Lecture Notes Mobile Communication

Mobile Communication
1
Bhaskar Sardar, Information Technology Department, Jadavpur University, India
Reference Books
• J. Schiller, “Mobile Communications”, 2nd Edition, Addison-
Wesley
• Andrew S. Tanenbaum, “Computer Networks”, 4th Edition, PHI
• W. Stallings, “Wireless Communications and Networking”, 2nd

Edition, PHI
• V. K. Garg, “Wireless Network Evolution: 2G to 3G”, PHI
• M. Hassan, R. Jain, “High Performance TCP/IP Networking”, PHI
2
Introduction
• Two aspects of mobility:
– user mobility: users communicate (wireless)
“anytime, anywhere, with anyone”
– device portability: devices can be connected
anytime anywhere to the network
anytime,
• Wireless vs. mobile Examples

8 8 stationary computer
8 9 notebook in a hotel
9 8 wireless LANs in historic
buildings
9 9 Mobile Phones
3
1
Introduction
• The demand for mobile communication creates the
need for integration of wireless networks into existing
fixed networks:
– local area networks: standardization of IEEE
802.11
– Internet: Mobile IP extension of IP
– wide area networks: e.g., internetworking of
GSM and ISDN
4
Applications
• Vehicles
– transmission of news, road condition, weather,
music
– vehicle data (e.g., from busses, high-speed trains)
can be transmitted in advance for maintenance
• Emergencies
– early transmission of patient data to the hospital,
current status, first diagnosis
– replacement of a fixed infrastructure in case of
earthquakes
5
Applications
• Traveling salesmen
– direct access to customer files stored in a central
location
– consistent databases for all agents
• Entertainment, education, ...

– outdoor Internet access
6
2
Wireless network in comparison to

fixed network
– Higher loss-rates due to interference
– Low transmission rates
– Higher delays, higher jitter
– Lower security, simpler active attacking
– Always shared medium
7
Simple Reference Model to be used
Application Application
Transport Transport
Network Network Network Network
Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link
Physical Physical Physical Physical
Radio Medium
8
Types of wireless networks

• Categories of wireless networks:
– System interconnection
– Wireless LANs
– Wireless WANs
9
3
(a) Bluetooth configuration (b) Wireless LAN
10
(a) Individual mobile computers (b) A flying LAN
11
Wireless LANs
(a) Wireless networking with a base station (b) Ad hoc networking

12
4
Wireless LANs
The range of a single radio may not cover the entire system
13
Wireless LANs
A multicell 802.11 network

14
Media Access
15
5
Polling Mechanism
• If one terminal can be heard by all others, this “central”
terminal (a.k.a. base station) can poll all other terminals
according to a certain scheme
• Example: Randomly Addressed Polling

– base station signals readiness to all mobile terminals
– terminals ready to send can now transmit a random
number without collision (the random number can be seen
as dynamic address)
– the base station now chooses one address for polling from
the list of all random numbers (collision if two terminals
choose the same address)
– the base station acknowledges correct packets and
continues polling the next terminal
– this cycle starts again after polling all terminals of the list
16
ISMA (Inhibit Sense Multiple Access)

• Current state of the medium is signaled via a “busy tone”
– the base station signals on the downlink (base station to
terminals) if the medium is free or not
– terminals must not send if the medium is busy
– terminals can access the medium as soon as the busy tone
stops
p
– the base station signals collisions and successful
transmissions via the busy tone and acknowledgements,
respectively (media access is not coordinated within this
approach)
17
Aloha/Slotted Aloha
• Mechanism
– random, distributed (no central arbiter), time-multiplex
– Slotted Aloha additionally uses time-slots, sending must
always start at slot boundaries
collision
sender A
sender B
sender C
t
collision
sender A
sender B
sender C
t
18
6
DAMA (Demand Assigned Multiple Access)

• Reservation can increase efficiency to 80%
– a sender reserves a future time-slot
– sending within this reserved time-slot is possible without
collision
– reservation also causes higher delays
– typical scheme for satellite links
• Examples for reservation algorithms:

– Explicit Reservation according to Roberts (Reservation-
ALOHA)
– Implicit Reservation (PRMA)
– Reservation-TDMA
19
DAMA: Explicit Reservation

• Explicit Reservation (Reservation Aloha):
– two modes:
• ALOHA mode for reservation:
competition for small reservation slots, collisions
possible
• reserved mode for data transmission within
successful reserved slots (no collisions possible)
– it is important for all stations to keep the
reservation list consistent at any point in time and,
therefore, all stations have to synchronize from time
to time
20
DAMA: Explicit Reservation
collision
t
Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha
21
7
DAMA: PRMA
• Implicit reservation (PRMA - Packet Reservation
MA):
– a certain number of slots form a frame, frames are
repeated
– stations compete for empty slots according to the
slotted
l d aloha
l h principle
i i l
– once a station reserves a slot successfully, this slot
is automatically assigned to this station in all
following frames as long as the station has data to
send
– competition for this slots starts again as soon as
the slot was empty in the last frame
22
DAMA: PRMA
reservation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 time-slot
ACDABA-F
frame1 A C D A B A F
ACDABA-F
frame2 A C A B A
AC-ABAF-
collision at
frame3 A B A F reservation
A---BAFD attempts
frame4 A B A F D
ACEEBAFD
frame5 A C E E B A F D
t
23
DAMA: Reservation TDMA

• Reservation Time Division Multiple Access
– every frame consists of N mini-slots and x data-slots
– every station has its own mini-slot and can reserve up to k
data-slots using this mini-slot (i.e. x = N * k).
– other stations can send data in unused data-slots according
to a round-robin sendingg scheme ((best-effort
ff traffic)
ff )
e.g. N=6, k=2
N mini-slots N * k data-slots
reservations other stations can use free data-slots

for data-slots based on a round-robin scheme
24
8
Motivation for new Access Protocol

• Can we apply media access methods from fixed
networks?
• Example: CSMA/CD
– Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
– send as soon as the medium is free, listen into the medium if a collision
occurs (original method in IEEE 802.3)
802 3)
• Problems in wireless networks
– signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the
distance
– the sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen
at the receiver
– it might be the case that a sender cannot “hear” the collision,
i.e., CD does not work
– furthermore, CS might not work if, e.g., a terminal is “hidden”
25
Motivation: Hidden Terminal

• Hidden terminals
– A sends to B, C cannot receive A
– C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium
(CS fails)
– collision at B,
B A cannot receive the collision (CD
fails)
– A is “hidden” for C
A B C
26
Motivation: Exposed Terminal

• Exposed terminals
– B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal
(not A or B)
– C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use
– but A is outside the radio range of C,
C therefore
waiting is not necessary
– C is “exposed” to B
A B C
27
9
MACA: Collision Avoidance

• MACA uses short signaling packets for collision avoidance
– RTS (request to send): a sender request the right to send
from a receiver with a short RTS packet before it sends a
data packet
– CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right to send as
soon as it is ready to receive
• Signaling packets contain
– sender address
– receiver address
– packet size
• Variants of this method can be found in IEEE802.11 as

DFWMAC (Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC)
28
MACA Examples
• MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals
– A and C want to
send to B
– A sends RTS first
– C waits after receiving
CTS ffrom B
RTS
CTS CTS
A B C
29
MACA Examples
• MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals
– B wants to send to A, C to another terminal
– now C does not have to wait for it cannot
receive CTS from A
RTS RTS
CTS
A B C
30
10
The Mobile Telephone Systems
31
Three Generations
• First-Generation Mobile Phones: Analog Voice
• Second-Generation Mobile Phones: Digital Voice
• Third-Generation Mobile Phones: Digital Voice and

Data
32
Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)

• Cellular concept introduced
– Cells are 10-20 km across
• Uses FDM
• Uses frequency reuse
• Small cells increases system capacity
• Handoff
– Soft handoff
– Hard handoff
33
11
• Frequency Reuse
(a) Frequencies are not reused in adjacent cells (b) To add more users, smaller cells can be used
34

The 832 channels are divided into four categories:
– Control (base to mobile) to manage the system
– Paging (base to mobile) to alert users to calls for them
– Access (bidirectional) for call setup and channel

assignment
– Data (bidirectional) for voice, fax, or data
35
D-AMPS
• Fully Digital
• Uses same 30 kHz channels in same frequency as in

AMPS
• Compression is done using vocoder

– Compression is done in the telephone
• Uses FDM and TDM
36
12
D-AMPS
(a) A D-AMPS channel with three users (b) A D-AMPS channel with six users
37
Global System for Mobile

Communication (GSM)
38
Overview
formerly: Groupe Spéciale Mobile (founded 1982)
now: Global System for Mobile Communication
seamless roaming within Europe possible
today many providers all over the world use GSM (more
than 200 countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia,
America)
more than 1.2 billion subscribers
more than 75% of all digital mobile phones use GSM

39
13
Services
• GSM offers
– several types of connections
• voice connections, data connections, SMS
– multi-service options (combination of basic services)
• Three service domains
– Bearer Services
• Transfer
T f ddata
t between
b t access points
i t
– Telematic Services
• Enable voice communication via mobile phones
• voice mailbox, electronic mail
• Short Message Service (SMS)
– Supplementary Services
• identification: forwarding of caller number
• automatic call-back
• locking of the mobile terminal
40
Architecture
• several providers setup mobile networks following the GSM
standard within each country
• components
– MS (mobile station)
– BS (base station)
– MSC (mobile switching center)
– LR (location register)
• subsystems
– RSS (radio subsystem): covers all radio aspects
– NSS (network and switching subsystem): call forwarding, handover,
switching
– OSS (operation subsystem): management of the network
41
Architecture
OMC, EIR,
AUC
HLR GMSC
NSS fixed network
with OSS
VLR MSC MSC

VLR
BSC
BSC
RSS
42
14
Radio Subsystem
• The Radio Subsystem (RSS) comprises the cellular mobile
network up to the switching centers
• Components
– Base Station Subsystem (BSS):
• B
Base T
Transceiver
i Station
St ti (BTS):
(BTS) radio
di components
t including
i l di
sender, receiver, antenna
• Base Station Controller (BSC): switching between BTSs,

controlling BTSs
• BSS = BSC + sum(BTS) + interconnection
– Mobile Stations (MS)

43
Mobile Station
• A mobile station (MS) comprises several functional groups
– MT (Mobile Terminal):
• end-point of the radio interface
– TA (Terminal Adapter):
• terminal adaptation, hides radio specific characteristics
– TE (Terminal
(T i l Equipment):
E i t)
• peripheral device of the MS, offers services to a user
• does not contain GSM specific functions
– SIM (Subscriber Identity Module):
• personalization of the mobile terminal, stores user parameters
44
Network and Switching Subsystem

• NSS is the main component of the public mobile network GSM
– switching, mobility management, interconnection to other networks,
system control
• Components
– Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)
• controls all connections via a separated network to/from a mobile
terminal within the domain of the MSC
– Databases (high capacity, low delay)
• Home Location Register (HLR)
– central database containing user data
• Visitor Location Register (VLR)
– data about all user currently in the domain of the VLR
45
15
Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

• The MSC plays a central role in GSM
– switching functions
– mobility support
– management of network resources
– interworking functions via Gateway MSC (GMSC)
• Functions of a MSC
– specific functions for paging and call forwarding

– mobility specific signaling
– location registration and forwarding of location information
– support of short message service (SMS)
– generation and forwarding of accounting and billing information
46
Mobile Terminated Call

1: calling a GSM subscriber
2: forwarding call to GMSC
4
3: signal call setup to HLR HLR VLR
5
4, 5: request MSRN from VLR 8 9
3 6 14 15
6: forward responsible MSC to 7
calling
GMSC PSTN GMSC MSC
station 1 2
7: forward call to current MSC 10 10 13 10
8, 9: get current status of MS 16
BSS BSS BSS
10, 11: paging of MS 11 11 11
12, 13: MS answers
11 12
14, 15: security checks 17
16, 17: set up connection MS
47
Mobile Originated Call

• 1, 2: connection request
• 3, 4: security check
• 5-8: check resources (free circuit)
• 9-10: set up call
VLR
3 4
6 5
PSTN GMSC MSC
7 8
2 9
1
MS BSS
10
48
16
Four Types of Handover

1
2 3 4
MS MS MS MS
BTS BTS BTS BTS
BSC BSC BSC
MSC MSC
49
Handover Procedure
MS BTSold BSCold MSC BSCnew BTSnew
measurement
measurement
report
result
HO decision
HO required
HO request
resource allocation
ch.
h activation
ti ti
HO request ackch. activation ack

HO command
HO command
HO command
HO access
Link establishment
HO complete
HO complete
clear command
clear command
clear complete
clear complete
50
Code Division Multiple Access

(CDMA)
51
17
Basic Principles
• Each user uses entire spectrum
• Collision occurs
– Multiple
M l i l signals
i l add
dd linearly
li l
– Signals are separated using coding theory
52
How it works
• Each bit time is subdivided into m short intervals
called chips
• Each station is assigned a unique m-bit code called a
chip sequence
• To send a 1 bit
– Send the chip sequence
• To send a 0 bit
– Send negative of chip sequence
• All chip sequences are pair wise Orthogonal
– Normalized inner product of S and T is 0
53
How to Recover Signal

• To recover information one has to know the senders chip
sequence
• Compute the inner product of received signal and senders chip

sequence
• Example
– Three senders A, B, C. To recover C’s signal compute S•C =

(A+B+C)•C = C•C = 1
54
18
Example
(a) Binary chip sequences for four stations

(b) Bipolar chip sequences
(c) Six examples of transmissions
(d) Recovery of station C’s signal
55
Wireless LAN: IEEE 802.11
56
Characteristics of WLAN
• Very flexible within the reception area
• Ad-hoc networks without previous planning possible
• ((almost)) no wiring
g difficulties
• more robust against disasters like, e.g., earthquakes
• typically very low bandwidth compared to wired

networks (1-10 Mbit/s) due to shared medium
57
19
Comparison: Infrastructure Vs Ad-hoc

infrastructure
network
AP: Access Point
AP
AP wired network
AP
ad-hoc network
58
Architecture of an Infrastructure Network
802.11 LAN
802.x LAN
STA1
BSS1 Access Portal

Point
Distribution System
Access
ESS Point
BSS2
STA3
STA2
802.11 LAN
STA: Station, BSS: Basic Service Set, ESS: Extended Service Set
59
Layers and Functions

• MAC • PLCP - Physical Layer
– access mechanisms, Convergence Protocol
fragmentation – clear channel assessment
• MAC Management signal
– synchronization, • PMD - Physical Medium
roaming, power Dependent
management
– modulation,
modulation coding
• PHY Management
– channel selection
Station Management
• Station Management
LLC
DLC
– coordination of all
MAC MAC Management management functions
PLCP
PHY
PHY Management
PMD
60
20
MAC Layer I-DFWMAC

• Traffic services
– Asynchronous Data Service (mandatory)
• exchange of data packets based on “best-effort”
– Time-Bounded Service (optional)
• implemented using PCF (Point Coordination Function)
• Access methods
– DFWMAC-DCF CSMA/CA (mandatory)
• collision avoidance via randomized “back-off“ mechanism
• ACK packet for acknowledgements (not for broadcasts)
– DFWMAC-DCF w/ RTS/CTS (optional)
• Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC
• avoids hidden terminal problem
– DFWMAC- PCF (optional)
• access point polls terminals according to a list
61
MAC Layer II
• Priorities
– defined through different inter frame spaces
– SIFS (Short Inter Frame Spacing)

• highest priority, for ACK, CTS, polling response
– PIFS (PCF IFS)

• medium priority, for time-bounded service using PCF
– DIFS (DCF, Distributed Coordination Function IFS)

• lowest priority, for asynchronous data service
DIFS DIFS
PIFS
SIFS
medium busy contention next frame
t
direct access if
medium is free ≥ DIFS
62
CSMA/CA Access Method I

contention window
DIFS DIFS (randomized back-off
mechanism)
medium busy next frame
direct access if t
medium is free ≥ DIFS slot time
– station ready to send starts sensing the medium (Carrier Sense based on
CCA, Clear Channel Assessment)
– if the medium is free for the duration of an Inter-Frame Space (IFS), the
station can start sending
– if the medium is busy, the station has to wait for a free IFS, then the station
must additionally wait a random back-off time (collision avoidance, multiple
of slot-time)
– if another station occupies the medium during the back-off time of the
station, the back-off timer stops (fairness)
63
21
Competing Stations-Simple Version

DIFS DIFS DIFS DIFS
boe bor boe bor boe busy
station1
boe busy
station2
busy
station3
boe busy boe bor

station4
boe bor boe busy boe bor

station5
t
busy medium not idle (frame, ack etc.) boe elapsed backoff time
packet arrival at MAC bor residual backoff time
64
CSMA/CA Access Method II

• Sending unicast packets
– station has to wait for DIFS before sending data
– receivers acknowledge at once (after waiting for SIFS) if the packet
was received correctly (CRC)
– automatic retransmission of data packets in case of transmission errors
DIFS
data
sender
SIFS
ACK
receiver
DIFS
other data
stations
t
waiting time
contention
65
DFWMAC
• Sending unicast packets
– station can send RTS with reservation parameter after waiting for DIFS
– acknowledgement via CTS after SIFS by receiver (if ready to receive)
– sender can now send data at once, acknowledgement via ACK
– other stations store medium reservations distributed via RTS and CTS
DIFS
RTS data
sender
SIFS SIFS SIFS
CTS ACK
receiver
NAV (RTS) DIFS

other NAV (CTS) data
stations t
defer access contention
66
22
Fragmentation
DIFS
RTS frag1 frag2

sender
SIFS SIFS SIFS

SIFS SIFS
CTS ACK1 ACK2
receiver
NAV (RTS)
NAV (CTS)
DIFS
NAV (frag1)
other data
stations NAV (ACK1)
t
contention
67
DFWMAC-PCF
t0 t1
SuperFrame
medium busy PIFS SIFS D SIFS

D1 2
point
coordinator SIFS SIFS
U1 U2
wireless
stations
stations‘ NAV
NAV
t2 t3 t4
PIFS SIFS
D3 D4 CFend
point
coordinator SIFS
U4
wireless
stations
stations‘ NAV
NAV contention free period contention t
period
68
Frame Format
69
23
Synchronization using Beacon

Infrastructure
beacon interval
B B B B
access
point
busy busy busy busy

medium
t
value of the timestamp B beacon frame
70
Synchronization using Beacon

Ad-hoc
beacon interval
B1 B1
station1
B2 B2
station2
busy busy busy busy

medium
t
value of the timestamp B beacon frame random delay
71
Power Management
• Idea: switch the transceiver off if not needed
• States of a station: sleep and awake
• Timing Synchronization Function (TSF)
– stations wake up at the same time
• Infrastructure
– Traffic
ff Indication Mapp (TIM)
( )
• list of unicast receivers transmitted by AP
– Delivery Traffic Indication Map (DTIM)
• list of broadcast/multicast receivers transmitted by AP
• Ad-hoc
– Ad-hoc Traffic Indication Map (ATIM)
• announcement of receivers by stations buffering frames
• more complicated - no central AP
• collision of ATIMs possible (scalability?)
72
24
Power Saving with Wake up Pattern

Infrastructure
TIM interval DTIM interval
D B T T d D B
access
point
busy busy busy busy
medium
p d
station
t
T TIM D DTIM awake
data transmission
B broadcast/multicast p PS poll d to/from the station
73
Power Saving with Wake up Pattern

Ad-hoc
ATIM
window beacon interval
B1 A D B1
station1
B2 B2 a d
station2
B beacon frame random delay A transmit ATIM D transmit data
awake a acknowledge ATIM d acknowledge data
74
Roaming
• No or bad connection? Then perform:
• Scanning
– scan the environment
• Re-association Request
– station sends a request to one or several AP(s)
• Re-association
R i i Response
R
– success: AP has answered, station can now participate
– failure: continue scanning
• AP accepts Re-association Request
– signal the new station to the distribution system
– the distribution system updates its data base (i.e., location information)
– typically, the distribution system now informs the old AP so it can
release resources
75
25
Mobility Support in IP
76
Problems with IP Addressing

• An IP address serves two different functions…
– The name for an interface (host) and
– The location (subnet) of the interface (host) in the
network
• The network identifier in the IP address is used

by routers to deliver to the destination subnet
– The IP address is associated with the location or
subnet of the destination host
77

• Router uses routing table to direct packets to
the appropriate interface
Target Interface
2.0.0.0/24 a 3.0.0.2 3.0.0.3 3.0.0.4
3.0.0.0/24 b
4.0.0.0/24 c b
a
Dest = 3.0.0.4 Router

c
4.0.0.5 4.0.0.6
78
26

• Host moving to another network is unreachable
Target Interface
2.0.0.0/24 a 3.0.0.2 3.0.0.3 3.0.0.4
3.0.0.0/24 b
4.0.0.0/24 c b
a X
Dest = 3.0.0.4 Router
c
Mobile
Host
4.0.0.5 4.0.0.6 3.0.0.4
79
Solution to the problem

• Change IP address
– Mobile host can change its address to the foreign
link’s network prefix
– Need to register new IP address with DNS (if it is
to maintain identity),
identity) resulting in added load on
the DNS server and network
– Communications, e.g., TCP connections, would be
disrupted
• Both ends of a TCP connection need to keep the same IP address for the
life of the session
– TCP connection: (IPsrc, IPdst, Portsrc, Portdst)
80
Solution to the problem

• Modify TCP and applications to adapt to mobile hosts
» Not practical/scalable
• Solve the problem at the IP layer in a way that is
transparent to existing applications
– Mobile IP
• Allow the hosts to retain original IP address and obtain a second IP
address when visiting other networks
• Two-tier IP addressing
– applications use a static IP address, the home address
– routing is performed using a topologically significant address, the care-
of-address (CoA)
– a protocol and sub-layer convert the CoA into the Home address and
the home address into the CoA
81
27
Mobile IP
Mobility (i.e. Change of CoA) is transparent to applications and IP

layer that are always using the MN’s permanent address
82
Mobile IP Components
HA
MN
router
home network mobile end-system

Internet
(physical home network
for the MN)
FA foreign
network
router
(current physical network
for the MN)
CN
end-system router
83
Mobile IP: Registration

• Foreign network runs system known as foreign
agent
– Visiting host registers with foreign agent
– Foreign agent assigns host a temporary address
g agent
• Foreign g care-of address
– Foreign agent registers host with home agent
• Foreign network does not run a foreign agent

– Host uses DHCP to obtain temporary address
• Colocated care-of address
– Host registers directly with home agent
84
28
Data Flow: CN to MH
HA
2
MN
home network 3 receiver

Internet
FA foreign
network
1. Sender sends to the IP address of MN,

1 HA intercepts packet (proxy ARP)
CN
2. HA tunnels packet to COA, here FA, by
encapsulation
sender 3. FA forwards the packet to the MN
85
Data Flow: MH to CN
HA
1
home network sender

Internet
FA foreign
network
CN 1. Sender sends to the IP address

of the receiver as usual, FA
works as default router
receiver
86
Route Optimization
• “Triangle routing” in basic Mobile IP is inefficient
– the CN sends all packets via HA to MN
– higher latency and network load
• Solutions: Route Optimization

– the CN learns the current location (CoA) of MN
• IPv4: HA sends a BU to the CN specifying MN’s
current CoA
• IPv6: upon reception of the first tunneled packets
from the HA, the MN can send a BU to the CN
87
29
Route Optimization (MIPv4)

Binding update
Binding
Cache f
e
c Datagram 1 HA
CN
Datagram 2 d
g
Tunnel
FA
ACK
MH
88
Route Optimization (MIPv6)

Binding
Cache f
c Datagram 1 HA
CN
Datagram 2 d
Binding update
g
Tunnel
e FA
ACK
MH
89
Changing FA
CN HA FAold FAnew MN
Data Data Data

Update
ACK
Data Data
MN changes
location
Update Registration
ACK
Data
Data Data
Warning
Request
Update
ACK
Data
Data
t
90
30
HA Destination option Vs Routing Option
91
MIPv6 Vs MIPv4
• FAs are no longer necessary in IPv6
• In MIPv6 the “’Route optimization’’ is always available,
whereas it is optional in IPv4
• In MIPv6, a packet sent by a MH has its source address set to
its CoA and an Home Address option indicating its Home
Address This solves the ingress filtering problem...
Address. problem
• Encapsulation is avoided between CN-MN with the IPv6
Routing Header
• MIPv4 can not be used with firewalls
• Soft Handoff is supported
92
Micro Mobility Support in IP
93
31
Introduction
• Micro-mobility support:
– Efficient local handover inside a foreign domain
without involving a home agent
– Reduces control traffic on backbone
– Especially
E i ll needed
d d in
i case off route optimization
i i i
• Example approaches:
– Cellular IP
– HAWAII
– Hierarchical Mobile IP (HMIP)
94
Cellular IP
• Operation:
– “CIP Nodes” maintain Internet
routing entries (soft state) for Mobile IP
MNs
CIP Gateway
– Routing entries updated data/control
b d on packets
based k t sentt by
b MN packets
from MN 1
• CIP Gateway:
– Mobile IP tunnel endpoint
BS BS BS
packets from
– Initial registration processing MN2 to MN 1
MN1 MN2
95
Cellular IP
• Advantages:
– Simple and elegant architecture
– Initial registration involves authentication of MNs
and is processed centrally by CIP Gateway
• Potential problems:
– MNs can directly influence routing entries
– Multiple-path forwarding may cause inefficient
use of available bandwidth
96
32
HAWAII
• Operation:
Internet
– MN obtains co-located HA
COA 1
and registers with HA 2 Backbone
Router
– Handover: MN keeps
COA, Crossover
Router
new BS answers Reg.
2
Request 3 4 Mobile IP
and updates routers 4
BS BS BS DHCP
– MN views BS as foreign Mobile IP
Server
agent 3
DHCP
MN MN 1
97
HAWAII
• Advantages:
– Mostly transparent to MNs
(MN sends/receives standard Mobile IP messages)
– Only infrastructure components can influence
routing entries
– Mixture of co-located COA and FA concepts may
not be
supported by some MN implementations
98
Hierarchical MIPv6 (HMIPv6)

• Operation: Internet
HA
– Network contains mobility
RCOA
anchor point (MAP)
MAP
• mapping of regional COA
((RCOA)
CO ) too link COA
CO (LCOA)
( CO )
binding AR AR
– Upon handover, MN informs update
MAP only LCOAnew LCOAold
• gets new LCOA, keeps RCOA MN MN
– HA is only contacted if MAP

changes
99
33
HMIPv6
• Advantages:
– Local COAs can be hidden,
which provides some location privacy
– Handover requires minimum number of overall changes to
routingg tables
– Integration with firewalls / private address support possible
– Not transparent to MNs
– MNs can directly influence routing entries via binding
updates (authentication necessary)
100
Routing in Ad-hoc Networks
101
Algorithms for Wired Networks

• Distance Vector Routing
• Routing table exchange periodically
• Slow convergence
– Count-to-infinity problem
• Link State Routing

• Collect neighbor information
• Flood neighbor information to all nodes
• Both work well in wired networks due to predictable
network properties
• Fails in highly dynamic environments
102
34
Problems in Ad-hoc Networks

• No specific devices to do routing
9All nodes must participate
• Dynamic nature of the network
¾Nodes change their position frequently!!!!!
• Asymmetric links
• A receives B but not vice-versa
• Limitations of Ad Hoc Networks like
• high power consumption
• low bandwidth
• high error rates
103
Classification of Routing Algorithms
MANET Routing Protocols
Proactive (Table Driven) Reactive (On Demand)
DSDV DSR, AODV
104
Destination Sequence Distance Vector (DSDV)

• DSDV is Proactive (Table Driven)
¾ Keep the simplicity of Distance Vector
¾ Each node maintains routing information for all known
destinations
¾ Routing information must be updated periodically
¾ Traffic overhead even if there is no change in network
topology
¾ Maintains routes which are never used
105
35
• Guarantee Loop Freeness

• New Table Entry for Destination Sequence Number
• Allow fast reaction to topology

p gy changes
g
• Make immediate route advertisement on significant
changes in routing table
but wait with advertising of unstable routes (damping
fluctuations)
106
Routing table
Destination Next Metric Seq. Nr Install Time Stable Data
A A 0 A-550 001000 Ptr_A
B B 1 B-102 001200 Ptr_B
C B 3 C-588 001200 Ptr_C
D B 4 D-312 001200 Ptr_D
107

• Advertise to each neighbor own routing information
9 Destination Address
9 Metric
9 Destination Sequence Number
• Rules to set sequence number information
• On each advertisement increase own destination sequence
number (use only even numbers)
• If a node is no more reachable (timeout) increase sequence
number of this node by 1 (odd sequence number) and set
metric = ∞.
108
36

• Update information is compared to own routing table
– Select route with higher destination sequence number to

ensure using newest information from destination
– Select the route with better metric when sequence numbers

are equal.
109
A B C
Dest. Next Metric Seq Dest. Next Metric Seq Dest. Next Metric Seq.
A A 0 A-550 A A 1 A-550 A B 2 A-550
B B 1 B-100 B B 0 B-100 B B 1 B-100
C B 2 C-588 C C 1 C-588 C C 0 C-588
110
B increases Seq.Nr from 100 -> 102

B broadcasts routing information
to Neighbors A, C including
destination sequence numbers
(A, 1, A-550) (A, 1, A-550)

(B 0
(B, 0, B-102) (B 0
(B, 0, B-102)
(C, 1, C-588) (C, 1, C-588)
A B C
Dest. Next Metric Seq Dest. Next Metric Seq Dest. Next Metric Seq.
A A 0 A-550 A A 1 A-550 A B 2 A-550
B B 1 B-102 B B 0 B-102 B B 1 B-102
C B 2 C-588 C C 1 C-588 C C 0 C-588
111
37
• Respond to topology changes

• Immediate advertisements
• Information on new Routes, broken Links, metric
change is immediately propagated to neighbors.
• Full/Incremental Update:
• Full Update: Send all routing information from own
table.
• Incremental Update: Send only entries that has
changed. (Make it fit into one single packet)
112

New node
2. Insert entry for D with

sequence number D-000
Then immediately broadcast own
table 1. D broadcast for first time
Send Sequence number D-000
(D, 0, D-000)
A B C D
Dest. Next Metric Seq. Dest. Next Metric Seq. Dest. Next Metric Seq.
A A 0 A-550 A A 1 A-550 A B 2 A-550
B B 1 B-104 B B 0 B-104 B B 1 B-104
C B 2 C-590 C C 1 C-590 C C 0 C-590
D D 1 D-000
113

New node
3. C increases its sequence
number to C-592 then
4. B gets this new information broadcasts its new table.
and updates its table…….
(A, 2, A-550) (A, 2, A-550)

(B, 1, B-102) (B, 1, B-102)
……… (C, 0, C-592) (C, 0, C-592)
……… (D, 1, D-000) (D, 1, D-000)
A B C D
A A 0 A-550 A A 1 A-550 A B 2 A-550
B B 1 B-104 B B 0 B-104 B B 1 B-104
C B 2 C-590 C C 1 C-592 C C 0 C-592
D C 2 D-000 D D 1 D-000
114
38

No loops and count-to-infinity problem
2. B does its broadcast

-> no affect on C (C knows that B
has stale information because C has
higher seq. number for destination D)
1. Node C detects broken Link:
-> no loop -> no count to infinity
->
> Increase Seq.
Seq No.
No by 1
(only case where not the
destination sets the sequence
number -> odd number)
(D, 2, D-100) (D, 2, D-100)
1
A B C D
… … … … … … … … …
D B 3 D-100 D C 2 D-100 D D ∞ D-101
115

Immediate advertisement
3. Immediate propagation 2. Immediate propagation

B to A: C to B:
(update information has higher (update information has higher
Seq. Nr. -> replace table entry) Seq. Nr. -> replace table entry)
1. Node C detects broken Link:
-> Increase Seq
Seq. Nr
Nr. by 1
(only case where not the destination
sets the sequence number -> odd
number)
(D, ∞, D-101) (D, ∞, D-101)
A B C D
Dest. Next Metric Seq. Dest.c
Dest Next Metric Seq. Dest. Next Metric Seq.
… … … ... … … … ... … … …
D B 4 D-100
3 D C 2
3 D-100 D B
D 1 D-100
D B ∞ D-101 D C ∞ D-101 D D ∞ D-101
116
• Advantages
• Simple (almost like Distance Vector)
• Loop free through destination sequence numbers
• Disadvantages
• Bi-directional links required
• Overhead: most routing information never used
• Scalability is a major problem
117
39
Dynamic Source routing (DSR)

• A reactive routing protocol
– No periodic updates
– bandwidth, battery power
• Adapt quickly to dynamic topology
• Links need not be bi-directional
• No loops
• Assumptions
– All hosts willing to forward packets for others
– Network diameter (# hops) small
– Hosts may move at any time
– Promiscuous receive
118
• Sending to other hosts

– Sender puts source route in header
• Large overhead in data packtes
– If a recipient is not destination, keep forwarding
• Route Cache
– Store of source routes
– Expiration period for each entry
119

• Route discovery
– The sender
– Broadcast a route request (RREQ) packet (S, id, D)
– The receiver
– <initiator address, request id>
» If same, di
discardd
– This host's address is already listed in the route record - loop
» Discard
– This host is the target
» Send a route reply (RREP) packet
– Else
» Append this host's address to the route record, and re-
broadcast
120
40
• Piggybacking
– When sending route reply, cannot just reverse
route record
• Unless there is an entry in cache
– Must piggyback route reply on a route request
targeted at initiator
121
B A-B-D-G
A-B-D-G G
A-B-D-G
A A-B
D A-B-D
A
A-C-E
A E H
A-C-E
A-C-E
C A-C
F
122

• Route Maintenance
– No periodic messages
• Monitors the operation of the route and informs the
sender of any routing errors
– If data link layer reports problems, send a route
error packet (REP) to sender
– Contains the addresses of the hosts at both ends of the hop in
error
– Removed from the route cache
– Send to the sender
» Route cache, reverse the route from the packet in error,
route discovery
– Else, use passive acknowledgement
123
41
B
RERR
RERR G
D
G
Route Cache (A)

G: A, B, D, G H
G: A, C, E, H, G
E
F: B, C, F
C
F
124

• Optimizations
– Full use of route cache
• A hop can add entries to its route cache any time it learns a new
route
• If the host has a route cache entry for the target, return a route
reply without re-broadcasting
• Specify the maximum number of hops over which the packet
may be propagated
– Procedure
» To perform a route discovery, send the route request with a hop
limit of one
» If no route reply is received, send a new route request with a hop
limit of the maximum value
– Purpose
» Check if the target is currently within the transmitter range
125
Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV)
• On-demand version of DSDV

– Demand driven
– Table driven
• One entry per destination
• Uses sequence numberb for
f ffresh
h and
d lloop free
f
routes
• Effective use of available bandwidth
– Minimizes broadcast
• Highly scalable
126
42

• Route discovery
– Initiated when a communication need arises
– Source node initiates path discovery by broadcasting a
route request (RREQ) packet to its neighbors
– Every node maintains two separate counters
• Sequence number
• Broadcast-id
– A neighbor either broadcasts the RREQ to its neighbors or
satisfies the RREQ by sending a RREP back to the source
– Later copies of the same RREQ request are discarded
127

• Route discovery
– The sender
• Broadcast a route request (RREQ) packet (S, id, Seq. no, D)
• Every node maintains two separate counters
– Sequence number
– Broadcast-id
– The receiver
• <initiator address, request id> is looked up in history table
– If found, discard
• The receiver looks up the destination in routing table
– If stored route is fresh, send RREP to the initiator
• Re-broadcast RREQ packet
– Reverse path set-up
» Copy data from RREQ packet and store in reverse route table
128

• Forward path set-up
– Eventually, RREQ arrives at a node that possesses the
current route for the destination (Comparison of sequence
numbers)
– Node unicasts a RREP back to the neighbor from which it
received
i d the
th RREQ.
RREQ
• The RREP travels along the path established in the reverse path
set-up
– Each node along the RREP journey sets up a forward
pointer, records the destination sequence number of
requested destination.
129
43
A L
Y
F
J
B K
D
G P
S C
E
H I T
Z
RREQ
130
A L
Y
F
J
B K
D
G P
S C
E
H I T
Z
Reverse
Path Setup
131
A L
Y
F
J
B K
D
G P
S C
E
H I T
Z
132
44
A L
Y
F
J
B K
D
G P
S C
E
H I T
Z
133
A L
Y
F
J
B K
D
G P
S C
E
H I T
Z
RREP
134
A L
Y
F
J
B K
D
G P
S C
E
H I T
Z
Forward
Path Setup
135
45
A L
Y
F
J
B K
D
G P
S C
E
H I T
Z
136
A L
Y
F
J
B K
D
G P
S C
E
H I T
Z
137
A L
Y
F
J
B K
D
G P
S C
E
H I T
Z
138
46

• Path maintenance
– Nodes can be switched off, move away
• Topology changes
• Each node periodically sends HELLO packet to
the neighbors
– If reply received
• O.K.
– Otherwise
• Route is no longer valid
– Send special RREP packet to the sender
– Sender initiates route discovery
139

• Path maintenance
A B A B
C C
D D
E E
F G F
H I H I
Active
Destination Next Hop Distance Other fields
Neighbor
A A 1 F, G
B B 1 F, G
C B 2 F
E G 2
F F 1 A, B
G G 1 A, B
H F 2 A, B
I G 2 A, B
140
Problems of Running TCP in

Wireless Networks
141
47
Wireless Issues
• The following characteristics have major impact
on the performance of TCP:
» High Bit Error Rate (BER)
» Handoff
» Frequent Disconnection
» Large and Varying delays
» Limited Spectrum
» Limited Energy
» Path Asymmetry
142
Problem of Pseudo-congestion
• TCP interprets any packet loss as a sign of network
congestion.
– TCP sender reduces congestion window.
• On wireless links, packet loss can also occur due to
reasons other than Congestion
Congestion.
• TCP will cut down its rate (is this right?)
• Fundamental question: How to distinguish loss
due to congestion from non-congestion loss?
• Hard to do: TCP is fundamentally end-to-end.
– We just know that packet is lost, not why it is lost.
143
High BER
Following example assumes Random Error
10 9 8 7
5 6
144
48
High BER
11 10 9 8
5 6
145
High BER
12 11 10 9
6 6
DUPACK
146
High BER
13 12 11 10
6 6 6
DUPACKs
147
49
High BER
14 13 12 11
6 6 6
3 DUPACKs trigger
fast retransmit at sender
148
Handoff and Frequent Disconnection
• TCP interprets handoff and disconnection related

losses as congestion based losses
– reduces congestion window every time handoff and
disconnection related losses occur
– Black-outs will further result in TCP experiencing
multiple timeouts of increasing granularity
149
Large and Varying Delay
• TCP uses RTTavg + 4 * RTTmdev as the retransmission

timeout (Karn’s Algorithm)
– If there is large variance in delay, mean deviation is high
resultingg in inflated
f timeout values
– Hence, if there are burst losses resulting in a timeout, the
sender would take longer time to detect losses and recover
150
50
Limited Spectrum
• TCP uses window based congestion control.
• If there is free space in the congestion window, TCP
will transmit.
– TCP’s output can be bursty
– This coupled with the low bandwidths can result in queue
build-ups in the network adversely affecting RTT
calculations and causing packet drops
• Sharing wireless bandwidth between different classes

of traffic is a major task.
151
Limited Energy
• Mobile devices are battery powered
– Each transmission consumes certain amount of
battery power
– Can not afford too many retransmissions
– TCP is
i not designed
d i d as energy efficient
ffi i protocoll
152
Path Asymmetry
• TCP relies on ACK arrivals for congestion
window progression
• If path asymmetry exists, a TCP connection’s
performance will be influenced by the reverse
path
h characteristics
h i i too
– Indirect effects of path asymmetry (ACK
bunching)
153
51
Classification of TCP
performance
f schemes
h in
i
wireless networks
154
Classification of Solutions
TCP Enhancements
for Last Hop
Wireless Networks
C
Connection
i Wireless
Wi l loss
l
Management related
related approaches approaches
Split Connection End-to-End Localization Explicit

(I-TCP, METP Connection (Snoop, SACK Notification
etc) (Freeze TCP, aware Snoop, (ECN, ELN,
TCPW, JTCP etc) SNACK-NS etc.)
EBSN etc)
155
Split Connection
• Segments TCP connection into two at the Base Station
(BS)
» FH-MH=FH-BS + BS-MH
» If more than one wireless link exists, then more than two TCP
connection is needed
BS Mobile Host (MH)

Fixed Host Internet
(FH)
Wired (K hops) Wireless (1 hop)
156
52
Split Connection
• It takes care of the fact that MH has limited resources
(e.g. power supply, memory)
– Moves much of the networking task to the BS
– Allows MH to use simple transport protocol over the wireless link
TCP/
TCP connection simplified
p transport
p p protocol
application application application

rxmt
transport transport transport
network network network
Host-to-network Host-to-network Host-to-network
FH BS MH
wireless
157
Split Connection
• Packets are received, Buffered, and ACKed by BS
• Results in independent congestion/flow/error control for

the two parts
» BS guarantees delivery to MH
• Protocol syntax, semantics may be different for each part
• To ensure mobility support

» Connection state and buffered packets are to
transferred to new BS
158
Split Connection
• Advantages:
– BS-MH protocol can be optimized keeping
wireless characteristic in mind
– Local recover of wireless losses

» Faster than normal TCP due to shorter RTT in wireless link
– Allows MH to move to a new cell with little

disruption
159
53
Split Connection
• Cons:
– End-to-end Autonomy is violated
– Permanent data loss if BS crashes
11
10 9 8
10 7
160
Split Connection
• Cons:
– Handoff latency is high due to state transfer
BS1
Internet
Fixed Host Mobile Host (MH)

(FH) Wired (K hops)
Wireless (1 hop)
BS2
161
Split Connection
• Cons:
– Is the approach Scalable?

» Buffer needed for each TCP connection
» BS may be overwhelmed
» Smart buffering technique is required
– Extra copying of data at BS
– Increases end-to-end latency
– Can not be used with IPSec

162
54
End-to-End Connection
• Do not depend on the intermediate nodes
• Modify the actual protocol, keeping wireless

characteristics in mind
• Sender and Receiver attempt to determine cause of

packet loss
163
• Sender: statistics based on RTT, window size, loss
pattern
• Receiver: Heuristic
– If determined by the receiver, it sends notification to the sender
– Upon receipt of the notification or by self evaluation, the sender takes

appropriate action
» Reduce congestion window only if congestion is detected

» Retransmit lost packet if loss is due to error
164
• Advantages:
– Highly Scalable
– End-to-End semantic is preserved
– Can deal with congestion and wireless losses effectively
– Can be implemented without any help from the network
– Can work with IPSec
165
55
• Disadvantages:
– Deployment is difficult
– Does not work well as yet

» Traffic pattern changes frequently
166
Localization
• Employs link layer retransmission technique
• Hides wireless link from the sender
• Local
L l recovery off wireless
i l lossl
• Propagation delay is shorter, so recovery is quick
• Uses BS to minimize the effect of wireless error
• Restricts TCP response mostly to congestion

167
Localization
• Retransmission may cause congestion at BS
– Retransmissions effectively consumes bandwidth
– Queue build up at the BS
– Is it desirable?
168
56
Localization
• BS stores unacknowledged packets
• If ACK is received, the packet is removed
• If packet loss is detected (via DUPACK)
– If packet found:
» Retransmit, Discard DUPACKs
– If not found:
» forward DUPACK, Congestion case
169
Localization
• May interfere with TCP retransmission
– Set timer properly
– Limit number of retransmission at link layer
170
Localization
• When Localization is useful
– If it provides in-order delivery
– If TCP retransmission timer is high
171
57
Localization
• Advantages:
– End-to-End Autonomy is preserved
– Deployment is easy
– Deals congestion and wireless losses effectively
172
Localization
• Disadvantages:
– What about scalability?

» BS may be overwhelmed
– What about encrypted traffic?

» IPSec is an integral part of IPv6
– About mobility?
173
Explicit Notification
• Intermediate nodes knows better the cause of packet loss
• Ideal TCP behavior

– Reduce congestion window in response to congestion
– Simply retransmit lost packet when loss is due to error
• Receiver sends notification to the sender
• Receiver depends on routers to get this information
• Sender takes appropriate action depending on the nature of loss

reported in the notification
174
58
• Many design options:
» Who sends notification?
» How?
» How notification is interpreted?
175
• Advantages:
– Very effective in dealing with packet losses
– Can work with encrypted packets
– Highly Scalable
176
• Disadvantages
– May fail if path changes frequently
– Deployment is very difficult
177
59
Comparison
Categories/ Split Connection End-to-End Localization of Wireless Explicit
Wireless Issues Connection Loss Notification
Mobility Supported but at the cost Not supported Not supported Not supported
of high handoff latency
Distinction Between Supported Supported Supported Supported

Congestion and Link Error
Encrypted Traffic Not Handled Handled Not Handled Handled
BS may be overwhelmed BS may be overwhelmed

Scalability if it has to serve large if it has to serve large
number of MH Supported number of MH Supported
Deployment Easy Difficult Easy Difficult
End-to-End Autonomy Not Maintained Maintained Maintained Not Maintained
178
TCP Enhancements
E h t
179
Classification of Solutions
TCP Enhancements
for Wireless
Networks
C
Connection
i Wireless
Wi l loss
l
Management related
related approaches approaches
Split End-to-End Localization Explicit Notification

Connection Connection (Snoop, DDA, (ECN, ELN, EBSN
(I-TCP, METP) (Freeze TCP, SACK aware etc)
TCPW, JTCP etc)
Snoop, obTCP)
180
60
TCP Snoop
S
181
TCP Snoop
• Employs Snoop agent at BS
• Snoop agent:
– Buffers TCP packets at BS
– Monitors every ACK
– If packet loss, retransmits lost packet (if available in cache)
– Drop DUPACKs to avoid fast retransmission at FH
182
TCP Snoop
Case of wireless loss
Packet 4 is lost 5
7 6 5 4
2 3
183
61
TCP Snoop
Case of wireless loss 6
Packet 4 is lost 5
8 7 6 5
2 3
184
TCP Snoop
Packet 4 is lost 6
9 8 7 6
3 3
DUPACK
185
TCP Snoop
Packet 4 is lost 6
4 8
10 9 8 7
3 3 3
DUPACK
186
62
TCP Snoop
Packet 4 is lost 6
5 9
4 8
11 10 4 8
3 3
DUPACK
187
TCP Snoop
Packet 4 is lost 6 10
5 9
4 8
12 11 9 4
3 3
DUPACK
3 3
188
TCP Snoop
Case of wireless loss 7 11
5 9
4 8
13 12 10 9
3 8
3 3 3
189
63
TCP Snoop
5 9
4 8 12
14 13 11 10
8 9
3 3 3 3
190
TCP Snoop
Packet 4 is lost 11
10
9 13
15 14 12 11
8 9 10
3 3 3 3
191
TCP Snoop
Case of Congestion loss 10
Packet 4-7 is lost 9
12 11 9 8
192
64
TCP Snoop
13 12 10 9
3 3
193
TCP Snoop
8 12
14 13 11 10
3 3 3
194
TCP Snoop
9 13
8 12
15 14 12 11
3 3 3
DUPACKS are not dropped

to activate Fast Retransmit
195
65
TCP Snoop
10 MB file transfer over 2 Mbps wireless link
1.8
1.6
Receiver Bandwidt h (Mb/sec)
1.4
1.2
1
Regular TCP
0.8
Snoop
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
64Kb 128Kb 256Kb 512Kb 1Mb 2Mb 4Mb 8Mb No Error
1 error every x bit
196
TCP Snoop
• Advantages:
– Local retransmission
» Faster recovery
– End-to-end semantic maintained
– No Fast retransmission in the face of wireless loss
197
TCP Snoop
• Disadvantages:
– Can not be used if wireless RTT is high
– Can not be used if IPSec is used
– Can not be used in asymmetric links
– BS requires larger buffer space
– Link layer need to be TCP aware
198
66
DDA
199
Delayed Duplicate ACK (DDA)

• Attempts to mimic TCP Snoop
• BS is not TCP aware
• Implements
I l local
l l retransmission
i i at BS
» Uses link level ACK to trigger retransmission
• MH delays third and subsequent DUPACK to reduce

interference with TCP sender
» Gives chance to BS to recover from losses
200

• DUPACK is delayed for some interval d
• Main design problemÆvalue of d

• If d is large enough, wireless loss is recovered
• If d is small enough,
enough interference with TCP sender
• If loss is not recovered within interval d, DUPACK is

released
201
67

Case of wireless loss
Packet 4 is lost 5
7 6 5 4
2 3
202

Packet 4 is lost 5
8 7 6 5
2 3
203

Packet 4 is lost 6
9 8 7 6
3 3
DUPACK
204
68

Packet 4 is lost 6
4 8
10 9 8 7
3 3 3
DUPACK
205

Packet 4 is lost 6
5 9 Delay DUPACK
for d sec
4 8
3
11 10 4 8
3 3
DUPACK
206

5 9 Delay DUPACK
for d sec
4 8
3 3
12 11 9 4
3 3
207
69

5 9 Delayed
DUPACKs are
4 8
discarded
13 12 10 9
3 8
208

Wireless link bandwidth 2Mbps, wireless delay 1 ms
with no congestion loss
2500000
2000000
Throughput(bits/s)
TCP
1500000
Snoop
DDA, d=40ms
1000000
500000
0
0.006 0.003 0.001 0.0007
Byte Error Rate
209

• Advantages:
– BS need not be TCP aware
– Recovery from wireless loss is possible without

response from FH
– Can be used with IPSec
210
70

• Disadvantages:
– Choosing right value of d is difficult
– Performs poorly in the face of real

congestion, as it delays third effectively
delaying Fast Retransmission
211
SACK--Aware
SACK A Snoop
S
212
TCP SACK-Aware Snoop

• Improvement over TCP Snoop
• Snoop can recover only one packet per RTT

• Fails when burst loss occur
• Uses TCP SACK option
213
71

• If ordinary ACK
– Retransmit the lost packet as indicated by the DUPACK
• If SACK block
– Retransmit all lost packet indicated in the SACK block
• Advantage:
» Multiple losses are recovered within one RTT
214

Multiple wireless loss
Packet 4-7 are lost 5
7 6 5 4
2 3
215

Multiple wireless loss 6
8 7 6 5
2 3
216
72

9 8 7 6
217

4 8
10 9 8 7
218

5 9
4 8
11 10 9 8
219
73

Packet 4-7 are lost 6 10
5 9
4 8
12 11 10 9
220

Multiple wireless loss 7 11
5 9
4 8
13 12 11 10
1-38-9
221

5 9
4 8 12
14 13 12 11
1-38-9
222
74

5 9 13
4 8 12
15 14 4 12
223

Packet 4-7 are lost 6 10 14
5 9 13
4 8 12
16 15 5 4
224

Multiple wireless loss 7 11 15
5 9 13
4 8 12
17 16 6 5
225
75

5 9 13
4 8 12 16
18 17 7 6
4 5
226

6 10 14
5 9 13 17
19 18 13 7
4 5 6
227

7 11 15
6 10 14 18
20 19 14 13
4 5 6 12
228
76

8 12 16
7 11 15 19
21 20 15 14
5 6 12 13
229

14 18
13 17
22 21 16 15
6 12 13 14
230

• Wireless channel is of 2 Mbps capacity with negligible delay
• Wireless channel modeled as two state marcov model with good state 97
msec and bad state 3 msec yielding steady state packet error rate of 5%
3
2.5
Sequence Number (x1.0E+4)
2
SACK
1.5 SACK+Snoop
SACK aw are Snoop
0.5
0
0 50 100 150
Simulation Time
231
77
Summary
It is difficult to create a “one

size fits all
all” TCP for Last
Hop Wireless Networks
232
Challenges
• Try to minimize effect of high BER
– Localization may be preferred
• Provide real time handoff and roaming facility

– Try caching at higher level of network hierarchy
• Share wireless bandwidth efficiently between different

classes of traffic
– Your protocol must be fair to other transport protocols
– Use some fairness index
233
Challenges
• Reduce number of retransmission
– Required for battery powered devices
– Hard to do
– Give little attention
• Do not become too aggressive while increasing

congestion window to avoid congestion
• Do not become too conservative while decreasing

congestion window to keep the pipe full
234
78

Lecture Notes Mobile Communication

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Mobile Communication

• Andrew S. Tanenbaum, “Computer Networks”, 4th Edition, PHI

• W. Stallings, “Wireless Communications and Networking”, 2nd

• V. K. Garg, “Wireless Network Evolution: 2G to 3G”, PHI

• M. Hassan, R. Jain, “High Performance TCP/IP Networking”, PHI

• Wireless vs. mobile Examples

• Entertainment, education, ...

Wireless network in comparison to

– Low transmission rates

– Higher delays, higher jitter

– Lower security, simpler active attacking

– Always shared medium

Simple Reference Model to be used

Network Network Network Network

Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Types of wireless networks

Types of wireless networks

(a) Bluetooth configuration (b) Wireless LAN

Types of wireless networks

(a) Individual mobile computers (b) A flying LAN

(a) Wireless networking with a base station (b) Ad hoc networking

A multicell 802.11 network

• Example: Randomly Addressed Polling

ISMA (Inhibit Sense Multiple Access)

DAMA (Demand Assigned Multiple Access)

• Examples for reservation algorithms:

DAMA: Explicit Reservation

DAMA: Explicit Reservation

DAMA: Reservation TDMA

reservations other stations can use free data-slots

Motivation for new Access Protocol

Motivation: Hidden Terminal

Motivation: Exposed Terminal

MACA: Collision Avoidance

• Variants of this method can be found in IEEE802.11 as

The Mobile Telephone Systems

• First-Generation Mobile Phones: Analog Voice

• Second-Generation Mobile Phones: Digital Voice

• Third-Generation Mobile Phones: Digital Voice and

Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)

• Uses frequency reuse

• Small cells increases system capacity

Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)

Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)

– Control (base to mobile) to manage the system

– Paging (base to mobile) to alert users to calls for them

– Access (bidirectional) for call setup and channel

– Data (bidirectional) for voice, fax, or data

• Uses same 30 kHz channels in same frequency as in

• Compression is done using vocoder

• Uses FDM and TDM

Global System for Mobile

 now: Global System for Mobile Communication

 seamless roaming within Europe possible

 more than 1.2 billion subscribers

 more than 75% of all digital mobile phones use GSM

VLR MSC MSC

• Base Station Controller (BSC): switching between BTSs,

• BSS = BSC + sum(BTS) + interconnection

– Mobile Stations (MS)

Network and Switching Subsystem

now: Global System for Mobile Communication

seamless roaming within Europe possible

more than 1.2 billion subscribers

more than 75% of all digital mobile phones use GSM