
agencies.
• Home confinement, when a family is prepared to fend for themselves in their home
without any form of outside support, for some days.
• Evacuation, a family or families leave the area, taking with them the maximum amount
of supplies they can carry.
Recovery, this phase starts after the immediate threat to human life has subsided. There is
reconstruction.
7.6 Common hazards in Zambia
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7.6.1 Floods
A flood occurs when a river overflows its banks, leading to the inundation of the river
valley. This usually happens following exceptionally high amounts of rainfall in a river’s
catchment area.
Hazards associated with flooding can be divided into primary, secondary and tertiary
effects:
• Primary effects: These result due to direct contact with flood waters such as erosion,
which undermines bridges, buildings, sweeping away automobiles, people, livestock,
etc.
• Secondary effects: These occur following the destruction left by the primary effects, for
instance, disruption of services following the collapse of buildings or washing away of
roads, pollution of water by garbage swept by flood waters, disruption of electricity
supply, etc.
• Tertiary effects: These are long-term effects, such as change of river channel,
destruction of a farm by sediments deposited on it, destruction of wildlife habitats,
displacement of people, loss of jobs, rise in insurance rates, increased corruption
resulting from issuance of relief food, misuse of relief funds, famine and disease.
Flooding is one of the most costly disasters in terms of both property damage and human
casualties.
In China, for example, major floods killed 2 million people in 1887, nearly 4 million in
1931, and about 1 million in 1938.
In the USA, the 1993 flood on the upper Mississippi River killed 47 people. However, the
total economic loss was estimated at between 15 and 20 billion dollars.
In Zambia, floods rank among the most devastating natural disasters. For example, floods
destroyed property and endangered many people’s lives during the 2001/2001 rainy season.
This led to the inundation of some parts of Lusaka, such as Kanyama and Misisi, the
Mulungushi River Valley (including the road bridge on the Great North Road), the
Zambezi Valley (especially around Kazungula area), the upper Chambeshi floodplain, and
the lower Luangwa Valley.
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The floods led to the destruction of crops (hence low crop yields) and houses built on the
floodplains.
Mitigating floods
In order to reduce the risk due to floods, there is need to take measures to:
• Predict the probability (likelihood of occurrence) and frequency of high discharges
of streams that cause flooding.
• Map the extent of the possible flooding when it occurs in future.
• Monitor abnormal rainfall amounts in order to provide short-term flood prediction
The Zambian Government has in this respect requested the World Meteorological
Organisation (WMO) to assist to develop a Flood Management Strategy for Zambia. This
pilot project was launched in October 2005 to draw up an Integrated Flood Management
Strategy for the Kafue Basin. The developed strategy could then be used as a model for
developing a Flood Management Strategy for the whole country.
7.6.2 Droughts
Drought is a period or condition of unusually dry weather within a geographical area,
where rainfall is normally present.
A short drought is known as a dry spell.
Droughts usually result in a shortage that seriously interferes with human activity:
• Water supply reservoirs become empty.
• Wells dry up.
• Crop damage ensues.
• Pastures for livestock dry up.
• Generation of HEP becomes difficult.
Types of drought
Droughts mean different things to different people:
(a) Meteorological drought This indicates the amount of dryness and the duration of the
dry period.
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(b) Agricultural drought mainly affects food production and farming. It brings soil water
deficits, reduced ground water or reservoir levels. Deficient topsoil moisture at
planting may stop germination, leading to low plant population.
(c) Hydrological drought is associated with the effects of drought on water supply for
irrigation, recreation, HEP production, and so on, in reservoirs and rivers.
(d) Socio-economic drought occurs when the demand for an economic good exceeds
supply due to weather-related shortfall in water supply. Goods, such as water,
pastures, food grains, fish and HEP, depend on weather.
Causes of drought
There are several causes of drought:
• Human activities which lead to deterioration of vegetation cover.Deforestation alters
the hydrologic cycle, hence affecting the amount of water in the soil, underground and
in the atmosphere. Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscapes capacity to intercept,
retain and transport precipitation.
• Most precipitation depends on water vapour carried by winds from oceans or other
sources of moisture. If these moisture-carrying winds are replaced by winds from a dry
region, or if they are modified by downward motion (for example, an anticyclone), the
weather is abnormally dry and often persistently cloudless.
• The explanation related to global warming. From 1887 to 1995, southern Africa has
become warmer by 1oC. This phenomenon is believed to be responsible for increased of
droughts in the region. The warming (called EL NINO Southern Oscillation or ENSO)
is a period of warming of tropical oceans which causes a shift in atmospheric
circulation. During the ENSO phase, equatorial waters across the Pacific Ocean get
warmer. Normal airflow moves westwards from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean, but
during EL NINO, this movement is weakened or altered. This results in higher rainfall
in some parts of Latin America, but low rainfall and even drought in southern Africa.
Effects of drought
• Drought produces many effects. These can be divided into economic, social and
environmental.
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• Direct impacts of drought are reduced crop yield, reduced forest productivity,
reduced water level, increased fire hazard, increased livestock and wildlife deaths,
and damage to wildlife and fish habitats.
• A reduction in crop productivity in turn results in less income for farmers, increased
food prices, unemployment, migration and loss of tax revenue by government.
• Drought is also associated with increases in insect infestations, plant diseases, and
wind erosion
• Recreational and tourism industries are seriously affected because tourists are
reluctant to travel to a country that is suffering from a severe drought.
• Social impacts include health, public safety, conflicts between water users, and
reduced quality of life. People may leave the area, leading to loss of population in
the area, which might affect economic development.
Drought occurrence in Zambia

Drought represents one of the most important triggers for malnutrition and famine, a
significant and widespread problem in many parts of Africa. At least a ¼ of the world’s
population lives in such areas where drought hinders the nation’s stability and
development.
In Zambia, prolonged dry spells have been experienced in parts of Western and Southern
provinces. These are areas of high rainfall variability and unreliability. These droughts
have had a negative impact on crop performance in these areas. For example, in the
2001/2002 agricultural season, there was a decline in the contribution of Southern Province
to the national maize production due to drought.
Solutions to drought
Drought situations in southern Africa are sometimes caused by the cyclic El Niño effect.
Although drought cannot be predicted reliably, certain precautions can be taken in drought-
risk areas.
These include construction of reservoirs to hold emergence water supplies, education to
avoid over-cropping, overgrazing, and deforestation, and embarking on programmes to
limit settlement in drought-prone areas.
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The SADC monitors the crop and food situation in southern Africa during periods of crisis.
In Zambia, the Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit (DMMU), under the Office of
the Vice President, has the responsibility to coordinate all sectors that deal with food
security and mitigation of disasters.
7.7 Exercise
UNIT 8
ZAMBIA’S FOOD SECURITY
8.1 Introduction
The inability to provide food to meet even the barest nutritional requirements of large
section of national populations with its consequence of wide spread malnutrition, hunger,
disease and death consist one of the most important human dimensions African economic
crisis. Apart from those counties vulnerable to periodic drought such as Ethiopia, food
insecurity is also common in counties with civil wars (Angola, Congo, D.R.); counties with
poor infrastructure (Uganda, Congo);those with large poor urban populations (Zambia,
Sudan). Even in countries with strong agricultural base and national income levels, food
insecurity can affect significant segments of the population if overall income distribution is
skewed, for example, Kenya. In Zambia, judging by the trends in food sufficiency and
self-reliance rations, our county has still a long way to go in ensuring long term food
security for her population.
8.2 Objectives
By the end of this Unit, you should be able:
(a) Explain the food insecurity situation in Zambia.
(b) State the sources of food insecurity in the country.
(c) Explain how families are coping with the food deficit situation.
(d) Describe the strategies that can be taken to deal with food insecurity.
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40

Is there a problem of food insecurity in your local area? How are households coping with
the problem, if it is there?
8.4 Food insecurity in Zambia

From time to time, Zambia has recorded food deficit. For example, during the 2001/2002
production season, the country recorded a maize deficit of 634 274 metric tonnes.
However, surpluses of 251 636 metric tonnes for cassava and 26 998 metric tonnes for
sweet potatoes (and other tubers) resulted in a total food deficit of only 432 588 metric
tonnes.
This shows that Zambia’s food security situation is serious, although the country produces
surpluses during good crop years.
According to the Forum for Food Security in Southern Africa, Zambia is no longer able to
feed itself. This is has resulted in:
• Chronic malnutrition (stunting) affecting 45 – 47% of rural households.

• Malnutrition (wasting) affecting about 6% of rural households.
In addition, only 59% of the population has access to safe water. This has serious negative
implications on the health and nutrition status of the people. The children affected by
chronic malnutrition will remain physically and mentally impaired for life, even if they
survive. This will, in turn, have serious implications on Zambia’s development prospects.
8.5 Sources of food insecurity

The main sources of Zambia’s food insecurity at household level are:
(a) Inability to produce enough food due to lack of agricultural support services. Also, the
majority of farmers in Zambia are subsistence farmers who do not produce enough food
beyond home consumption.
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(b) Technical exigencies (constraints) such as unfavourable climate, diseases, and insect
attacks.
(c) Inadequate incomes and inability to purchase food (83% of rural population are poor
with an annual per capita income of 250 US dollar).
(d) Inadequate market and transport systems to take food from surplus to deficit areas
within the country.
(e) The impact of HIV/AIDS on the productive capacity of households.
With the present technology, Zambia is capable of growing enough food. However, the low
income households find it difficult to access the food. In rural areas, people cannot grow
and store enough food to feed their families all year round. The most critical period is the 2
– 3 months prior to the harvest when most rural households run out of food.
In 1998, around 2/3 of households reported that they had changed their diets or reduced on
food intake because of their economic problems. This shows that most households are
failing to survive in a decent way.
Farmers in remote areas find it particularly difficult to access credit and inputs. Poor
infrastructure means that their access to markets is very limited. Agricultural extension
services have not assisted farmers to expand, diversify or respond to the challenges of the
new agricultural sector.
Zambian farmers have also suffered from cheap imports from neighbouring countries. Our
towns are filled up with ‘dumped’ produce sent here because of our liberal foreign
exchange regulations. Regional agreements stop us from charging tax on these imports
which end up cheaper than local produce.
The country has also refused to import food containing Genetically Modified Organisms
(GMOs). Zambia’s position on GMOs was made clear in 2002, when the then president
Levy Mwanawasa, rejected food aid from the United States of America during the
2001/2002 drought.
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Theoretical perspective
Some theoretical perspectives on the causes of food crisis are as follows:
The Neo-Malthusiam overpopulation theory
Malthus and his followers contend that food crisis is as a result of rapid population growth.
Unless steps are taken to control the growing population, rapid population growth outstrip
the means of producing food. They point to recent famines in the Sahel region and
elsewhere as indicator of the over population crisis. However, this view was proved
incorrect in England following the agricultural and industrial revolution which expanded
trade abroad and increased British wealth which provided food for majority of the
population. The critics of the Malthus theory argues that population growth, in fact , can
lead to great to great productivity if resources are adequately developed and distributed.
The environmental determinism theory
According to this theory, natural factors in Africa such as soils, rainfalls, pest and diseases,
cycles of prolonged drought etc, are not favourable. For instance, most tropical soils are
infertile, leached and fragile. Furthermore, excessive rainfall contributes to the loss of top
soil which contains humus required for plant growth. Other scholars argue, however, that
traditional agronomic systems which involve mixed farming, crop rotation, green
manuring, application of manure from cattle, goats, sheep and household refuse are
resilient, and are quite adapted to the varied micro-ecological environment in certain parts
of the continent. Usually these traditional systems are based on the cultivation of a wide
variety of crops which are adapted to the environment.
The technological determinism theory
The present under development of the African continent which involves the apparent
inability of the people to feed themselves is a result of centuries of exploitation and
domination. The African contifdnent has been and continues to be a major supplier of raw
material such as minerals like copper, gold, diamonds, uranium, oil and agricultural
commodities for the industrialisation of Western Europe. In return the African continent
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received and still receives low prices for the raw materials, and she has to use income
earned to buy machinery and manufactured goods-usually at ever increasing prices.
The state policy theory
This theory contends that the post colonial state in Africa has introduced rural agriculture
development policies which are detrimental to the growth of agricultural sector. The post-
colonial favour urban consumers at the expense of the peasantry who are paid low producer
prices for their food crops. Furthermore, export oriented production of cash crops has
occurred at the expense of food production for domestic consumption. State policy has also
favoured large-scale peasant sector. Lack of political will to invest in rural agricultural
development programme is responsible for the continuing poverty.
Although the various theories do apply to the Zambian situation in one way or the other,
the more plausible explanation for the food crisis remains the state policy theory. In 1964
Zambia attained her independence with greater expectations of reaching ‘promised land’ of
prosperity and happiness. However, the development strategy followed by Zambia after
independence was based against agriculture and rural development and failed to generate
significant employment and income growth. At independence, Zambia inherited a mono-
economy from the British colonialist, which was heavily dependent on copper mining for
export. Although other sectors of the economy were being developed, principally
agriculture and manufacturing, copper mining has continued to be the main stay of
Zambian economy, hence there has been more attention and investment in this sector
compared to other sectors of the economy. The biasness against agriculture meant that
Zambia’s potential for small scale holder agriculture was neglected, and the sector was
never able to play a major role in poverty reduction and minimization of agricultural land
degradation. Furthermore, there is more emphasis on the production of cash crops for
export than food crops grown, marketed and consumed, and such state of affairs contributes
to lack of food security as the country one major cereal, maize (hybrid) susceptible to
drought.
8.6 Coping strategies
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In order to cope with food shortages, many households:

• Reduce the number of meals eaten.
• Substitute maize with cheaper and less nutritious foods.
• Pull their children out of school.
• Sell off some belongings. This further pushes the family down the path of abject
poverty.
The Zambia National Farmers’ Union (ZNFU) warned that the country would remain with
food deficit for as long factors which inhibited the development of agriculture, including an
unstable business climate and inefficient and ineffective marketing system, continued.
8.7 Achieving food security in Zambia

Food security in the country may be achieved through:
(a) Putting in place a sustainable system of maize marketing, particularly for small-scale
farmers. An assured market with reasonable prices is one way to achieve national food
security.
(b) A stable macro-economic environment is essential if agricultural performance is to
improve. If we correct our macro-economic environment, we may restore investor
confidence and attract back those who left the country.
(c) Disaster preparedness, for example, preparing for drought.
(d) Building food stocks in the country. In case of a deficit, the Government should buy
more maize from all possible sources and put it in reserves instead of waiting for a
crisis to strike.
(e) Continuous monitoring of the locust situation in parts of western Zambia prone to
attack by these insects.
(f) Farmers in drought-prone areas should consider planting sorghum at the start of the
rainy season instead of concentrating on maize crop first.
(g) In low lying areas which are susceptible to flooding, rice could be grown.
(h) Vaccination of livestock to enhance quality and productivity.
How to overcome food crisis in Zambia
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The need for political will
Our political must have the will to develop agriculture and makes resources available for
domestic consumption, if the hungry are to be fed. These people influence the access to
knowledge and the availability of credit to farmers, profitability of growing enough to sell
as surplus and the efficiency of marketing and distributing food on a broad scale.
The need of rehabilitate and modernize surviving indigenous system
There is need to rehabilitate and modernize surviving indigenous cultivation/agrarian

systems since the environmental factor or ecologies of agricultural systems upon which
they were founded and evolved, are still viable. These system should be improved by
making technology, adequate capital, improved seeds which are adapted to local
environmental conditions, inputs, drainage, storage and other Infrastructure such as rural
grain processing mills, improved transport, marketing and producer prices.
Diversification
The rehabilitation and modernization process should involve the diversification of a stable
food crops which are to be commercially produced in order to bring about food security at
household levels. These staple food crops should include all cereal, root crops, legumes,
vegetables and fruits.
Involvement of women
There is no need to promote an affective and equal participation of women in agriculture

since they constitute the majority of food production in Zambia. Women farmers should
have equal access to factors of production such as fertile arable land, family labour, credit,
inputs, transport and storage; and should also enjoy the benefits of extension services and
relevant crop research. There is need for increasing the productivity of women and lessen
the double burden of women. The role of women as mothers can not be changed as it is
biological phenomenon. It should however be made less dangerous as far as the health of
mothers and child is concerned. There should be legal rights guaranteeing women equal
economical and access to services (Mweemba,1994).
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Conclusion
The production of food is of great importance in our country and any effect direct
at monitoring or enhancing its development should be greatly appreciated by the
government. We have to get rid of malnutrition and starvation and can only be
done by increasing agricultural production. However, environmental degradation
reduces the productivity of natural resources managed by farmers, especially poor
farmers thereby, perpetuating impoverishment. The vulnerable of Zambia to land
degradation is due to factors such as soil characteristics intense soil drying in the dry
season, severely erosive in drier areas, and low-resource farming with inadequate soil
conservation measures.
8.8 Exercise
UNIT 9
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
9.1 Introduction
Zambia faces numerous environmental problems. The impact of both population growth
and economic development can be seen on effect on the environment. Environmental
deterioration has become a major concern in the country. In this Unit, we look at the main
environmental concerns in the country.
9.2 Objectives
(a) Name the major environmental issues and risks in Zambia.
(b) Explain the impact of various human activities on the environment.
(c) Suggest solutions to the problems posed by the environmental problems.

What human activities are taking place in your area? What impact do they have on the
environment? What are you (the local people) doing about the problem?
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47
9.4 Major Environmental issues and risks in Zambia

The National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) has identified five most critical
Box: ZAMBIA: Mining companies accused of environmental negligence
LUSAKA, 8 January 2008 (IRIN) - Zambia's mines are coming under increasing and sustained criticism for
repeatedly polluting drinking water sources in the Copperbelt mining region, the country's economic heartland.
Last week the country's second largest copper producer, Mopani Copper Mine, which has mining operations in
Mufulira town, near the border of the Democratic Republic of Congo, accidentally discharged polluted water, after
a pump malfunction failed to purify it, into the reticulated water system of a private water utility company. Nearly
1,000 residents visited local clinics, complaining of abdominal pains, severe diarrhoea and vomiting. No fatalities
were recorded, but the widespread poisoning prompted residents to take to the streets in protest and police were
called in to calm the demonstrators.
In 2007, Zambia's biggest mining company, Konkola Copper Mine [KCM], owned by London-listed Vedanta
Resources, caused widespread water pollution when its acidic effluent entered the Kafue River, the main source of
water of about 2 million people in the area. Hundreds of people fell sick after eating fish poisoned by the polluted
water and more than 50 local farmers have taken legal action demanding compensation from the mining company
because their crops withered and died after being irrigated with water from the river.
IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian affairs
environmental problems in Zambia, namely water pollution and inadequate sanitation, soil
degradation, air pollution, wildlife depletion and deforestation. In this section, we discuss
these and other problems.
9.4.1 Water pollution

The problem of water pollution is greatest in Lusaka and the Copperbelt where industries
and the mines discharge effluent into water bodies. For example, heavy metals such as
arsenic, lead and other industrial chemicals are emptied into the River Kafue, the lifeline of
both the Copperbelt and Lusaka, making it one of the most contaminated rivers in Zambia.
The result is that the water from the river has to be treated at a cost before it can be used for
both domestic and industrial purposes. Eutrophication of the river has resulted in the
flourish of the Kafue weed, a menace to river transport, fishing and the flow of the river.
Water pollution also emanates from discharge of agro-chemicals and spillage of oils into
the environment.
9.4.2 Inadequate sanitation
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Box: Kabwe (Zambia): Africa's most toxic city
KABWE, 9 November 2006 (IRIN) - Kabwe, home to
300,000 GEOG
people,311: GEOGRAPHY
is Africa's most OF ZAMBIA
polluted city and has
gained the dubious distinction of being ranked as the
world's fourth most polluted site, according to a survey
Solid waste management poses a great
published by the Blacksmith Institute, a New York-based
challenge to local authorities in the major cities organisation monitoring pollution in the developing world.
of the country. High mountains of decayed and The smelting process [of lead and zinc when the mine
was operational] was unregulated ... and the smelters
maggot infested garbage have become a
released heavy metals in dust particles, which settled on
common feature of the cities. They have the ground in the surrounding area. The mine and
become breeding grounds for pests, such as rats, smelter are no longer operating, but have left a city
poisoned from debilitating concentrations of lead in the
cockroaches, and flies (Ben Phiri,
soil and water from slag heaps that were left as
www.times.co.zm/). In Lusaka, the Lusaka City reminders of the smelting and mining era. Lead is one of
Council (LCC) spends about K10 million every the most potent neurotoxins and is particularly harmful to
children and infants. It leads to attention deficit disorders
week on garbage collection. But even then, 90%
and hearing impairment, and affects a child's mental
of the waste generated daily is left uncollected. development; in pregnant women it can cross the
Lack of funds, absence of technical know-how placenta and put an unborn baby at risk. In Kabwe, the
main cause of lead poisoning is believed to be inhalation
and logistical resources to deal effectively with
or ingestion of airborne particles, dust from gardens and
the matter limit the council in its endeavour to general play areas, food grown in contaminated soils, and
rid the city of garbage. In shanty compounds, dust created as people search the mine dumps for scrap
the problem is compounded by congestion and the unplanned nature of the settlements
which make it difficult for commercialised utilities (cus) to apply conventional methods of
garbage collection and disposal.
Poor methods of disposal of human excreta are also a serious problem. In Lusaka, for
example, only 25% of the city’s residents use the sewer system. The rest of the residents
use septic tanks, pit latrines and open defecation. Faecal matter disposed in this manner is
likely to contaminate both surface and groundwater sources.
9.4.3 Soil degradation and contamination

Soil degradation emanates from use of unsound agricultural practices, such as
monocropping and shifting cultivation. In areas of commercial farming, such as Mkushi
Farm Block, Chisamba area and Southern Province, where one crop is grown year after
year, the soils become impoverished through nutrient depletion and use of chemical
fertilisers. The major challenge to farmers in these areas is to sustain good soils. The
chitemene system of agriculture, a form of shifting cultivation practiced in northern
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Zambia, is thought to contribute grossly to soil impoverishment and erosion by removing

tree cover, exposing the soil to heavy rains. Overgrazing by domesticated animals, coupled
with prolonged droughts has led to conditions of soil degradation in the drier areas of
Southern Province, such as Lusitu area. Soil contamination on the other hand results from
the excessive use of fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides (agro-chemicals).
Poor disposal of solid waste and sewage, and discharge of heavy metals from mines into
the surrounding areas are other sources of soil contamination.
9.4.4 Air pollution

In Zambia, the problem of air pollution is largely concentrated in the cities which have the
largest number of industries and vehicular traffic. However, it is greatest on the Copperbelt
where a variety of air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide are pumped into the atmosphere
from smelters, concentrators and acid plants. At Nkana, Mufulira, and Chambishi,
emissions of sulphur dioxide range between 300,000 and 700,000 tons per year from
smelters. These emissions are exceedingly high because, according to Feeney (2001),
human fatalities can result from exposure to atmospheric sulphur dioxide in excess of 1,000
µg/m3. Feeney explains that Zambia cannot afford systematic health surveys because of
the ailing economy. In addition, the new mine owners are reluctant to shoulder the burden
of cleaning up the environment. To exacerbate the problem, government has granted the
privatised mine owners a generous 30-year stabilisation period during which breaches of
Zambia’s existing environmental standards will be tolerated.
Other sources of air pollution include industrial activity, power generation, automobiles,
agriculture, domestic and open burning of wastes and vegetative matter. Dust coming from
reclamation of slag dumps and quarrying also contributes to air pollution.
9.4.5 Wildlife depletion

Depletion of wildlife in Zambia is a serious problem. It is caused by illegal hunting, over
exploitation and destruction of habitats .Various species of birds and animals are either
becoming few in numbers or are disappearing altogether. Populations of the black lechwe,
antelope, elephant, and rhinocerous, for example, have continued to decline over the years.
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Poaching, the illegal hunting of animals, is a big problem both in the game management
areas (GMAs) and game reserves (GRs). Two-thirds of the GMAs are depleted of animals
while 26.4% and 15.8% of the GRs are encroached and depleted, respectively.
9.4.6 Over fishing

This has been one of Zambia’s major concerns. According to the Community Market for
Conservation (COMACO), it has been very difficult to put a halt to over fishing in
Zambia’s lakes and rivers, because fishing is a source of income for many households,
especially those living near and around rivers and lakes. Fish is also a major source of
protein in the diet of Zambians. The use of unauthorised fishing methods such as fish
poisoning, destructive fishing gear and dynamite have also contributed to the depletion of
fish species in rivers and lakes.
9.4.7 Deforestation
Clearing of vegetation for the purpose of settlement, agriculture, woodfuel and timber is
key to the dwindling woodlands and forests in Zambia. Deforestation is greatest in the peri-
urban areas of major cities like Lusaka where there is high demand for charcoal and land
for settlement. According to the Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources,
the country is losing 300,000 hectares of forest each year. Species such as Mukwa
(Pterocarpus angolensis) and Mubanga (Pericopsis angolensis) which are sought for their
high value hardwood are facing extinction. By 2000, the government had to degazette
31,000 hectares of forest reserves to allow for use by various human activities, thereby
opening more land to deforestation.
9.4.8 Land dereliction

Mining and quarrying activities are the chief causes of land dereliction in Zambia. Waste
dumps and tailing dams created by these activities litter the landscape, making it look
desolate. The damps are unstable and prone to erosion, while the dams are polluted with
potentially toxic waste and provide a breeding ground for mosquitoes (Feeney, 2001).
Quarrying for sand and stones (building aggregates) is also becoming a big problem,
especially with the escalation in the construction industry. It leaves gapping holes in the
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51
ground, which get filled up with in the rainy season and become breeding spots for
mosquitoes and death traps for children.
9.4.9 Noise pollution

This is an increasing concern in Zambia’s major towns. The major sources of noise are
automobiles, heavy aircraft, trains and people. Blaring music, brawls and commotions are
not uncommon high density residential areas. Noise pollution can lead to various forms of
stress and tension.
9.4.10 Visual pollution

This is more pronounced in the cities where people adorn in flashy, intense, brilliant, and
jarring colours for fashion. In addition, the city landscapes are cluttered by advertising
billboards, business signs, street signs, overhead power lines, telephone towers or
uncompleted or vandalised buildings, telephone and utility poles, graffiti, overgrown grass,
litter and heaps of rotting garbage.
9.4.11 Bush fires

These occur in the hot season. They are renowned for causing extensive damage to
vegetation, especially if they come when the grass and litter are very dry.
9.5 Conclusion
9.6 Exercise
UNIT 10
SOCIO-ECONOMIC HISTORY
10.1 Introduction
• Zambia is one of Sub-Saharan Africa's most highly urbanized countries. About one-half
of the country's 11.5 million people are concentrated in a few urban zones strung along
the major transportation corridors, while rural areas are under-populated.
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52
• Unemployment and underemployment are serious problems. Per capita annual incomes
are currently at about two-thirds of their levels at independence, and at $1400, place the
country among the world's poorest nations.
• Social indicators continue to decline, particularly in measurements of life expectancy at
birth (about 50 years) and maternal and infant mortality (85 per 1,000 live births). The
high population growth rate of 2.3% per annum makes it difficult for per capita income
to increase. The country's rate of economic growth cannot support rapid population
growth or the strain which HIV/AIDS-related issues (that is., rising medical costs, street
children, and decline in worker productivity) places on government resources.
10.2 Objectives
(a) Give an explanatory account of Zambia’s economic history.
(b) Explain what led to economic decline in Zambia in the 1970.
(c) Analyse the effects of Zambia’s endeavours to improve the economy since 1991.
(d) Evaluate the current economic initiatives undertaken by the MMD government.

What is diversification of the economy? What are the disadvantages of a mono-economy?
10.4 Economic History of Zambia
The economy of Zambia is of considerable interest to economists. It has gone through

many changes. These can be categorised into six stages:
1. Pre-Colonisation
2. Colonisation
3. Post Independence Boom
4. Economic Decline in the 1970s and 1980s
5. Economic Reform of the 1990s
6. Structural Adjustment in the 2000s
10.4.1 Pre-Colonisation
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Economic activity has taken place in the Zambian area for thousands of years. Sometimes it
is easy to think that it is only since colonisation that an economy has existed. Many
hundreds of years prior to colonisation indigenous people lived and produced. Economic
decision making was confined to the local communities, but nevertheless traditional
economic systems flourished. However, their peace was disturbed as the African continent
was opened up and its rich resources exploited. The richness and abundance of natural
resources, both agricultural and mineral, attracted groups of people from all over the
southern African sub-continent. In all, over seventy different ethnic tribes settled in the
area. Between 1500 and 1800 many of the peoples of Zambia were organised into
chieftaincies and monarchies that developed a network of trading in copper, ivory, rhino
horn and slaves. These resources also attracted interest from further afield.
10.4.2 Colonisation
The 'Scramble for Africa' saw traders in minerals, ivory and slaves and missionaries from
Europe opening up the interior of southern Africa. Later, the commercial possibilities of the
area known as Northern Rhodesia, and particularly of its copper, were recognised by the
British government. The industrial revolution in Europe meant the demand for copper was
growing rapidly.
Copper mining was largely in the hands of two firms, the South African Anglo-American
Corporation and the Roan Selection Trust. The mineral rights were owned by the British
South African Mining Company and its founder, Cecil Rhodes. The local population
provided labour for the copper mines. Many of these workers were forced from their farms
and villages by European settlers. The colonial government introduced the infamous hut tax
where the local population were charged such a high rate of tax on their homes that
working in the copper mines was a financial necessity to pay the taxes.
10.4.3 Post Independence Boom
At independence in 1964, Zambia's economy was completely under the control of foreign
investors. For example, the British South Africa Company (BSAC, originally setup by the
British imperialist Cecil Rhodes) retained commercial assets and mineral rights that it
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54
acquired from a concession signed with the Litunga of Bulozi in 1892 (the Lochner
Concession). Only by threatening to expropriate the BSAC, on the eve of independence,
did the incoming Zambian government manage to get the BSAC to relinquish the mineral
rights.
During the period of the Central African Federation (1953-1963), Northern Rhodesia's
copper revenues were siphoned off by White Southern Rhodesians, since they were the
dominant group in the Federation. The Federation's government assigned roles to each of
the three territories: Southern Rhodesia was assigned the responsibility of providing
managerial and administrative skills; Northern Rhodesia provided copper revenues; and
Nyasaland provided the Black labour.
After independence, Zambia followed in the steps of the Soviet Union by instituting a
programme of national development plans, under the direction of a National Commission
for Development Planning: the Transitional Development Plan (1964-66) was followed by
the First National Development Plan (1966 –71). These two plans, which provided for
major investment in infrastructure and manufacturing, were largely implemented and were
generally successful. This was not true for subsequent plans.
10.4.4 The Mulungushi Economic Reforms (1968)
A major switch in the structure of Zambia's economy came with the Mulungushi Reforms
of April 1968: the government declared its intention to acquire equity holdings (usually
51% or more) in a number of key foreign-owned firms, to be controlled by a parastatal
conglomerate named the Industrial Development Corporation (INDECO).
By January 1970, Zambia had acquired majority holding in the Zambian operations of the
two major foreign mining corporations, the Anglo-American Corporation and the Rhodesia
Selection Trust (RST); the two became the Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines (NCCM)
and Roan Consolidated Mines (RCM), respectively.
The Zambian government then created a new parastatal body, the Mining Development
Corporation (MINDECO). The Finance and Development Corporation (FINDECO)
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55
allowed the Zambian government to gain control of insurance companies and building
societies. However, foreign-owned banks (such as Barclays, Standard Chartered and
Grindlays) successfully resisted takeover.
In 1971, INDECO, MINDECO, and FINDECO were brought together under an omnibus
parastatal, the Zambia Industrial and Mining Corporation (ZIMCO), to create one of the
largest companies in sub-Saharan Africa, with the country's president, Kenneth Kaunda as
Chairman of the Board. The management contracts under which day-to-day operations of
the mines had been carried out by Anglo American and RST were ended in 1973. In 1982
NCCM and RCM were merged into the giant Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Ltd
(ZCCM).
A considerable degree of central planning involving the setting up of a large civil service
followed as the government aimed to ensure self sufficiency coupled with industrial
diversification. This period was relatively prosperous as the earnings from mineral
exploitation grew as copper prices increased. In the ten years following Independence the
level of real GDP grew at 2.3% per annum.
10.4.5 Economic Decline (1975-1990)
Unfortunately for Kaunda and Zambia, the programmes of nationalization were ill-timed
and the relative prosperity of the 1960s did not last. Events that were beyond government
control soon wrecked the country's well-laid plans for economic and national development.
A number of external factors outside Zambia's control hit the economy.
In 1973, a massive increase in the price of oil was followed by a slump in copper prices in
1975, resulting in a diminution of export earnings. In 1973 the price of copper accounted
for 95% of all export earnings; this halved in value on the world market in 1975. This fall
in world price of copper and a decline in the quality of its ore exposed the country's over-
dependence on copper. In addition, the escalating world price of oil and energy fuelled
global inflation pushing up the price of capital imports. Zambia’s dependence on imported
manufactured goods was also exposed. Its balance of payments situation deteriorated and
borrowing from overseas grew significantly.
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Throughout this period, Zambia was also providing support to the various freedom fighting
movements in Zimbabwe, South Africa, Mozambique and Angola. As a consequence its
main trade routes were often interrupted. As a landlocked country this was a major barrier
to development.
In the period between 1975 and 1990 the level of real GDP per capita declined by almost
30%. Initially the government of Kenneth Kaunda, believing in self sufficiency and import
substitution, reacted to the deteriorating economic situation by commercial and public
borrowing and saw no need to restructure the economy. They believed that the market for
copper would pick up and the economy would be kick started. The multilateral donors such
as the IMF and the World Bank appeared to share this optimistic view lending sums of
money to the country at reduced concessionary rates.
By 1976 Zambia had a balance-of-payments crisis, and rapidly became massively indebted
to the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The Third National Development Plan (1978–
83) had to be abandoned as crisis management replaced long-term planning.
By the mid-1980s Zambia was one of the most indebted nations in the world, relative to its
gross domestic product (GDP). The IMF was insisting that the Zambian government should
introduce programmes aimed at stabilizing the economy and restructuring it to reduce
dependence on copper.
Finally in 1985 due to the worsening economic climate, the donor organisations put
pressure on the Zambian government to attempt to restructure the economy through the
introduction of a structural adjustment programme (SAP).
The proposed measures included: the ending of price controls; devaluation of the kwacha
(Zambia's currency); cut-backs in government expenditure; cancellation of subsidies on
food and fertilizer; and increased prices for farm produce.
Attempts to follow these reforms were met with internal opposition. The removal of food
subsidies caused massive increases in the prices of basic foodstuffs. The results were
widespread food riots. In desperation, Kaunda abandoned the structural adjustment
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programme and broke with the IMF in May 1987. He then introduced a New Economic
Recovery Programme in 1988. However, this did not help him and he eventually moved
toward a new understanding with the IMF in 1989.
In 1990, with the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (on
which Kaunda's philosophy of Zambian Humanism had been fashioned), Kaunda was
forced to make a major policy volteface: he announced the intention to partially privatize
the parastatals. Time, however, was running out for him. As Mikhail Gorbachev announced
perestroika and glasnost, small-time dictators who had copied Stalin's policies had no
choice but to realise that their days were numbered. This included Kaunda. He called
multiparty elections in 1991, and lost them to the Movement for Multiparty Democracy
(MMD). Kaunda left office with the inauguration of MMD leader Frederick Chiluba as
president on 2 November 1991.
10.4.6 Sustained Economic Reform of the 1990s
The Chiluba government (1991-2001), which came to power after democratic multi-party
elections in November 1991, was committed to extensive economic reform. The
government privatised many state industries, and maintained positive real interest rates.
Exchange controls were eliminated and free market principles endorsed.
Zambia has yet to address issues such as reducing the size of the public sector, which still
represents 44% of total formal employment, and improving Zambia's social sector delivery
systems.
After the government privatized the giant parastatal mining company Zambian
Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM), donors resumed balance-of-payment support. The
final transfer of ZCCM's assets occurred on March 31, 2000. Although balance-of-payment
payments are not the answer to Zambia's long-term debt problems, it will in the short term
provide the government some breathing room to implement further economic reforms.
The government has, however, spent much of its foreign exchange reserves to intervene in
the exchange rate mechanism. To continue to do so, however, would jeopardize Zambia's
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debt relief. Zambia qualified for HIPC debt relief in 2000, contingent upon the country
meeting certain performance criteria, and this should offer a long-term solution to Zambia's
debt situation.
In January 2003, the Zambian Government informed the IMF and World Bank that it
wished to renegotiate some of the agreed performance criteria calling for privatization of
the Zambia National Commercial Bank and the national telephone and electricity utilities.
The 1990s saw a move to a more outward oriented economy centred on a market based
system. The newly elected government of Frederick Chiluba in 1991 adopted a structural
adjustment programme agreed with the IMF and the World Bank. This involved three main
goals:
• To restore macroeconomic stability

• To facilitate private sector growth through reducing the role of the state from
controlling prices, foreign trade restrictions and foreign currency transactions
• To privatise and deregulate agricultural and industrial output
Despite attracting praise from the World Bank for the 'success' of its privatisation
programme, privatisation has had a very mixed record in Zambia. Although some failing
state run enterprises began to operate more effectively after privatisation, many companies
collapsed, jobs were lost and welfare programmes originally performed through a parastatal
were not continued by private companies.
Trade liberalisation was also disastrous for manufacturing industries, such as textiles, that
used to produce import substitutes. Paid employment in mining, manufacturing and
agriculture fell by nearly 40% during the 1990s. It also had a negative impact on
government revenues which fell by more than 30% in real terms. With a weak tax base,
tariffs were an important source of government finance before liberalisation. With
declining GDP after 1993, real government expenditure in the domestic economy
(excluding interest on debt) fell by almost half through the 1990s. Consequently, spending
on important economic infrastructure, such as transport and communications, was heavily
cut.
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Agricultural market reform had a similarly poor record. A 2000 World Bank study
acknowledged that the removal of all subsidies on maize and fertilizer led to 'stagnation
and regression instead of helping Zambia's agricultural sector'. Devastating droughts in
1992 and 1994 deepened poverty in rural areas.
In its 2003 Human Development Report, the United Nations Development Program
(UNDP) reported that Zambia was the fourth worst performing economy in Africa with a
'growth' rate of -1.7% per capita per year. The HIV/Aids pandemic had an enormous effect
on life expectancy, which fell from 54.4 in 1990 to 33.4 in 2001, the lowest life expectancy
of any country in the world.
10.4.7 Structural Adjustment in the 2000s
Zambia's recent economic performance suffers from a mix of domestic and international
unfavourable factors with serious budget problems for the Zambian government and
relatively high inflation. The economy was hit by the pull out of the Anglo-American
Corporation from the copper industry and the massive drought in 2002; however GDP and
agricultural exports were boosted by improved copper prices and a good maize harvest in
2004.
Despite progress in privatisation and budgetary reform, Zambia's economic growth remains
somewhat below the 5% to 7% needed to reduce poverty significantly. Rural farmers have
suffered particularly from market reforms and HIV/Aids has led to a shortage of labour on
rural farms, with families having to sell land and capital equipment to pay for medicines.
Three-quarters of the population now live on less than $1 per day.
Repayments on an external debt of $6.5 billion continue to be a debilitating drain on the

economy. Despite reaching targets set by the IMF for HIPCs' (Highly Indebted Poor
Countries) debt relief, by the start of 2003 Zambia had received only 5% of the debt service
reduction committed to it.
The most urgent issues for the Zambian economy are thus debt relief, combating HIV/Aids
and a further reduction of its dependency on copper with the encouragement of private
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sector investment into export oriented agriculture, light manufacturing, small scale mining
and tourism.
Definition of SAP
Structural adjustment is a term used to describe the policy changes implemented by the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (the Bretton Woods Institutions)
in developing countries. These policy changes are conditions (Conditionalities) for getting
new loans from the IMF or World Bank, or for obtaining lower interest rates on existing
loans. Conditionalities are implemented to ensure that the money lent will be spent in
accordance with the overall goals of the loan. The bank from which a borrowing country
receives its loan depends upon the type of necessity.
Through conditionalities, Structural Adjustment Programmes generally implement "free

market" programmes and policy. These programmes include internal changes (notably
privatization and deregulation) as well as external ones, especially the reduction of trade
barriers. Countries which fail to enact these programmes may be subject to severe fiscal
discipline. Critics argue that financial threats to poor countries amount to blackmail; that
poor nations have no choice but to comply.
Since the late 1990s, some proponents of structural adjustment such as the World Bank,
have spoken of "poverty reduction" as a goal. Structural Adjustment Programmes were
often criticized for implementing generic free market policy, as well as the lack of
involvement from the country. To increase the borrowing country's involvement,
developing countries are now encouraged to draw up Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers
(PRSPs). These PRSPs essentially take the place of the SAPs. Some believe that the
increase of the local governments’ participation in creating the policy will lead to greater
ownership of the loan programmes, thus better fiscal policy. The content of these PRSPs
has turned out to be quite similar to the original content of bank authored Structural
Adjustment Programmes. Critics argue that the similarities show that the banks, and the
countries that fund them, are still overly involved in the policy making process.
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Purpose of SAP
The Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) are created with the goal of reducing the
borrowing country's fiscal imbalances. In general, loans from both the World Bank and the
IMF are claimed to be designed to promote economic growth, to generate income, and to
pay off the debt which the countries have accumulated.
SAPs are designed to improve a country's foreign investment climate by eliminating trade
and investment regulations, to boost foreign exchange earnings by promoting exports, and
to reduce government deficits through cuts in spending.
Conditions of SAP
Although SAPs differ somewhat from country to country, some of the conditions for
structural adjustment can include:
• Cutting social expenditures, also known as austerity: deep cuts to social

programmes usually in the areas of health, education and housing and massive
layoffs in the civil service;
• Focusing economic output on direct export and resource extraction: a shift from
growing diverse food crops for domestic consumption to specializing in the
production of cash crops or other commodities (like rubber, cotton, coffee, copper,
tin etc.) for export;
• Devaluation of currencies: currency devaluation measures which are meant to
increase import costs while reducing the value of domestically produced goods;
• Trade liberalization, or lifting import and export restrictions: liberalization of trade
and investment and high interest rates to attract foreign investment;
• Increasing the stability of investment (by supplementing foreign direct investment
with the opening of domestic stock markets),
• Balancing budgets and not overspending,
• Removing price controls and state subsidies: abolishing food and agricultural
subsidies to reduce government expenditures
• Privatization, or divestiture of all or part of state-owned enterprises,
• Enhancing the rights of foreign investors vis-a-vis national laws,
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• Improving governance and fighting corruption.
These conditions have also been sometimes labelled as the Washington Consensus.
The need for SAP
The World Bank and the IMF argue that SAPs are necessary to bring a developing country
from crisis to economic recovery and growth. Economic growth driven by private sector
foreign investment is seen as the key to development. These agencies argue that the
resulting national wealth will eventually "trickle down" or spread throughout the economy
and eventually to the poor.
The achievement of social well-being is not an integral component of SAPs but a hoped-for
result of applying free market principles to the economy. The process of adjustment, as
described by many World Bank and IMF officials to developing countries, is one of
"sacrifice," of "present pain for future hope."
Problems of SAP
Many groups argue that SAP imposes harsh economic measures which deepen poverty,
undermine food security, and self-reliance and lead to unsustainable resource exploitation,
environmental destruction, and population dislocation and displacement. These groups,
which include non-governmental organizations (NGOs), grassroots organizations,
economists, social scientists and United Nations agencies have rejected the narrow
conception of economic growth as the means to achieve social and environmental
objectives. They believe SAP policies have increased the gap between rich and poor in both
local and global terms.
Despite claims to the contrary, World Bank-imposed SAP have paid little or no attention to
their environmental impact. SAP call for increased exports to generate foreign exchange to
service debt. The most important exports of developing countries include timber, oil and
natural gas, minerals, cash crops, and fisheries exports. The acceleration of resource
extraction and commodity production that results as countries increase exports is not
ecologically sustainable. Deforestation, land degradation, desertification, soil erosion and
salinization, biodiversity loss, increased production of greenhouse gases, and air and water
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pollution are but among the long-term environmental impacts that can be traced to the
imposition of SAP.
Women are bearing a disproportionate share of the burdens imposed by SAP. The macro-
economic thinking on which SAP is based, takes little account of the gender-based division
of labour. For example, SAP promotes export- oriented crops, which tend to be grown by
men. This leaves women with little support, marginal land, and fewer resources to grow
food crops to feed their families. In addition, cutbacks to public services result in a greater
workload for women as they struggle to pay extra fees to secure health care and education
for the family. Often, these cutbacks simply place such services out of reach.
Alternatives to SAP
There have been a variety of alternatives that address both the economic model upon which
SAP is based, and the non-democratic and excessively harsh method by which SAP is
imposed. The UN Economic Commission for Africa provided a comprehensive and
credible alternative to SAP in 1989. The African Alternative Framework called for
"adjustment with transformation" which called for a reduction in the continent's reliance on
external trade and financing, the promotion of food self-sufficiency and greater popular
participation in economic planning and decision-making.
The Third World Network and Freedom from Debt Coalition have proposed numerous
alternative policies in the areas of international trade and sustainable development. Some
specific alternatives for reform include:
• promoting diversification in the products that Southern countries export and

increase processing capacity. This would coincide with the recognition of providing
some protection to infant industries and the promotion of greater regional trade;
• recognizing the need for states to play a greater role in facilitating the
diversification away from traditional commodities, determining and promoting
investment priorities; economic policies and planning which include a gendered
analysis of the various options;
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• policies that take into account environmental impacts and include sustainable
natural resource use that benefits local communities;
• an emphasis on non-price structural reforms such as land reform, institutional
reforms to increase democratic practice and accountability;
• at the international level, measures to reduce the debt problems of poorer countries,
regulate capital markets and address unfair trading practises.
What is urgently required is to open up the debate to allow for serious consideration of
alternative measures. What stands in the way is the total control over the development
debate currently exercised by the Bank and the IMF with the blessing and support of
Northern governments, including Canada.
In addition, fundamental reform of the Bretton Woods Institutions to ensure greater

transparency, accountability, and equitable participation in the development of any
programmes that will directly affect communities is essential (see brief on "Reforming the
Bretton Woods Institutions"). The Halifax G-7 Summit provides an important opportunity
to alter the debate and begin the process of transformation.
Conclusion
Exercise
UNIT 11
MAJOR ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
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11.4 Mining
Copper output has increased steadily since 2004, due to higher copper prices and the
opening of new mines.
The future of the copper industry in Zambia was thrown into doubt in January 2002, when
investors in Zambia's largest copper mine announced their intention to withdraw their
investment.
However, surging copper prices from 2004 to the present day rapidly rekindled
international interest in Zambia's copper sector with a new buyer found for KCCM and
massive investments in expanding capacity launched.
China has become a major investor in the Zambian copper industry, and in February 2007,
the two countries announced the creation of a Chinese-Zambian economic partnership zone
around the Chambishi copper mine.
The major copper mining region is the Copperbelt in the northern part Zambia on the
border with the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Mode of occurrence
Copper minerals like chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, malachite, and azurite occur in local
synclinal basins in shales, sandstones, dolomites and quartzites on the margins of the Kafue
anticline. The copper ore is removed either by open pit mining (as at Chingola) or by shaft
mining (as at Kitwe).
Importance of copper mining
Today copper mining is central to the economic prospects for Zambia. Copper is Zambia’s
chief export and foreign exchange earner. However, concerns remain that the economy is
not diversified enough to cope with a collapse in international copper prices.
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Mining in Zambia
The mining industry has been the economic and social backbone on Zambia since the first
major phase of exploitation of the Copperbelt's Cu-CO deposits commenced in the early
1930's. Since that time a wide spectrum of other metalliferous and non-metalliferous
resources have been discovered in Zambia and although exploitation of these has been
limited, they clearly demonstrate the considerable opportunities for further exploration and
mining.
Mineral Endowment
Zambia is Internationally recognised as a major producer of copper and cobalt. Zambia is

ranked as the world's seventh largest producer of copper, generating 3.3% of the western
world’s production, and world’s second largest producer of cobalt (19.7%).
It also has significant quantities of selenium (+-16.7t) and silver (+- 8t) together with minor
gold and platinum group elements which are produced as important by-products of the
copper mining and processing.
More than 300 gold occurrences have been reported throughout the country.
Copper mineralization was first discovered at the turn of the century but large scale
production only commenced in the 1930’s with the start-up of Roan Antelope (Luanshya -
1931), followed rapidly by Nkana (1932), Mufulira (1933) and then Nchanga in 1939.
Copper production exceeded 400,000t.p.a. in the late 1950’s and reached a peak of
700,00t.p.a. in 1969-1976 before beginning a progressive decline and sinking to a 1995 low
of 307,000t.p.a. However, the privatization of Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines
(ZCCM) will activate the remaining industry and halt this decline. With a total mineral
resource of at least two billion tonnes on the Copperbelt alone, there is no doubt that copper
and cobalt production will soon begin a significant upward trend.
Zambia has a history of gold mining on a relatively small scale, with the twenty larger
deposits having produced a total of slightly more than 2t of gold since modern mining
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began in 1902. The largest past producers are Dunrobin (990kg gold), Jessie (390kg),
Sasare (390kg), and Matala (225kg); Dunrobin has recently been re-opened by Reunion
Mining and is scheduled to produce 500-600kg gold per annum. More than 300 gold
occurrences have been reported throughout the country.
Mining & the Economy
For the past sixty years the Zambian economy has been heavily reliant on the mining of
copper and cobalt and despite the positive steps taken to diversify the industrial and
manufacturing base, the reliance remains. The mining sector contributed US$822 million to
the total export.
The other important metal production has been zinc and lead from the carbonate-hosted
deposits of Kabwe which, with a total of 11Mt of ore containing 40% combined zinc and
lead, ranks as one of the highest grade Zn-Pb deposits in the world.
Similar styles of mineralization have been recognized over a wide area to the north of
Kabwe.
Investment Opportunities
Zambia is endowed with substantial mineral resources. However the major metal, which
has been exploited for nearly a century, is copper.
Since the establishment of Zambia as a nation, copper has been and still is, the single
largest contributor to the Zambian economy. Depressed copper prices on the International
markets, plus the under-capitalization of our copper mines, have resulted in severe
constraints on our economy.
To address this problem and in order to ensure that the mining industry continues to play a
crucial role in National development, the Government has begun to take bold steps.
A new Mining Act was put into place in 1995. the main features of the act were: the
divestiture of government from the business of mining through privatization of the mines;
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the liberalization of the fiscal policy; and the provision of several tax concessions to mining
companies.
We aim here, to provide the investor with detailed information on Zambia as a mining
investment destination. We would like to demonstrate the wide range of opportunities in
mining in our country, in addition to copper mining
The Role of Government
The Government has adopted a pragmatic mineral policy which is designed to enhance
investment in the mining industry and to ensure the development of a self-sustaining
minerals-based industry.
The privatization of many state-owned companies and especially the copper mining
industry, formally managed under the parastatal umbrella of Zambia consolidated Copper
Mines Ltd (ZCCM), is a clear demonstration of this intent.
Enactment of this policy is being promoted by the Ministry of Mines and Minerals
Development through the technical support available from its three constituent departments
- Geological Survey, Mines Development and Mines Safety.
Mining Policy
Key objectives of the government's Mining Policy:
• To make the private sector the principle producer and exporter of mineral products
through putting in place a private sector initiative in the development of new mines
in order to increase and diversify mineral and mineral based products and exports.
This will maximize long term economic benefits to the country.
• To promote the development of the small scale mining industry which has the
potential to significantly contribute to the economy.
• To promote the development of gemstone mining and facilitate liberalised
marketing arrangements in order to realise the industry's potential to contribute to
the development of the economy.
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• To promote the exploration and exploitation of industrial minerals and to encourage

the establishment of a ferrous industry.
• To reduce the danger of ecological damage arising from mining operations as well
as damage to the health of workers and inhabitants of the neighborhood through
water, air and land.
• To promote the local processing of mineral raw materials into finished products for
added value.
• To promote private participation the Government of Zambia has developed a new
mining policy which brought in a Mines and Minerals Act in 1995. The new policy
aims to encourage foreign investment in exploration and new large-scale
developments, and to encourage private investment in medium and small-scale
mining. This is achieved by enshrining in the legislation the following basic
assurances that the foreign investor expects:
• Secure title to mining rights
• Stability of the fiscal regime
• Foreign exchange retention
• Right to market mine products
• Right to assign (right to trade the mining right)
• Stability in environmental management
• International arbitration
• Freedom of commercial operation
The Government policy is not to participate in exploration or other mining activities

or any shareholding other than regulatory and promotional role. Minerals in the
ground are vested in the President on behalf of the state. The right to explore or
produce minerals is authorized by a license granted under the Mines and Minerals
Act.
Besides a reconnaissance permit which is issued for a maximum of three months
and is non-renewable (fees range from 4000 to 8000ZK) there are three categories
of mining investments which have been identified in the new mining policy.
The Good Days: when copper prices were high
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In 1964, when Zambia became independent from Britain, it was one of the richest countries
in sub-Saharan Africa. It had good farmland and a lot of natural resources, especially
copper. 66% of Zambia's income from exports came from copper mining.
At that time, Zambia had a socialist government, which used this money to improve living
conditions. It nationalised industries; it built schools, roads and hospitals; it subsidised
health care, higher education and food. There were plenty of jobs, so it was easy for people
to get work.
The Bad Days: low copper prices and debt
Then, in 1975, the price of copper went down very fast. The government borrowed a lot of
money from other countries: it hoped the price of copper would soon rise again and Zambia
would be able to repay its debts.
However, the price of copper stayed low and Zambia's debts have grown larger and larger.
In 1980, Zambia's external debt was $3.2 billion; in 1992 the debt had risen to $7.2 billion.
Zambia had one of the largest external debts in the world.
Since 1992, the government of President Chiluba has been trying to reduce Zambia's debt
through "restructuring" This means following an economic plan that: cuts public spending;
takes away government subsidies; privatizes (sells) state-owned industries; opens up trade
and financial markets. (Organisations like the World Bank and the IMF often demand that
countries do this when they cannot repay their debts.) As a result, life for the people of
Zambia has become harder and harder.
11.5 Agriculture
The Zambian economy has historically been based on the copper-mining industry. Zambia
is the world’s 4th largest producer of copper and the largest producer of cobalt. Other
significant mineral products are gold, silver, zinc, lead, gem-quality emeralds, amethyst,
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coal, selenium, limestone, and uranium. The country also has reserves of phosphates,
fluorspar, and iron ore.
The output of copper had fallen, however, to a low of 228,000 tonnes in 1998, continuing a
30-year decline in output due to lack of investment, and more recently, low copper prices
and uncertainty over privatization. However, new reserves are being discovered though
they are yet to be exploited.
In 2001, the first full year of a privatized industry, Zambia recorded its first year of
increased productivity since 1973. The future of the copper industry in Zambia was thrown
into doubt in January 2002, when investors in Zambia's largest copper mine announced
their intention to withdraw their investment.
However, surging copper prices from 2004 to the present day rapidly rekindled
international interest in Zambia's copper sector with a new buyer found for KCCM and
massive investments in expanding capacity launched.
China has become a major investor in the Zambian copper industry, and in February 2007,
the two countries announced the creation of a Chinese-Zambian economic partnership zone
around the Chambishi copper mine.
Today copper mining is central to the economic prospects for Zambia, but concerns remain
that the economy is not diversified enough to cope with a collapse in international copper
prices.
The Mines and Minerals Act provides numerous incentives in order to ensure favourable
investment prospects:
• Duty-free imports and exemption from value added tax (VAT) for all machinery
and equipment including specialised vehicles.
• Deductions on prospecting expenditures during the year incurred, with deductions
able to be passed on to shareholders.
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• Deductions on capital expenditures on producing mines from profits during the year
the expenditures were made.
• Deductions of expenditures on inactive mines from income generated by producing
mines, up to a maximum of 20% of the income tax otherwise owed.
Several manufacturing companies also operate in the country to support the mining
industry – heavy machinery, construction, gases, engineering, lime production, energy and
transportation are some of them.
10.5.2 Agriculture
This sector is considered to be the potentially sustainable alternative to copper mining as a

foreign exchange earner. The sector holds the biggest hope for export. In the past, the
agriculture sector suffered from low producer prices, difficulties in availability and
distribution of credit and inputs, and the shortage of foreign exchange.
The abundance of quality arable land, easily accessible water, and the ideal climatic
conditions and range of environment provide the potential for the growing and exporting of
agricultural and horticultural produce. Currently, less than 20% of its arable land is
cultivated.
Our need for development of agriculture in Zambia can be attributed to many factors; the
major one being the intensification of crop production due to escalating requirements for
food arising from population growth and high consumption levels. Agriculture is our main
economic activity in rural Zambia and virtually all rural households are headed by a person
whose primary source of employment is agriculture. Although off-farm and farm
processing in come is often critical to the survival of these households, there main source
of income is agricultural production activities. Agriculture, because it is our main source of
income and sustenance among small scale farmers, and because it can provide an
overwhelmingly positive contribution national development, should be the main sector of
focus for any rural poverty reduction programme.
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Zambia possesses three times the agricultural potential of its southern Africa neighbours
and it has the ability of becoming a leading producer of agriculture commodities in the sub-
region such as maize, tobacco, temperate and tropical fruit and livestock. The climatic
conditions prevailing in the country are suitable of development of agriculture.
The importance of the agricultural sector
Agriculture is by far the most widespread form of human activity and it is more basic than
any other industry. Even in this machine age, agriculture of one kind or another provides
livelihood for more than three-quarters of human race. Its yields fibres and raw materials
for the factories on which a large portion of the remaining people depend. From the crops
the farmers grow he gets his food and also that of his family. The surplus is sold for cash,
with which he buys the necessities of life. Without agriculture, many factories would close,
and despite all wonders that science has brought, a world without food would be dead
world.
Another vital feature of agriculture is its permanency. Minerals, continuously mined, are
sure to be exhausted one day but this is not the case with agriculture. Crops have been
raised since the earliest times and they still being grown. The soil, carefully maintained, is
a flow resource that is renewable and can be improved. Further, agriculture generates 22%
of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and is the sector with the greatest potential to impact
on food security, incomes and economic growth. Production, packaging, processing and
storage of products is labour intensive and therefore generates employment.
In Zambia, the sector is a vital source of employment and contributes a substantial amount
to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Agriculture employed 50 000 people in 2000 and
contributed 18.6% to GDP in 1993 and 20% in 2000. The sector accounted for 85% of total
employment (both formal and informal) for 2000. Agribusinesses contribute 27% to GDP.
Problems
The following problems have caused a failure to shift from mining to agriculture:
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• Excessive Government intervention and control of markets.

• Inadequate provision of essential public services, e.g. extension, roads and market
information.
The Agricultural Sector Investment Programme (ASIP) is an innovative and integrated

framework designed to coordinate Government efforts and donor assistance. Its aim is to
achieve optimal resource use and be responsive in meeting the different needs of farmers.
Types of Agriculture
Traditional agricultural systems
Lozi system
The seasonal movement of the lozi people and their animals from the flood plain when it
gets flooded to the upland and back is referred to as TRANSHUMANCE. The system
transhumance is based on a number of land use practices determined by the varying
environment of the plain.
In Litapa, land preparations start in mid-May and planting is done in June. Litapas are very
fertile due to the annual silting which leaves rich alluvium. Maize and sweet potatoes are
the major crops. The Mazulu or mounds are made by the pilling up of sediments during
flooding or by human construction. Crops are planted in November-December. Fertility is
maintained by flooding and manuring. In the Lishanjo, farming is done throughout the year
at the edge of the flood plains. Water which seeps into the ground during the wet season,
drains towards the flood plain and comes out as springs at the of the flood plains. The
Matongo are found on the slopes of the upland towards the flood plains just above the
Lihsajo. Crops are grown in the rainy season. Soil fertility is maintained by manuring. In
the Matema, branches, small trees and tops of big trees are chopped down around May-
August. Branches are piled and burst in September or October to produce ash which acts as
fertiliser. The Lozi system many agricultural techniques e.g. irrigation, drainage, manuring
and making ridges.
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Chitemene system of agriculture (for the Bemba)
The Chitemene system of agriculture is practised among the Bemba-speaking ethnic groups
of Northern and Luapula Provinces. It is also practised in various forms in Central,
Copperbelt and Northwestern provinces. The Bemba word ‘Chitemene’ means ‘cut-over
area’.
Between May and August every year, small trees and branches of large trees are chopped
down by men and boys. Women and girls carry branches and pile them up in circular heap.
The stacks are burnt in September-October to produce an ash bed which is used as a
garden. The resulting ash acts as fertilizer. Crops are then grown on rotational basis.
Farmers use simple tools such as hoes, axes, pangas and even sticks. When the soils
become exhausted after 5-7years, farmers start new fields.
Factors encouraging Chitemene system of agriculture
(a) Physical factors
• Presence of heavy rainfall which encourages tree growth.

• Poor, infertile soils.
• Presence of forest.
• Presence of tsetse fly
• So cattle can not be reared.
(b) Social factors
• Bembas are not traditional cattle-keepers
(c) Economic factors
• The farmers are poor and can not afford inorganic fertilizer + pesticides.
The Mambwe-Lungu-Namwanga system
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In March-April while the ground is still moist, a place of new land is hoed into mounds
which bury the grass in order to make compost. Cassava and beans are planted on the flesh
mounds. In the second year, the mounds are leveled and the rotten material scattered as
manure. Maize sorghum, millet are planted as main crops. The mounds are re-built in the
third year. The mounds are leveled again in the fourth year. The field is abandoned in the
fifth year.
COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE
• Commercial agriculture is the growing of crops in the dry part of the year by
supplying water to crops from rivers, boreholes and reservoir. Important areas of
commercial irrigation agriculture include;
• Around Lusaka for green maize, vegetables, flowers and wheat.
• Chisamba area for green maize, vegetables, wheat and flowers.
• Mpongwe area mainly for coffee and wheat.
• Mazabuka area for wheat,coffee and sugarcane.
Arable farming
Principal crops grown
Principal crops grown in Zambia include maize, millet, sorghum, beans, cassava, wheat,
sugar cane, sunflower seed, groundnuts, rice, cotton, tobacco, and horticultural produce (for
example, cut flowers). Floriculture is a growth sector, and agricultural non-traditional
exports now rival the mining industry in foreign exchange receipts.
Livestock farming
Livestock raised include; sheep, cattle, goats and pigs. Western, Eastern,and Southern
provinces are leading cattle rearing provinces in Zambia. These provinces have areas which
have good pasture and free from tsetse flies. Commercial livestock production is located
mainly along the line of rail due to the presence of large market for meat, dairy products
and poultry products. There is also efficient transport and favourable climatic conditions.
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Factors constraining the rearing of cattle in Zambia
Although government has tried to encourage the rearing of cattle in the country over the
years, this type of farming has been difficult because of the following reasons:
(a) Physical factors

(b) Social factors
(c) Economic factors
Agriculture land degradation in Zambia
Soil is one of the most important resources on which any population depends. On soil we
raise our food in form of crops and livestock. Soil is especially important because it is a
renewable resource. Its productiveness, however depend on how well we us it. Under rapid
population growth scenario food has to be produced at any cost, of losing or impoverishing
the soil. Crop monoculture and intensive use of chemical fertilizer both impoverish the soil.
Slope wise cultivation and overgrazing animals both result in soil erosion, and once soil is
lost to the sea it cannot be retrieved at all. Rapid population growth put the soil under great
stress especially in pre-industrial communities where methods of caring for the soil, like
fallowing, crop rotation, use of organic manures and contour ploughing are least employed.
When natural forests are cleared for lumbering for farming without immediate replanting of
new trees, the bare soil is exposed to rain and wind erosion. Traditional agricultural
systems have also been cited as responsible for land degradation. Chitemene, for instance
has been criticised because;
• It is very wasteful of trees

• It encourages soil erosion
• Useful bacteria are destroyed due to burning
• Although a large area is cleared and so much labour is invested in making
Chitemene, the fields of crops obtained are low.
The need for agriculture development in Zambia can be attributed to many factors, the
major one being the intensification of crop production due to escalating requirements for
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food arising from population growth and high consumption levels. According McGiven
(1992), there is very poor soil management in Zambia. There is overgrazing of land and
poor agricultural practices which have contributed to soil degradation. Misuse of the soil
poses a serious and growing threat to sustainable development and protection of the
environment. McGiven further argues that, apart from Luapula and Northern provinces, all
the other provinces have serious problems of soil erosion by water largely due to poor
farming practices. Such poor farming practices have contributed to the development of
gully erosion such as Mundombotoka, Mumbi, Chikambo, and Kasengo gullies in Lundazi,
Petauke, Sinazongwe and Mazabuka districts, respectively. All these have largely been
caused by poor soil management which is related to the production of more food to meet
the demand of a growing population. Traditional tenure systems in Zambia constrain
agricultural productivity and cause environmental degradation because land resources are
not privately owned, but are either common property of the community, clan or ethnic
group or are open access resources owned by no one. According to FAO (1993), users of
such resources have no incentive to limit their consumption because they cannot be certain
that other users will similarly limit theirs. Since they lack secure property rights,
individuals are dissuaded from adopting long-term conservation, investment and
production strategies (Mweemba, 2004).
Agriculture is the main economic activity in rural Zambia, where most of the poor are
found, and must be the focus of any strategy aimed at reducing rural poverty. Rural
livelihood in Zambia is essentially agricultural and agriculture is the main link between
people and their environment. Through agriculture, people seek to harness the available
soil, water and biological resources so as to ‘harvest’ a livelihood for themselves. However,
population growth has surpassed soil productivity such that there is no dynamic
equilibrium between the stock of land resources and the human population depending on it
for survival.
11.6 Tourism
Tourism is a generic term which encompasses a multiplicity of definitions. It is generally

accepted that tourism is about people being away from their own homes, on short-term
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temporary visits, for particular tourism purposes. The term ‘tourism’ implies at least 24
hours stay away from the normal place of residence for leisure, holiday, and business.
The key to Zambia’s tourist potential is its climate. Although the country lies in the hot
tropical zone, its elevation at 1 100 metres produces a temperate ‘air-conditioned’ climate
with little humidity.
Tourism in development in Zambia
Tourism has become one of the foremost economic activities around the world. As human
populations increase and the pressure of urban living increases, many people are
encouraged to seek solitude with nature. International tourism is a growing phenomenon
worldwide. This is due to globalization, which as made the world ‘smaller’. Tourism which
is also known as the travel industry has become a comprehensive social science which
affects millions pf people scattered all over the globe. It is estimated that from 1962 to
1992 the world international tourist arrivals grew at an average annual rate of 8.4% (WTO,
1992). One of the relatively recent fast growing phenomena in world tourism is eco-
tourism. Ceballos-Lascurian (1998) defines it as the tourism that involves traveling to
relatively undisturbed areas with specific objectives of studying, acquiring, acquiring and
enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural aspect
found in these areas. Liindberg (1996) states that, in 1991, this type of tourism generated
about US$ 12 billion for developing counties. The Zambia National Tourist Board (ZNTB)
estimates tourism revenue to be at US $ 85 million (1999) for Zambia.
This industry also offers opportunity for investors. In Zambia, Government is partnering
with the private sector. It is putting in place basic infrastructure such as roads, while the
investors are developing facilities such as lodges and hotels.
Destinations
In 1999, 456 000 international tourists came to Zambia. The country has been described as
the ‘Real Africa’ because of availability of numerous tourist attractions. It is a land of
fantastic and unexpected treasure and the more one explores it, the more one realizes how
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much of Africa’s undiscovered gems the county has to offer. Some of the attractions to
visit are the waterfalls, national parks and game reserves, lakes, traditional ceremonies,
historic sites and national monuments.
Waterfalls
Zambia has numerous waterfalls which besides generating electricity have played a major
role in attracting local and international tourists. Some of the well-known waterfalls are
Victoria, Kalambo, Chishimba, Mambilima, Ntumbachushi, and Lumangwe.
National parks and game reserves
National parks rank second after the Victoria Falls in attracting tourists. The main activities
that take place in the game parks are game viewing, shooting, restricted hunting and
filming. Zambia has 19 national parks with various animals and bird species. The national
parks include Nsumbu, North Luangwa, South Luangwa, Luambe, Kasanka, Lower
Zambezi, Lochnivar, Kafue, Liuwa, Sioma ngwezi, Mosi-oa-Tunya, Luvushi manda,
Lukusuzi, West lunga, Insangano, Nyika Plateau, Blue Lagoon, Mweru Wantipa and
Lusenga.
Lakes
Zambia is endowed with both natural and human-created lakes. The natural lakes of import
include Tanganyika, Mweru, Mweru Wantipa, and Bangweulu. The human-made lakes are
Kariba, Itezhi Tezhi, Lusiwasi, and Mulungushi. The lakes provide opportunities for boat
cruises, angling, swimming, sunset watching.
Traditional ceremonies
Traditional ceremonies are an integral part of Zambia’s ethnic groups. The festivals attract
a great deal of both local and foreign tourists. Generally, there are over twenty festivals
held annually all over the county. However, some small events may not take place annually
and may be difficult to access in remote areas by tourists. The popular traditional
ceremonies performed are Kuomboka by the Lozi people, Umutomboko by the Lunda,
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Likumbi lya Mize by Luvale, Ncwala by the Ngoni, Shimunenga by the Ila, and Lwindi by
the Tonga.
Historic sites
National monuments such as Dag Hamarsksoeld monument to demonstrate importance of

peace, slave trade (Afzelia Quanzensis) in Ndola where slaves trade translation used to take
place. Mindolo Ecumenical, Isampati and Ingombe Ilede are importance historical sites
attached to tourism industry in Zambia.
Museums
Since independence in 1964, institutions to protect Zambia’s culture, particularly its rural
traditions, have been created including the National Museum such as conservations
commission, national museums such as Livingstone museum as well as private ones have
been funded to promote the expressions of artistic talents. The Tonga Museum in Choma,
Nyauma in Mongu and Motomoto museum in Mbala all aim to stimulate the production of
quality craft work both in traditional form and where craft work is a contemporary of art.
Benefits of tourism
Tourism industry has along with it numerous benefits particularly for the host country.
Tourism industries worldwide have various impacts on the environment in general and the
impact may be positive or negative. From the economic point of view, tourism creates
employment opportunities, leads to rural development, increases the state’s revenue raises
the income and living standards of local people, promotes the preservation of culture
activities and promotes international understanding and intercultural exchange between
people.
Creation of employment
An analysis of statistics of tourist arrivals shows that there has been an increase in the
number of tourist arrivals every year. MOFNP (2004) shows that in 1998, the number of
international tourists who entered the country was 362 024. In 1999, the number rose to
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404 503 and the year 2000 gave rise to 547 419 international tourist arrivals. The increase
in the tourist arrivals means that there was an increase in human power requirement in the
tourism industry. Tourism is a labour intensive industry and cuts across various sub-sector
or support industries such as tour guides, food industry, transport, and accommodation. In
1999, the sector employed about 11 000 people.
Rural development
Tourism is one of the few sectors which have significantly contributed to the development
of rural areas which are near to tourist attractions. Since most attractions are located in
rural areas or rural districts, tourism has created jobs, income and improved living
standards of the people in the vicinity.
Benefits from tourism can accrue to communities living near tourist resorts through change
of the property rights regime. The current property rights regime allows such communities
to benefit directly from investment in tourism in the local area, through initiatives such as
the Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) and eco-tourism.
ADMADE (working in national parks and game reserves) and Mukuni Village (in
Livingstone, where the chiefdom receives part of the revenue realised from tourist facilities
within its jurisdiction) are good examples of such benefits.
Contribution to government revenue
Tourism contributes to the country’s foreign exchange. Most of Zambia’s revenue from
tourism comes from international tourists compared to the local tourists. The money comes
from payments for accommodation, camping, cruises, national park charges, safaris, and
transport. The money contributes significantly to the country’s balance of payments.
Preservation of cultural activities
Zambia has numerous ethnic groups with a diversity of cultural aspects. These have
to be preserved for culture identity as continuity of cultural and traditional practices
for survival of individual ethnic group, several archaeological facts such as Sebanzi
Hill and Kalundu have been protected and preserved for future generations.
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Museums in Zambia such as Livingstone, Motomoto, have been charged with a

responsibility to preserve Zambia’s wildlife and cultural heritage.
However, despite some positive economic benefits that come with the expansion of the
tourist industry, it is as well associated with some economic impacts. It brings resentment
in local population because most of the services enjoyed by the tourists are out of
reach of local communities in terms of accommodation, foods are extremely too
expensive to be enjoyed by the local people. Tourism industry is, therefore, described
as an enclave industry, which deprives local people from taking part in tourism
consumption. Tourism alienated land for the local people to the multinational
companies for hotels and national park construction. This reduces production rate and
may lead to land degradation due to improper agricultural practices to sustain
themselves in the limited marginal land.
Some women/ girls get engaged in prostitution, marriages of convenience and this may
lead to an increased number of unwanted pregnancies from fathers who are not indigenous
citizen. This ultimately aggravates the problem of street kids and the indigenous culture
and are compromised subscribing to the loss of cultural identify and adopting western
cultures. Apparently prostitution leads to transmission of STDs which today could be
termed as the major transmitter of HIV/AIDS.
Problems in Zambian tourism
The following are some of the identified problems in the tourism industry in Zambia.
• Inadequate infrastructure rail, road networks and airports.

• Inadequate marketing of the major tourist attractions due to limited resources.
• Poor programme implementation due to luck of funds and luck of involvement of
the community in the identification planning and implementation of the
programmes.
• Inadequate product development due to luck of diversified tourism portfolio to
exploit the niche (opportunity) markets.
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• Zambia is a high coast destination due to limited international seat capacity and
domestic flight connections.
• Luck of tenure due to slow process of acquiring land for infrastructure. This
inhabits investments in an area.
• Long distances between tourist attractions making it difficult for tourist to visit
several tourist attractions in one visit.
• Source competitions for tourist within the region because Zambia offers the same
attractions as her neighbors.
• Lack of a national air line makes Zambia to depend on foreign carriers whose
schedules may not be the best for Zambia.
GROWTH PROSPECTS IN ZAMBIA‘S TOURISIM SECTOR
• Zambia has considerable untapped natural resources for tourism development. They
include abundant wild life, rich cultural and natural heritage sites, abundant water
resources etc.
• The country has sites 19 national parks and 34 Game management Areas covering
33% of the country, but only 5% of this is been developed for tourism.
• The national heritage conservation commission has categorized well over 1,700
potential sites for tourism development that remain unexploited.
• The country has immense resources in the scenery, warm-sunny climate, game and
her people. There is also the political will to develop tourism.
• The country has immense resources in the scenery, warm sunny climate, game and
people.
• There is political will to do tourism (or is it ‘lip-service’?).
• The government’s policy of turning certain areas into tax-free zones will enhance
tourist development in these areas.
• Community participation in managing the wildlife should be enhanced.
Empowering local people with the right to manage their local environment will be
of great value.
Conclusion
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Tourism development is a very critical force in economic growth. Tourists leave their
countries and come to consume goods and services in Zambia. In so doing, they contribute
revenue to the country. In order to fully meet their requirements there is need to create
infrastructure, such as airports, roads, hotel rooms. Ultimately, the benefits accruing from
the industry are foreign exchange, jobs and development of infrastructure.
11.7 Manufacturing and processing industries
Types of industries
(a) Primary (extractive) industries

(b) Secondary industries
(c) Tertiary (service) industries
(d) Quaternary industries
Factors affecting location of manufacturing industries
(a) Raw materials
When a factory uses bulky raw materials such as clay, timber or sugarcane, the factory
will be located at the source of raw materials to cut on transport costs. Perishable raw
materials attract the factory to the source of raw materials.
(b) Transport
It is cheap efficient transport that attracts investors. In Zambia, rail transport is the
cheapest. In other countries it is water transport that provides cheapest transport.
Locations near the railway are therefore regarded as advantageous in Zambia.
(c) Power
(d) Market
(e) Labour
(f) Government policy
Problems of manufacturing industries in Zambia
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Pertinent problems facing manufacturing in Zambia include:
• Government policies, although sometimes offering good facilitation, have

sometimes hindered the development of industries in the country. The policy of
liberalisation adopted in1990s had created uneven playing field for local industries
making it difficult for them to compete on both the domestic and foreign market.
• The foreign debt has impacted negatively on industrial development as there is
limited foreign exchange to pay for imported inputs. Foreign debt is the main cause
of frequent devaluation of local currency making it weak.
• High energy costs with respect to electricity whose rates have been hiked
frequently.
• Long routes to the sea have hindered industrial development as transport costs for
machinery, spares and raw materials are more expensive than in neighbouring
countries like Tanzania, Mozambique, South Africa or Zimbabwe.
• Many industries in the country rely on imported raw materials. These have to be
paid for in foreign currency and transported over long distances to the factory site.
This is costly and makes local goods uncompetitive.
• Stiff competition for both local and foreign market. Local producers are
disadvantaged because their production costs are high and quality of their products
poor.
• The policy of liberalisation has disadvantaged local producers and encouraged
smuggling of goods and dumping into the country.
• The high interest rates charged by the banks are just too high to facilitate industrial
development.
• Weak currency promotes increased domestic exports as local goods are lowly
priced.
• Facilities are generally not serviced on time consequently leading to accidents such
as the Ndola Oil Refinery and Kafue Gorge Power Station fires.
Prospects
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• The need to adopt democracy, good governance and democratic institutions

will ensure Zambian does not make bad policies for herself. Fortunately
Zambia is moving towards this direction being prodded by the donor’s
insistence on the same values as a condition for giving aid.
• Regional organisations like SADC and COMESA will increase development
and trade in the region. This will result in more industrial development in
the country.
• Donor aid and debt reductions and cancellations will make resources more
available to pay for new industrial projects and to buy imported long term
finance at low rates of interest. This will in long run lower production costs
for industries.
Zambia’s current base in the manufacturing sector comprises companies in food processing
and beverages, textiles, leisure and sporting equipment.
The main activities include the smelting and refining of copper and other metals, petroleum
refining, and the production of fertilisers, chemicals, explosives, cement, tobacco products
and textiles.
Following the liberalisation of the economy, generous incentives are given to the investors.
To diversify the economy from a mono-economy depending on raw copper, the
Government fully supports most non-traditional manufacturing enterprises.
The target markets for such exports include the COMESA, Europe, the Far East and Asia
Vital statutory bodies overseeing the manufacturing and export sectors in the country
include the Export Board of Zambia, the Competition Commission, the Bureau of
Standards, and the Small Enterprises Development Board.
Challenges
These include the following:
• Lack of technology
• High cost of borrowing
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• Escalation of prices of raw materials

• Tariff differentials
11.8 Inflation
Lack of balance-of-payment support meant the Zambian government did not have
resources for capital investment and periodically had to issue bonds or otherwise expand
the money supply to try to meet its spending and debt obligations. The government
continued these activities even after balance-of-payment support resumed. This has kept
interest rates at levels that are too high for local business, fuelled inflation, burdened the
budget with domestic debt payments, while still falling short of meeting the public payroll
and other needs, such as infrastructure rehabilitation. The government was forced to draw
down foreign exchange reserves sharply in 1998 to meet foreign debt obligations, putting
further pressure on the kwacha and inflation. Inflation held at 32% in 2000; consequently,
the kwacha lost the same value against the dollar over the same period. In mid- to late
2001, Zambia's fiscal management became more conservative. As a result, 2001 year-end
inflation was below 20%, its best result in decades. In 2002 inflation rose to 26.7%.
However in 2007 inflation hit 8%, the first time in 30 years that Zambia had seen single
digit inflation.
11.9 Economic growth
There are, however, positive macroeconomic signs, rooted in reforms implemented in the
early and mid-1990s. Zambia's floating exchange rate and open capital markets have
provided useful discipline on the government, while at the same time allowing continued
diversification of Zambia's export sector, growth in the tourist industry, and procurement of
inputs for growing businesses. Some parts of the Copperbelt have experienced a significant
revival as spin-off effects from the massive capital reinvestment are experienced.
For the first time since 1989 Zambia's economic growth reached the 6%-7% mark (in 2007)
needed to reduce poverty significantly. Privatization of government-owned copper mines
relieved the government from covering mammoth losses generated by the industry and
greatly improved the chances for copper mining to return to profitability and spur economic
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growth. Copper output has increased steadily since 2004, due to higher copper prices and
the opening of new mines. The maize harvest was again good in 2005, helping boost GDP
and agricultural exports. Cooperation continues with international bodies on programs to
reduce poverty, including a new lending arrangement with the IMF in the second quarter of
2004. A tighter monetary policy will help cut inflation, but Zambia still has a serious
problem with high public debt.
11.10 Conclusion
11.11 Exercise
UNIT 12
POPULATION
12.1 Introduction
Population is the number of people living in a given geographical area at a given time.
12.2 Objectives
(a) State Zambia’s population size.
(b) Describe Zambia’s population dynamics.
(c) Describe Zambia’s population structure.
(d) Describe Zambia’s population distribution.
(e) Explain the implication of Zambia’s population situation.

Attempt a definition of the term ‘population dynamics’. What causes the population of an
area to grow? Is the population in your local area growing or declining?
12.4 Population size
The population of Zambia in 2003 was estimated by the United Nations at 10,812,000,
which placed it as number 73 in population among the 193 nations of the world. The
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following table shows the change of the size of the Zambian population since 1963bwhen
the first composite census was held in Zambia:
Year 1963 1969 1980 1984 1986 2000 2003 2005

Population(in 3.5 4.4 5.7 6.7 7.5 9.5 10.3 11.3
millions)
The recent estimates explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to
AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates,
lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and
sex than would otherwise be expected.
11.5 Population growth rate
Since independence in 1964, the rate of growth of Zambia’s population has been high and
increasing rapidly. Between 1963 and 1969, the rate of growth of the population was 2.6
percent per annum; this increased to 3.1 percent per annum between 1969 and 1985. It was
estimated to be 3.7 percent per annum in the 1985-90 period and 2.11 in 2006. This is
among the highest rates of population growth in the world and implies an 18-year doubling
time of the population.
The increases in both the size and growth rate of the population are primarily a function of
the interplay of two important demographic processes in the country namely, a persistently
high level of fertility and a steadily declining level of mortality.
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Birth rate Total fertility rate
• 41.38 births/1,000 population (2005 estimates) • 5.47 children born/woman

• 39.53 births/1,000 population (2003 estimates) (2005 estimates)
• 41.9 births/1,000 population (2000 estimates) • 5.25 children born/woman
(2003 estimates)
1.6 Mortality
Available data indicate that, unlike fertility levels which have remained persistently high in
the past, levels of mortality have declined considerably over time in response to vigorous
attempts of the Government to improve the quality of life of Zambians, especially through
various public health measures and programmes. The crude death rate (i.e. the number of
deaths per 1000 persons in the population per year) declined from 19.7 in 1969 to 16.7 in
1980 and was estimated at 14.0 in 1988, a decline of about 30% over the 1969-88 period.
With the high incidence of HIV/AIDS in the country, the death rate has gone up again,
being 22.08 deaths/1,000 population in2000, 24.3 deaths/1,000 population in 2003 and
20.23 deaths/1,000 population in 2005.
The declines in mortality over the years have led to substantial increase in the expectation
of life at birth among Zambians, from a low level of thirty-six years for both sexes in the
1950-55 period to 47.8 and 44.6 in 1969, 52.5 and 50.4 in 1960 and to an estimated 55 and
52 in 1988 for females and males, respectively. Unfortunately however, the life expectancy
37.41 years and 37.08 years in 2000; 35.25 years and 35.25 years in 2003; and 39.98 years
and 39.48 years for females and males, respectively. This reduction in life expectancy is
largely attributed to the HIV/AIDS pandemic.
It is precisely the ever-widening gap between a persistently high level of fertility and a
continuously declining level of mortality that has led to the high rate of natural increase of
the nation’s population.
11.7 Population structure
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The persistently high level of fertility has resulted in extreme youthfulness of the Zambian
population. In the 1980-88 period, almost half of the population (49.5 %) was under fifteen
years of age. The primary school age population (7 – 14 years) constituted about 22
percent; those in the economically active age groups (15 – 64) constituted 47.6 percent
while those over 65 years made up 2.5 percent of the population. Females in their
reproductive ages (15 – 49 years) comprised about 22 percent of the nation’s population.
This age structure of the population had been substantially the same prior to 1980 and is
likely to remain so for some time in future. For example, in 2003, approximately 3% of the
population was over 65 years of age, with another 48% of the population under 15 years of
age. There were 99 males for every 100 females in the country in 2003. The median age
was 16.46 years in 2005.
Such a preponderance of very young persons in the nation’s population poses a great
economic burden on the family and the entire nation as they consume a greater amount of
goods and services, which require large capital outlays, than they can provide. The
following figures are more recent estimates of the structure of Zambia’s population:
• 0-14 years: 46.5% (male 2,626,911/female 2,609,857)

• 15-64 years: 51.1% (male 2,848,402/female 2,904,376)
• 65 years and over: 2.4% (male 118,043/female 154,206) (2005 estimates)
• 0-14 years: 46.3% (male 2,396,313; female 2,378,567)

• 15-64 years: 50.9% (male 2,626,961; female 2,621,818)
• 65 years and over: 2.8% (male 131,196; female 152,478) (2003 estimates)
• 0-14 years: 48% (male 2,290,559; female 2,270,945)

• 15-64 years: 50% (male 2,369,317; female 2,413,070)
• 65 years and over: 2% (male 105,443; female 133,084) (2000 estimates)
11.8 Sex ratio
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The following figures show the ratio of males to females:
• At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female, under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female, 15-64 years: 0.98
male(s)/female, 65 years and over: 0.76 male(s)/female, total population: 0.99
male(s)/female (2005 estimates)
• At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female, under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female, 15-64 years: 1
male(s)/female, 65 years and over: 0.86 male(s)/female, total population: 1
• At birth:1.03 male(s)/female, under 15 years:1.01 male(s)/female, 15-64 years:0.98
male(s)/female, 65 years and over:0.79 male(s)/female, total population:0.99
• 5.62 children born/woman (2000 estimates)
11.9 Population distribution
Zambia’s population is not evenly distributed. In general, Zambia is a very sparsely settled
country, although over time, the density has increased from four people per square
kilometer in 1969 to eight in 1980 and 14 in 2000. There are substantial regional variations
in the density of settlement. The densities range from as high as 100 persons per square
kilometer in Lusaka and the Copperbelt to as low as 0 to 1 persons per square kilometer in
parts of Northern Province and the game park areas. The population is also very unevenly
distributed among the provinces. Copperbelt and Lusaka Provinces, covering only 7.1% of
the country’s land area, accommodated a third of the population in 1980 while Northern
Province with the largest land area of 19.6% only had 11.9% of the population. Quite a
significant proportion of the provincial variations in population distribution is attributed to
the various forms of migratory movements which have led to a depopulation of the
peripheral provinces and concentration along the old line of rail, from Kitwe to
Livingstone. Thus, 55.2% of the total population lives in Copperbelt, Central, Lusaka and
Southern Provinces where commercial, industrial and other ancillary economic activities
are more developed and concentrated.
11.10 Migration
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Migration is the third demographic process that has affected the patterns of Zambia’s
population, especially its spatial distribution. High fertility and rapid population growth
create pressures to emigrate by taxing infrastructures, education, health and social service
systems and the environment.
Zambia has been accommodating substantial numbers of refugees from other countries.
The refugees are fleeing armed conflict, natural disaster, famine or persecution in
neighbouring countries. There presence in ever increasing numbers exerts substantial
strains on the available social services. By the end of the 1980s, it is estimated that
foreigners made up 8% of the nation’s population. Similarly, the country loses a number of
the scarce trained manpower who go to other countries in search of more remunerative
employment opportunities. This phenomenon has been called the 'brain drain'.
Internal migration within Zambia has been on the rise since independence in 1964, as
people move in response to inequitable distribution of resources, services and
opportunities, or to escape violence or natural disaster. The movement of people from rural
to urban areas has contributed to the explosive growth of cities in Zambia, especially along
the line of rail and the Copperbelt.
11.11 Urbanisation
Despite the fact that Zambia has had a very short history of urbanisation, it is one of the
most urbanised countries in Africa south of the Sahara. In 1963, 20.5 % of the population
lived in urban centres of 5,000 or more persons. This proportion increased to 39.9 % in
1980 in contrast to the African average of 28.8%. In 2001, it was estimated by the
Population Reference Bureau that 40% of the population lived in urban areas. The capital
city, Lusaka, had a population of 1,577,000 in that year. Estimates for other cities included
Kitwe (439,000), Ndola (376,000), Mufulira (176,999), Chingola (186,000), and Kabwe
(210,000). The main urban concentrations were in the Copperbelt mining complex.
According to the United Nations, the urban population growth rate for 2000–2005 was
2.6%.
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The rate of urbanisation has been correspondingly high though it has been declining
recently from 8.9 to 6.2 % per annum in the 1963-69 and 1969-80 periods, respectively.
Despite this decline, the rate of urbanisation is still almost about double the rate of growth
of the nation’s population and at 6.7% per annum is much higher than the continental
average of about 5.6% per annum. In 1980, as much as 78% of the urban population
resided in large centres with populations of over 50,000.
Such a high rate of urbanisation is primarily due to two factors: high rates of natural
increase within the urban areas and sustained rural-urban migration. For instance, it has
been estimated that in 1986, 55% of the increase in the urban population was due to natural
increase and 45% to rural-urban migration. Such rural-urban migration has been mostly in
response to perceived and actual employment opportunities in the cities and is selective
with most of such migrants being the educated young.
The direction of migration today is mostly Lusaka. The city has grown to dwarf other
towns and cities in the country and can appropriately be described as a primate city. A
primate city is the largest and most dominant city in a country or region.
Factors that affect high primacy include
o Having an underdeveloped economy

o Having an agriculturally dominant economy
o A rapidly expanding population
o A recent colonial history
Factors encouraging primacy

• Favourable initial advantages for site
• Advantages maintained and enhanced
• Magnetic attraction for business, services and people (cumulative effect)
• Disproportionate growth increases attractiveness
• Has a parasitic effect, sucking wealth, natural and human resources from the
countryside.
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11.12 Implications of Zambia’s Population Situation
(a) Population Momentum The size of the population of the country is certain to
continue growing for many years to come even if the fertility levels were to
decline considerably. This is because an irresistible momentum for growth is
already built into the young age structure of the population.
(b) Declining standard of living The standard of living of most Zambians, especially
those in the low income groups, has been steadily declining since 1975. This has
been exacerbated by the poor performance of the country’s economy, combined
with high population growth rates.
(c) Population pressures at family level The effect of high fertility is mostly felt at the
family level in terms of the health of the mother and children, malnutrition, and
squalid living conditions
(d) Population pressures at national level The rising population will require expanded
infrastructure for food production, health services, water supply, sanitation,
housing, electricity and other services in order to maintain the standard of living of
the people. This has not been possible. The large dependency ratio means a larger
part of what the economically active population produces is consumed so that little
is left for savings and investment.
(e) Declining gross domestic product GDP is the total value of goods and services
produced in an economy. In Zambia, this has declined since 1975 when Zambia’s
economic difficulties began to surface. There wasn’t much money to spend on
social services and amenities. In the 1980-85 period, for example, the gross
domestic product annual growth rate was less than 1% while the annual population
growth rate was 3%.
(f) Hampered agricultural development Agricultural production in Zambia is
hampered (i) the large number of subsistence farmers only capable of producing
food enough for home consumption (ii) the widely dispersed population which
makes it difficult and costly to provide services such as transport and marketing
infrastructure and (iii) the rate of population growth, population size and per capita
income determine the ability to attain self-sufficiency in food production.
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97
(g) Dwindling energy resources Rapid population growth will affect the future of
Zambia’s energy resource requirements. Presently, serious imbalances between the
demand and supply for firewood and charcoal exist in many parts of Zambia,
leading to a rapid destruction of forests. This may lead to desertification and
increases in the occurrence of droughts. Recently, there has been deficits in the
supply of electricity, leading to massive power cuts in the country.
(h) Environmental degradation Rapid population growth has contributed significantly
to the degradation of the ecological condition of the country, among which is
deforestation, littering, urban sprawl and the mushrooming of shanty compounds.
(i) Inadequate education facilities The rapidly rising school age population means that
the country cannot attain the universal enrolment of seven-year olds. There is a
great gap between the steadily rising demand for education services at all levels of
the education system and the capability of the system to provide places for pupils
and students.
(j) Inadequate job opportunities Rapid population growth affects the supply of labour
in the economy. Given the current economic and population situation in the
country, it will be very difficult to absorb all the new entrants into the labour force
(k) Inadequate health facilities Rapid population growth has strained the provision of
curative and preventive health services and in improving the health status of the
population. This sis because of the large proportion of the high health risk
population constituting women of childbearing age (15 – 49) and children under
five who account for about 42% of the total population.
11.13 Zambia’s National Population Policy
11.13.1 Rationale for Zambia’s Population Policy

The issue of population and development is one of strategic importance facing mankind
today. A nation’s population is both the agent for, and the beneficiary of, development.
Population and development are thus very intricately linked and in very complex ways that
defy easy elucidation. The population characteristics of a nation, its size, composition,
structure, distribution, growth rates, as well as the basic demographic processes of fertility,
mortality and migration affect, and are in turn affected by, development. They should
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98
therefore be seen as central components in formulating and implementing policies and

programmes aimed at accelerating socio-economic development. This is the rationale for
current efforts in many developing countries to deliberately and systematically integrate
population factors into their development planning and plan implementation processes.
It is generally acknowledged that high population growth rates constitute a definite obstacle
to socio-economic development. The population of many developing countries are growing
at very high rates. Though these countries have individually, and as groups, recorded
considerable gains in the standard of living and quality of their people especially in the past
two to three decades, they could have achieved greater progress had their populations been
growing at lower rates. Faced with ever-increasing numbers of people to provide for, at a
time when resources available for the provision of those services continue to shrink as a
result of the enduring recession in national and global economies, many of these countries
have found it necessary in their circumstances to adopt either explicit or implicit population
policies. These policies often aim at reducing their rates of population growth and bringing
about other changes in their demographic situation so as to sustain and improve upon
already achieved standards of living and quality of life of their peoples. These population
policies are often integral components of the overall socio-economic development policies
of those countries.
For the first decade and a half after independence, Zambia, like many other African
countries, did not view her high rate of population growth as a developmental problem. The
only concern then was with the high rate of migration from rural to urban areas and uneven
spatial distribution of her population. Things have, however, changed considerably since
then both nationally and internationally. The leadership of the country accordingly had to
reappraise the perceptions of the role of population in national development efforts. Such a
reappraisal led to the firm conclusion that the nation’s development planning and plan
implementation processes should not only aim at accommodating the increased demands
for goods and services brought about by increases in the size and growth rate of the
population, but also aim at influencing those aspects of the country’s socio-cultural life that
have kept high the levels of reproduction and thus of population growth.
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99
11.13.2 Background to the population policy

Zambia has been concerned since independence in 1964 with the nation's demographic
situation. By the early 1970s the Planned Parenthood Association of Zambia was formed;
and in the mid 1970s, a number of population projects were organized under government
sponsorship: the Labour, Population and Family Welfare Education in the Organized
Sector Project, and the Family Health Programme. In 1984, the Zambian government
endorsed the Kilimanjaro Programme of Action on Population and soon after the Mexico
City World Population Conference a national population policy was drafted and adopted,
under the guidance of the National Commission for Development Planning. Zambia's
population policy has as its ultimate goal the fostering of accelerated socioeconomic
development so as to improve the standards of living and quality of life of all Zambians.
The first part contains the rationale underlying Zambia's population policy. Part 1 links
population to development and describes, in general terms, population policies that seek to
improve demographics in order to improve standards of living and the quality of life of a
people. The population situation in Zambia is then described in terms of population size
and growth rate, fertility, mortality, age structure, migration and urbanization, and
population distribution. The consequences and implications of this demographic situation
are related to 1) the creation of a population momentum, 2) a declining standard of living,
3) impacts on families (reduced maternal and child health, malnutrition, urban poverty), 4)
impacts on the national level (infrastructure demands), 5) a declining gross national
product, 6) effects on agricultural development, 7) depletion of energy resources, 8)
environmental degradation, 9) educational opportunities, 10) the labour force and
employment opportunities, and 11) health.
Part 2 discusses the formation of Zambia's population policy and the processes that led to
its May 1989 adoption. Part 3 contains the policy's goal (to improve the standard of living
and quality of life of all Zambians), objectives (to slow population growth, enhance health,
integrate population and development, provide family planning services, allow couples and
individuals to plan their families freely and responsibly, control urbanization, regulate
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100
international migration, and expand the population data base), targets for the years 2000
and 2015, and strategies. Part 4 describes the institutional structure (the role of private and
nongovernmental organizations, institutional and programme coordination, the National
Population Council, the Population and Development Planning Unit, and the Interagency
Technical Committee on Population) as well as monitoring and evaluation efforts.
11.13.3 Population policy targets

The main targets of the national population policy are to:
(a) Reduce the rate of population growth from the 3.7. % per annum to 2.5 by 2015
(b) Reduce the total fertility rate from 7.2 to 4 by 2015
(c) Reduce infant mortality rate from 97 per 1000 live births to 50 by 2015.
(d) Make family planning services available, accessible and affordable by at least 30%
of all adults in need of such services by 2000.
11.13.4 Population policy strategies

The factors affecting population processes in any country are numerous. Consequently, the
strategies for achieving the above objectives and targets will be multi-dimensional and
multi-sectoral, involving activities in almost all the sectors of the economy. The main
strategies include:
(a) Promoting awareness among all the people in Zambia about the nation’s
population dynamics and of the adverse effects of rapid population growth on
individual welfare and national development;
(b) Formulating and implementing fertility regulation and family planning
programmes within the context of the nation’s health care and related systems;
(c) Providing necessary information and education on the value of small family size
norm both the individual family and the nation as a whole in achieving self-
reliance;
(d) Intensifying the primary health care programme , especially maternal and child
health care, so as to reduce the levels of infant, child and maternal morbidity and
mortality;
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(e) Improving the status of women through the removal of various social, legal,
administrative and cultural barriers to their effective participation in national
affairs in order to enhance their participation in national development efforts and
as a way of ensuring demographic transition from high to low population growth
rates;
(f) Expanding the coverage of family life education to all schools and higher
institutions of learning so as to prepare the young people for responsible
parenthood;
(g) Improving the collection, processing, analysis and utilisation of demographic data
for economic and social development planning;
(h) Strengthening the existing mechanisms for disseminating demographic information
to policy makers, planners and the public at large;
(i) Enhancing integrated rural development so as to create employment opportunities
and improve living conditions in rural areas in order to slow down the rate of
migration to cities;
(j) Establishing population units in all relevant institutions so as to enhance the
integration of population factors in both sectoral and overall national planning;
(k) Training and retraining of national experts in demography, health, family planning,
statistics, education and other related areas so as to ensure a cadre of professional
staff to implement various population related activities in the country;
(l) Utilising the potentials of young persons through expanding and strengthening
educational, vocational and technical training programmes so as to make their
contribution to social and economic development more meaningful
11.14 Health Issues in Zambia
11.14.1 Morbidity
Despite efforts to reform the health care system and to improve access to services, Zambia
struggles to keep up with the health care needs of its people – particularly in the face of the
increased burden on the health system as a result of HIV/AIDS.
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102
HIV/AIDS infection An estimated 17% of the adult population (15-49 years) is HIV-
infected and young women between 15 and 24 years are six times more likely to be
infected than young men of the same age. While Zambia has shown some success in
reducing HIV prevalence among young people, they are also struggling to control a
climbing maternal mortality rate, now at 750 per 100,000 live births. Sixty percent of
young women aged 15-24 are already pregnant or mothers and contraceptive use is low.
With a national prevalence of 15.6 percent among Zambians aged 15-49 (women 18
percent; men 13 percent), according to the 2001/2 Demographic & Health Survey (DHS),
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: 21.5% (2001 estimates), 16.5% (2003 estimates),
14% (2008 estimates)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: 1.2 million (2001 estimates), 920,000 (2003
estimates).
HIV/AIDS – deaths: 89,000 (2003 estimates), 120,000 (2001 estimates)
the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Zambia overwhelms the health system. The following statistics
relate to HIV/AIDS:
Malaria is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Zambia, with nearly 4.3 million
cases and 50,000 deaths per year. It is responsible for one quarter of childhood deaths and
accounts for almost 50 percent of hospitalizations nationwide. The incidence of
tuberculosis in the country is on the rise, with new infections fuelled by a 70 percent HIV
co-infection rate.
The rate of maternal death in Zambia is unbearably high (729 maternal deaths per 100,000
live births) and has defiantly climbed upwards. It is one of the highest in the world, and
only 43 percent of deliveries are attended by a medically-trained provider. Lack of access
to obstetric care and transport, compounded by the paucity (lack) of midwives, doctors and
other trained health care workers throughout the country are to blame. The high incidence
of unsafe abortion—due to weak family planning/reproductive health infrastructure and
non-existent safe abortion services when and where needed— also conspire to create this
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103
sorry state of maternal health. As for child health, although under-five mortality has been
decreasing, it still remains at an unacceptably high level (168 deaths per 1000 live births),
with malaria and HIV being the principal causes of death in this age group. The following
are the recent estimates of infant mortality in the country:
• total: 88.29 deaths/1,000 live births

• male: 95.63 deaths/1,000 live births
• female: 80.72 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 estimates)
• total: 99.29 deaths/1,000 live births
• female: 91.77 deaths/1,000 live births
• male: 106.58 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 estimates)
• total 92.38 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 estimates)
11.14.2 Family planning and reproductive health issues
Investing in family planning and other reproductive health services is vital in mitigating the
economic and environmental impact of population growth, and in improving maternal and
child health-especially with Zambia's high HIV prevalence. Family planning and
reproductive health services are not uniformly available around the country and are not
always well-linked to HIV/AIDS interventions. Only 25 percent of married women
currently use a modern method of family planning, with total fertility at 5.9.
(a) Family planning
Family planning is frequently used to mean that people plan when to have children, using
birth control and other techniques to implement that plan. Other techniques commonly used
include sexuality education, prevention and management of sexually transmitted infections,
preconception counseling and management, and infertility management. Family planning is
sometimes used as a synonym for the use of birth control, though it often includes more.
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104
Birth control, sometimes synonymous with contraception, is a regimen of one or more

actions, devices, or medications followed in order to deliberately prevent or reduce the
likelihood of pregnancy or childbirth.
Contraception may refer specifically to mechanisms that are intended to reduce the
likelihood of a sperm cell fertilizing the egg. Between eight and nine in every 10 women
can become pregnant if contraception isn't used.
Objectives of family planning in Zambia
Specific family planning objectives include 1) to initiate, improve and sustain measures
aimed at slowing down the nation's high population growth rate; and 2) to ensure that all
couples and individuals have the basic right to decide freely and responsibly the number of
children and spacing and to have the information, education and means to do so. Specific
targets for population growth, fertility reduction and family planning services were set.
Rationale for family planning

There is a strong relationship between family planning and population policy. Family
planning is important for its health, demographic and human rights justifications. Data
from the 1972-1984 World Fertility Survey in 41 countries shows the high probability of
infant mortality if births are spaced less than 2 years apart. Maternal mortality and
mortality for older siblings is also high in this situation. Demographically, family planning
affects the population growth rate and the age structure; rapid natural growth leads to
growth in the size of the youthful population and in the females of childbearing age.
Projecting Zambia's population growth for the period 1985-2035, a high fertility rate would
lead to 3 million more people than a lower level of fertility, by the year 2015, by 2035 the
difference would be 26.9 million. Early, frequent and prolonged childbearing separately
and jointly affect negatively a woman's health and a family's well being as a whole. Family
planning should be thus regarded as a fundamental right of couples and individuals if they
are to decide freely and responsibly the number and spacing of their children. Communal
and society changes are needed to bring this about.
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105
Clearly, most people want and are having smaller families than in the past. This trend has
been greatly helped by the wider availability of high quality, safe and affordable family
planning services. Still, many people are having more children than they want to. Some
women who would like to use contraceptives lack access to them. Therefore, achieving the
predicted projections will require expanded access to family planning.
(b) Reproductive health
Within the framework of WHO's definition of health as a state of complete physical,

mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity,
reproductive health addresses the reproductive processes, functions and system at all stages
of life. Reproductive health, therefore, implies that people are able to have a responsible,
satisfying and safe sex life and that they have the capability to reproduce and the freedom
to decide if, when and how often to do so.
Implicit in this are the right of men and women to be informed of and to have access to
safe, effective, affordable and acceptable methods of fertility regulation of their choice, and
the right of access to appropriate health care services that will enable women to go safely
through pregnancy and childbirth and provide couples with the best chance of having a
healthy infant.
Improving reproductive health
Everyone has the right to enjoy reproductive health, which is a basis for having healthy
children, intimate relationships and happy families. Reproductive health encompasses key
areas – that every child is wanted, every birth is safe, every young person is free of HIV
and every girl and woman is treated with dignity and respect.
But reproductive health problems remain the leading cause of ill health and death for
women of childbearing age in Zambia. Impoverished women, especially those living in
rural areas, suffer disproportionately from unintended pregnancies, maternal death and
disability, sexually transmitted infections including HIV, gender-based violence and other
problems related to their reproductive system and sexual behaviour. Because young people
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106
often face barriers in trying to get the information or care they need, adolescent
reproductive health is another important focus of reproductive health programming.
The critical importance of reproductive health to development has been acknowledged at

the highest level. At the 2005 World Summit, world leaders agreed to integrate access to
reproductive health into national strategies to attain the Millennium Development Goals.
UNFPA is fully committed to mobilizing support and scaling up efforts to make
reproductive health for all a reality by 2015.
(c) The Reproductive System and Health
Both the male and female reproductive systems play a role in pregnancy. Problems with
these systems can affect fertility and the ability to have children. There are many such
problems in men and women. Reproductive health problems can also be harmful to overall
health and impair a person's ability to enjoy a sexual relationship.
One’s reproductive health is influenced by many factors. These include age, lifestyle,
habits, genetics, use of medicines and exposure to chemicals in the environment. Many
problems of the reproductive system can be corrected
(d) Safe Motherhood
Safe motherhood begins before conception with proper nutrition and a healthy lifestyle and
continues with appropriate prenatal care, the prevention of complications when possible,
and the early and effective treatment of complications. The ideal result is a pregnancy at
term without unnecessary interventions, the delivery of a healthy infant, and a healthy
postpartum period in a positive environment that supports the physical and emotional needs
of the woman, infant, and family.
To better understand the burden of maternal complications and mortality and to decrease
disparities among populations at risk of death and complications from pregnancy, it is
necessary to support national surveillance systems to monitor trends and investigate health
issues; conduct epidemiologic, behavioural, demographic, and health services research; and
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107
work with partners to translate research findings into health care practice, public health
policy, and health promotion strategies.
12.5 Exercise
1. What is gender? Are women in Zambia marginalized or not?

2. What is safe motherhood?
3. Discuss the demographic transition diagram
4. How can reproductive health be improved in the face of the HIV/AIDS pandemic?
5. Show how early marriages contribute to high fertility levels
6. Why has life expectancy dropped in Zambia since 1988?
7. Show how the low status of women has contributed to rapid population growth
8. Why is it that women and men are becoming hesitant to marry since the 1990?
9. Illustrate how a rapidly increasing population influences development
10. What positive and negative things come as a result of industrialization?
11. How does a youthful population impede economic development?
12. Why has Zambia adopted the policy of cost sharing in health and education?
13. Why do women have higher life expectancy than men in Zambia?
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108

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GEOG 311: GEOGRAPHY OF ZAMBIA

THE GEOGRAPHY OF ZAMBIA

Unit 1: Political Geography and Aspects of Location

7.5 Common hazards in Zambia

10.4 Economic history of Zambia

1.3 Pre-Lesson Activity

1.4 Problems faced at Independence

1.5 Socio-economic and political challenges

1.6 Shape and size

• Make it difficult to organise and unify the country.

1.7.1 The Tropical Location

1.7.2 Location on the High African Plateau

1.7.3 Landlocked and interior location

As a result of their marginalisation in global trade … LLDCs’ proportion developing country

1.7.4 Location in the middle of many neighbours (geo-political location)

2.3 Pre-Lesson Activity

2.4 Nature of Zambia’s relief

2.5 Forces responsible for shaping Zambia’s relief

2.5.1 Gradation: This is a process which involves both erosion (degradation) of

How are rocks studied?

3.5 Zambia’s rock systems

3.6.1 The Basement Complex

3.6.2 The Katanga System

(a) The Roan Group is the main group of copper mineralization.

3.6.3 The Karroo System

3.6.4 The Kalahari System

3.5.5 The Alluvium Deposits

3.5.6 Underground aquifers

4.3 Pre-Lesson Activity

4.4 Types of soil found in Zambia

4.4.1 Plateau soils

4.4.2 Upper valley soils

4.4.3 Lower valley soils

4.4.4 Lake basin soils

4.4.5 Kalahari sands

5.3 Pre-Lesson Activity

• Continental location – Zambia’ interior location gives it a continental climate. This

• Invasion of high pressure cells from the Atlantic Ocean

• Incursion of tropical cyclones from the Indian Ocean

5.5.2 Types of rainfall in Zambia

5.5.3 Factors affecting rainfall distribution in Zambia

5.5.4 Seasonal distribution of rainfall

• The cool dry season (April to August)

5.6.1 The Cool, Dry Season

5.6.2 The Hot, Dry Season

5.6.3 The Warm, Wet Season

6.3 Pre-Lesson Activity

6.4 Types of vegetation found in Zambia

Itigi forest grows in the Mweru-Chishi-Tanganyika lowlands of Northern Province.

Isoberlinia angolensis (Mutobo, Kapane).

Julbernadia, for example, Julbernadia globiflora (Mpasa, Mwanza) and Julbernadia

In the west, miombo species, especially Brachystegia spiciformis (Muputu, Manga,

6.4.4 Other types of vegetation

6.5 Importance of vegetation

Forests are a source of woodfuel, including charcoal as well as the firewood.

They help to preserve agricultural land from the danger of erosion.

Forests cause rainfall through the process of transpiration.

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

7.3 Pre-Lesson Activity

7.4 Definition of a Hazard

7.5 Nature of a Hazard

7.5.2 Classifying hazards