Teaching Computer Networking

TEACHING COMPUTER NETWORKING
Lesson 1 - Introduction to TEACHING COMPUTER

NETWORKING
INTRODUCTION
Networks are everywhere—or so it seems. You can hardly do anything with data that
does not involve a network. Like the human networks that we are all part of, computer
networks let us share information and resources. In business, the reliance on networks
is even more pervasive than in homes or schools. Networks help individuals and
businesses alike save money, but they also help create income. Without a doubt,
networking within the home will catch on over the next few years as it has in business.
Soon, nearly all individuals in even moderately developed nations will have networked
components throughout their homes. Those that don’t will
be netologically disadvantaged because they will not be able to learn or to function at
the same level as those who are networked.
In this chapter, you’ll begin by relating networks to situations and concepts you already
know. Once you have a basic understanding of what networks are and what they can
do, it helps if you can actually begin working with them. In fact, it is so helpful to learn
the ropes of networking through hands-on guided practice that that’s what is planned for
you here. You will play the role of an employee in a fictional company, and you’ll have to
learn on the job. The more you become the person, the more you will learn about the
need for and operation of computer networks.
UNDERSTANDING NETWORKS
Human Networks
In its broadest sense, a network consists of two or more entities, or objects, sharing
resources and information. Although this book is about computer networks, there are
networks that don’t involve computers, and those networks are everywhere. You have
grown accustomed to working with them, possibly without even knowing it.
It may not matter to you that, in a basic sense, sharing (giving or getting) is a
fundamental aspect of networking. You just know that you do it.
Family Network
Most people belong to a family network in which related people share their resources
and information. This sharing is bi-directional because even the youngest family
members share information of some sort. As the family grows, so does the network.
A network connects members of a family together.
Peer Network
Outside the family, there is a community that offers a wider array of resources than the
typical family can provide. Naturally, it makes sense to connect the family to this
community to take advantage of the wealth of resources available around town. This
type of information/resource sharing can be as simple as loaning a hammer to a
neighbor, car-pooling with work associates, or helping a friend with his or her
homework. All of these activities involve sharing, or trading, resources. This kind of
network is represented by a two-way relationship, a give and take among equals or
peers.
The family network connects with the greater community.
Restaurant Network: The Client and the Server

So, in any type of human network, there’s a lot of giving and taking. You’re already
more accustomed to the client/server perspective in networking than you realize. For
instance, when you go to dinner at a restaurant, you become a customer, or client,
enjoying the food and drink prepared and served to you by the restaurant. On the other
hand, the waiter works as a server, controlling and providing his customers with access
to resources in the form of placing orders for and delivering food items. The server
knows that requests will be made of him (access is sought when an order is placed)
and that he will service those making the requests (access is granted when the order is
delivered).
In a dining situation, it is easy to know whether you are supposed to be serving or being served.
Contact Network
Anyone who has looked for a job knows that one of the best ways to find a job is to
network. That is, create a list of friends and associates who will help you find the perfect
job. The more people you meet and get to know, the better your chances of obtaining
work. As you
develop and nurture your ca- reer, this contact network will serve you best because your
role in it will change as you gain more experience. Soon, you may be able to help the
people who helped you. And as your personal and professional networks grow, so do
your opportunities.
These examples of human networks should help you understand that networking is
common between people and is not just an activity restricted to computers. However,
this book will focus on computer networks—connecting computers and having them
communicate with each other.
The more people in your network, the better your chances of finding that perfect job.
Computer Networks
A computer network consists of two or more computing devices that are connected
in order to share the components of your network (its resources) and the information
you store there, as shown in Figure 1.1. The most basic computer network (which
consists of just two connected computers) can expand and become more usable when
additional computers join and add their resources to those being shared.
A computer network can be as simple as two or more computers communicating.
The first computer, yours, is commonly referred to as your local computer. It is more

likely to be used as a location where you do work, a workstation, than as a storage or
controlling location, a server. As more and more computers are connected to a network
and share their resources, the network becomes a more powerful tool, because
employees using a network with more information and more capability are able to
accomplish more through those added computers or additional resources.
The real power of networking computers becomes apparent if you envi- sion your own
network growing and then connecting it with other distinct networks, enabling
communication and resource sharing across both networks. That is, one network can
be connected to another network and become a more powerful tool because of the
greater resources. For example, you could connect the network you and your
classmates develop for this course to similarly con- structed networks from other intro-
ductory networking classes if you wanted them to share your information and
networked resources. Those classes could be within your own school, or they could be
anywhere in the world. Wherever that newly joined network is, the communication and
resource sharing activities in that new network could then be shared with anyone
connected to your network. All you have to do is join that new network’s community or
allow its members to join yours.
In addition, a company’s cost of doing business can be reduced as a result of sharing

data (defined as a piece or pieces of information) and resources. Instead of having
individual copies of the data at several locations around the company, and needing to
keep all of them similarly updated, a company using a network can have just one
shared copy of that data and share it, needing to keep only that one set of data
updated. Furthermore, sharing networked resources (like printers) means that more
people can use a particular resource and a wider variety of resources (like different
printers) can be used by each network user. Any time a company can do more with
less, or buy fewer items to do the same job, its total costs are reduced, and it is able to
make more money per dollar spent.
Network Plan
Networking computers first and tracking the connections later can quickly become
confusing and unmanageable as you try to find which computer communicates with and
shares resources with which other computers. In your human network, do you share
everything with your friends? In your family network, would you want your parents or
guardians to know your every thought? You have your information-sharing plan in your
head, and it is important to keep track of it so you don’t make a mistake and share
something where it was not intended.
Similar concerns must be considered while designing a computer network. Before you
even connect your first computers together, you should have a plan. A network plan,
therefore, is a formally created product that shows all the network’s components and the
planned connections between them. Such a plan is also used to manage the various
types of information. Your plan should show what types of information are stored where,
and who is allowed to use each type.
Information Management
Your network plan should help you manage the information gathered, stored, and
shared between your users. If you were given an empty three-drawer filing cabinet and
told to use it to organize your company’s information, you would have an excellent
(although manual) example of a filing system that needs a plan. Having an overall
guide that tells you who will be allowed access to the three drawers will help determine
what you store in each one. Once you have that part of the plan, you could put the
least-used information in the bottom drawer, the more-used in the middle drawer, and
the most-used in the top drawer so that it is easier for your users to access their
information. Knowing who needs to know what, and its corollary— who does not need to
know what—lets you determine whether to lock a particular drawer, too.
Even when we discuss implementing a three-drawer manual filing system, the
importance of having a network plan ahead of time becomes evi- dent. If you put the
limited-access material in a drawer open to all employees, how do you keep it secure?
Additional security measures (like adding a lock to a drawer, or moving the secure
information somewhere else) may be required later.
A networking plan could tell you that as specific types of sensitive data (like medical,
personal, or payroll information) are gathered or grouped, they should be stored higher
in the hierarchical structure (ranked from most sensitive to least sensitive), and this can
save you time in the end. That plan should specify that the access requirements are
stricter for sensitive data and reduce the number of people able to use specific types of
information.
The distribution side of the networking plan, as opposed to the accumu- lation side of
the plan discussed above, should spell out that the more an individual has access to
the data in storage, the less they should be able to share groups of information
entrusted to them. For example, you may not mind sharing your first name, but you
would probably object to an instruc- tor openly distributing all information in your school
records to anyone re- questing it.
Information’s Importance
If you think about the manual filing system we discussed using a filing cabinet, an
important computing concept is easy to recognize. Some information is more important
or more sensitive than the rest. It is usually obvious in real filing cabinet systems,
because the top drawer is usually where the most sensitive information is stored, and it
is locked. Few people in an organization have access to that information. For example,
credit card or Social Security numbers are information that should be given the highest
level of security—access to that information is given only to a limited number of people
in a company. On the other hand, some information, such as Webpages, newsletters,
and product information, is created for everyone to see, even outside a company.
Figure 1.2 shows how this kind of information is organized into a hierarchy of
information, where the most detailed information is found at the top and the more
general, less secure information is located at the bottom. How much information would
you be willing to provide about yourself to a perfect stranger? Coun- try of birth? Sure.
State of residence? Why not? But you might have second thoughts about advertising
your street address or phone number to a stranger.
The collection and proper manipulation of many seemingly unimportant pieces of

information, and the effective tracking of them, makes information management on
networks so important, just as when you are maintaining a manual filing system. A
single piece of information in a data field, such as your first name, can seem unim-
portant. However, by combining your first name with other pieces of related information,
like your last name, address, age, gender, and phone number (stored in other data
fields), the pieces can be put together to create a data record, which can accurately
describe something (or someone) that is important—like you. Finally, combining
similar records (such as records describing all your classmates) creates a file that,
because it contains sensitive information from more than one source, is more sensitive
than a single record.
Information sharing, therefore, has serious security issues to be considered, and

network access to data must be evaluated carefully so that only those who need it can
access it.
The hierarchy of information

The more specific the information becomes, the more restricted it should be.
What kind of data would you be willing to give to a stranger?
Lesson 2 - Identifying the Benefits of Networks

In the early days of the personal computer (PC), during the late ’70s and early ’80s, often a PC was used as a
stand-alone computer and operated independently from other computers, as shown in Figure 1.3. When, ove
the span of just those few years, their use proliferated and more PCs were found relatively close to each other
users began sharing information. The information was either printed out or copied from one computer to anoth
using backup or storage devices, such as tapes, disks, or other digital storage media.
Figure 1.3
Stand-alone computers are operated independently.
The printout or the storage device was then physically carried to another computer
where the information was reentered or copied from the portable media into the next
computer. This process was referred to as a sneakernet because users actually had to
walk from computer to computer. It was probably the cheapest type of network—unless
the computers were large distances apart or the information needed to be shared
among many computers. Other drawbacks to sneakernets were that printouts were
often bulky, and the storage devices could hold a relatively small amount of data
compared to the large amount of output users produced.
One sneakernet alternative was the floppy disk,

which was used to transfer data between computers that were not networked.
Once computers were connected by networks, information sharing increased

dramatically. People found that more data helped them make better decisions, and
companies started saving money. Many original networks were designed to facilitate
communication, but they were quickly expanded as businesses noticed increased
productivity and reduced costs.
Sharing Information
Computers increase your ability to communicate. Once you begin working with a
computer, you are likely to become more productive. However, what do you do with that
increased productivity if you are not connected to anyone? Communication requires
not only someone with information to share but also someone on the other end with
whom to share it. Companies don’t benefit by creating sheer volumes of output—they
benefit when the increased output helps them make better decisions or increases the
likelihood of increased income. Having your computers networked allows you to do both
with your newfound increases.
The initial reason for developing most computer networks was to assist users with
sharing their increased output, especially between computers in the same general
vicinity, as shown in Figure 1.4. However, users wanted not only to share information
with others, they wanted to communicate about that information after someone else had
it, too. In addition to transmitting the user’s original information, computer networks
enabled those users to discuss what was being transmitted, and this resulted in even
more communication. Additional network communications techniques thus came into
being, such as e-mail and video conferencing. Furthermore, with the increases in the
sizes of networks, sharing no longer had to be concerned with proximity. The use of
networks has effectively erased distance and time constraints. You can communicate
almost instantly to anywhere in the world that is connected to your network.
Figure 1.4
Computer communication—
Two computers in the same general vicinity should be able to communicate.
Networks are an effective way to communicate. Using networks, companies can send
the same information to large numbers of employees or customers quickly and
efficiently. Examples include company newsletters and announcements for employees,
as well as advertisements and purchase information for customers. Also, individual
employees are more likely to communicate with larger numbers of individuals both
inside and outside the company using e-mail, an electronic means of communicating
that is similar to mail but done on computers, usually over the Internet, over networks.
E-mail is the most commonly used feature of the Internet, and its use is growing
dramatically. In fact, e-mail is fast becoming the primary choice for much of our daily
communication.
Sharing Resources
In the sneakernet era, users spent huge amounts of time attempting to share their
resources. They had to physically distribute files that others needed. Expenditures for
printers and other attached computer components rose apidly while the individual
components themselves were not being used to their full capacity. On top of that, the
hard disk storage on each local computer began filling up, partly because everyone had
a copy of every document. One copy of that data, and even the applications that
produced it, could more efficiently be stored in a single location and shared over a
network.
The ability to share resources was another reason networks were created, and it is still
one of the main purposes for using networks. The inevitable technology creep (the
continuing need for additional investment in technology that is required to stay current)
extends the computer user’s involvement in technology because companies expect
employees to learn new systems as they are installed. Companies also look for ways to
make the best use of their investments by sharing the purchased resources among
multiple departments. Let’s look at some of the resources that are commonly shared
over computer networks.
Peripherals
Many companies start with multiple stand-alone computers. Not too long after the initial
computer purchase, however, additional components that attach to a computer, called
peripherals, like printers, scanners, and speak- ers, are purchased and are connected
to that computer to expand its use (see Figure 1.5). When there are multiple users and
computers, it soon becomes apparent that the peripheral devices are seldom fully
utilized. Money can be saved if some of these peripherals are shared, instead of having
to purchase a separate set for each computer. Networking enables the sharing of
peripherals.
The ability to share printers was very often enough of a cost savings for companies to
invest in implementing and supporting a simple network. The company could then also
realize additional cost savings as it shared additional peripheral devices, such as faxes,
modems, scanners, plotters, and virtually any other device that connects to computers.
Sharing peripherals often ends up producing significant cost savings and more than
justifies the expense of adding a network.
Figure 1.5 Common network peripherals
Storage
Data was being loaded on the computers of every fledgling network user as they
expanded their network use. Users quickly ran out of space on their own local
computers, so the people in charge of the networks began devis- ing ways to store data
centrally so that it was accessible to any user who needed it. Large amounts of storage
capacity, usually in fast, very powerful computers, were set up to act as storage
locations for this data where access to it could be controlled by the person storing the
data.
Applications
Cost and space savings are achieved when computer users can centrally store their
software applications—the computer programs (organized sets of computer
instructions) that make a user’s computer do what needs to be done. Applications, such
as those used for preparing taxes, creating text documents, or playing computer games,
have grown in complexity and size and often take up considerable local storage.
Installing an application once on a network and then sharing it cuts down on the storage
space required when multiple users need the same application.
Unfortunately, there are still several problems with this type of arrange- ment. Some
applications work fine with different setups for each user (different choices for screen
settings and other custom features), but normally all such settings must be the same for
all users. Sometimes, applications still function better when installed on a user’s local
computer.
Assisting Collaboration
Once you have digital information and the ability to share it instantly with others over
networks, you can have multiple people working on the same process collectively. Much
of the initial communication about computer-produced products that occurred during
and immediately after the sneakernet era dealt with coworker collaboration, with
coworkers discussing each other’s work or possibly even exchanging opinions about
what other users had created. Those early computer users found that once they created
something and sent it out for review, the comments returned often led to important
adjust- ments that would improve the original product. Such collaboration assisted the
widespread use of computers because it provided a tangible benefit that businesses
could associate with the increased costs of installing computers in the first place.
Many software makers took this early form of collaboration into consid- eration and
added that feature to the capabilities of their software. The new- est versions of the
applications included in Microsoft’s Office suite (such as Word, Access, Excel, and
PowerPoint) allow multiple users to access and make changes to the same document at
the same time. That way, all users can work together on the original document, and
changes made by any col- laborating member are immediately posted within the
document. A more powerful implementation of this concept can be found in an
application designed to facilitate collaboration, such as Microsoft’s Terminal Server
(see http://www.microsoft.com/windows2000/technologies/ terminal/default.asp for more information).
Facilitating Centralized Management

Just connecting computers to a network meant that some sort of similarity existed
among them (or else the computers would not be able to communicate), and a
maintenance capability may have been available in the early networks. However, it
wasn’t until much later (in the mid ’90s) that maintenance personnel started using
networks to assist with the management tasks associated with the network’s operation
and maintenance.
It came about as a direct result of standardization and interoperability, which meant

computers worked the same way and could work with each other. This was a drastic
change to the original networks, where all the different networked components had
different computer programs, or software (a set of instructions that control the
operation of a computer) running them. Having more similarities meant lower support
costs. These savings were usually due to economies of scale brought about by buying
more similar computers and obtaining a lower per-unit cost. Companies soon began
directing technicians to purchase similar equipment to obtain the benefit of those
savings. Once that happened, the network could be used to help maintain those
similar components, and this further increased efficiency and reduced the total amount
companies would spend on a particular component over that equipment’s usable
lifetime, called total cost of ownership (TCO).
Managing Software
Using the network helped reduce software costs. Savings occurred when all users on a
network used the same software and when software was bought in bulk quantities for a
discount. Centralizing the installation of that software also reduced operation costs
because the installations could be accom- plished remotely—over the network. The
computer programs that were needed to perform the installations were stored on
servers and made accessible over the network. The maintenance personnel would then
simply log on to the network from a client computer and install the needed applications
using the installation software stored on the server.
Within the past few years, even more savings have been achieved by having the
centralized server initiate the software installations or updates on the client computers
without the need for maintenance personnel to actually visit any of the clients.
Maintaining the Network

Purchasing similar equipment for use on the network meant that network maintenance
costs were reduced because there were fewer dissimilar components. Maintenance
workers no longer had to attend numerous training sessions on many different
components, which meant they could spend more time maintaining the actual
components.
Backing Up Data
Along those same lines, a network minimizes the time spent backing up (saving extra
copies, called backups) of necessary files. In the event of a hardware or software failure
that causes information or applications to be lost, vital information and necessary
applications can be restored if sufficient backups exist. The backup process is normally
a regular activity in a company, and all transactions between scheduled backups are
recorded so that the files can be restored as completely as possible. Technicians can
access the backup files and recorded transactions from a central location without having
to physically visit the source computers.
Lesson 3 - USE OF COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS

COMMUNICATIONS
Computer communications describes a process in which two or more computers or

devices transfer data, instructions, and information. Figure 8-1 shows a sample
communications system. Some communications involve cables and wires; others are
sent wirelessly through the air. As illustrated in this figure, communications systems
contain all types of computers and computing devices. For successful communications,
you need the following:
 A sending device that initiates an instruction to transmit data, instructions, or

information.
 A communications device that connects the sending device to a communications
channel.
 A communications channel, or transmission media on which the data,
instructions, or
information travel.
 A communications device that connects the communications channel to a

receiving device.
 A receiving device that accepts the transmission of data, instructions, or
information.
All types of computers and mobile devices serve as sending and receiving
devices in a communications system. This includes mainframe computers,
servers, desktop computers, notebook computers, Tablet PCs, smart phones,
portable media players, and GPS receivers. One type of communications
device that connects a communications channel to a sending or receiving
device such as a computer is a modem. Two examples of communications
channels are cable television lines and telephone lines.
USES OF COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS
Computer communications are everywhere. Many require that users subscribe to an

Internet access provider. With other computer communications, an organization such as
a business or school provides communications services to employees, students, or
customers.
Wireless Messaging Services
Users can send and receive wireless messages to

and from smart phones, cell phones, handheld game consoles, and other personal mobile devices us
three techniques: text messaging, wireless instant messaging, and picture/video messaging (Figure 8
3).
TEXT MESSAGING A mobile device with text messaging, also called SMS (short message service),
capability allows users to send and receive short text messages on a phone or other mobile device. Te
messaging services typically provide users with several options for sending and receiving messages
 Mobile to Mobile: send a message from your mobile device to another mobile device
 Mobile to E-Mail: send a message from your mobile device to an e-mail address anywhere in t
world
 Web to Mobile: send a message from a text messaging Web site to a mobile device, or request
a Web site alert a mobile device with breaking news and other updates, such as sports scores,
stock prices, and weather forecasts
 Mobile to Provider: send a message by entering a four- or five-digit number assigned to a

specific content or wireless service provider, followed by the message, such as a vote for a
television program contestant
WIRELESS INSTANT MESSAGING Wireless instant messaging (IM) is a real-time Internet

communications service that allows wireless mobile devices to exchange messages with one or more
mobile devices or online users. Some wireless Internet service providers partner with IM services so
you can use your smart phone or other mobile device to send and receive wireless instant messages.
With a compatible IM service, users have these IM options:
 Mobile to Mobile: use a wireless instant messenger to communicate between two mobile
devices
 Mobile to Personal Computer: use a wireless instant messenger to communicate between
mobile device and a personal computer
 Web to Mobile: send or forward messages from a personal computer’s instant messenger
a mobile device
PICTURE/VIDEO MESSAGING With picture messaging, users can send pictures and

sound files, as well as short text messages, to a phone or other personal mobile device,
or a computer. With video messaging, users can send short video clips, usually about
30 seconds in length, in addition to all picture messaging services. Picture/video
messaging service, also called MMS (multimedia message service), typically provides
users these options for sending and receiving messages:
 Mobile to Mobile: send the picture/video from your mobile device to

another mobile device
 Mobile to E-Mail: send the picture/video from your mobile device to an
e-mail address anywhere in the world
Users can send and receive text messages, wireless instant messages, and picture/video messages to
and from their smart phones and other computers and devices.
Wireless Internet Access Points
At home, work, school, and in many public locations, people connect wirelessly to the
Internet through a wireless Internet access point using mobile computers, smart
phones, handheld game consoles, or other devices. Users access wireless Internet access
points with computers or devices that have the necessary built-in wireless capability or
the appropriate wireless network card, PC Card, ExpressCard module, or USB network
adapter (Figure 8-4). Two types of wireless Internet access points are hot spots and
mobile wireless networks.
A hot spot is a wireless network that provides Internet connections to mobile

computers and other devices. Through the hot spot, mobile users check e-mail, browse
the Web, and access any service on the Internet. Three hot spot technologies are Wi-Fi,
WiMAX, and Bluetooth. Wi-Fi hot spots provide wireless network connections to
users in public locations such as airports, train stations, hotels, convention centers,
schools, campgrounds, shopping malls, bookstores, libraries, restaurants, and coffee
shops. The coverage range for WiMAX hot spots, can be much wider than Wi-Fi; for
example, they can cover an entire city. Bluetooth hot spots provide location-based
services, such as sending coupons or menus, to users whose enabled devices enter the
coverage range. Sections later in this chapter discuss Wi-Fi, WiMAX, and Bluetooth in
more detail.
Some hot spots provide free Internet access, some charge a per-use fee, and others
require users to subscribe to a wireless Internet service provider, to which they pay per
access fees, daily fees, or a monthly fee. Per access fees average Php100, daily fees range
from Php20 to Php150, and monthly fees range from Php1,000 to Php5,000 for
unlimited access, with the higher monthly fee providing greater coverage areas.
A mobile wireless network provides users with high-speed Internet connections, as

long as they are in the network’s range. A mobile wireless network usually includes
most major cities and airports. Subscription fees for unlimited monthly Internet access
to a mobile wireless network through a cell phone range from Php1,000 to Php3,000.
Fees for notebook computer access are higher, ranging from Php1,500 to Php3,500 per
month.
Cybercafés
When mobile users travel without their notebook computer or Internet-enabled mobile
device, they can visit a cybercafé to access e-mail, the Web, and other Internet services.
A cybercafé, or Internet cafe, is a coffeehouse, restaurant, or other location that provides
personal computers with Internet access to its customers. Cybercafés exist in cities
around the world. Although some provide free Internet access, most charge a per-hour
or per-minute fee. Some cybercafés also are hot spots.
Global Positioning Systems

A global positioning system (GPS) is a navigation system that consists of one or more
earth-based receivers that accept and analyze signals sent by satellites in order to
determine the receiver’s geographic location (Figure 8-5). A GPS receiver is a handheld,
mountable, or embedded device that contains an antenna, a radio receiver, and a
processor. Many include a screen display that shows an individual’s location on a map.
Some also function as a portable media player.
Many mobile devices such as smart phones have GPS capability built into the device or
as an add-on feature. Some users carry a handheld GPS receiver; others mount a
receiver to an object such as an automobile, boat, airplane, farm and construction
equipment, or computer.
The first and most used application of GPS technology is to assist people with
determining where they are located. The data obtained from a GPS, however, can be
applied to a variety of other uses: creating a map, ascertaining the best route between
two points, locating a lost person or stolen object, monitoring the movement of a person
or object, determining altitude, and calculating speed. Many vehicles use GPSs to
provide drivers with directions or other information.
Collaboration
Many software products provide a means to collaborate, or work online, with other
users connected to a server. Two methods of collaboration include collaborative
software and document management systems. Collaborative software includes tools
that enable users to share documents via online meetings and communicate with other
connected users. An online meeting allows users to share documents with others in real
time (Figure 8-6). When the online meeting takes place on the Web, it is called a Web
conference. In an online meeting, all participants see a document(s) at the
same time. As someone changes the document, everyone in the meeting sees the
changes being made. Collaborative software often has chat, white- board, and
video/audio conferencing capabilities.
Some companies use document management systems to make collaboration possible

among
employees. A document management system provides for storage and management

of a company’s documents, such as word processing documents, presentations, and
spreadsheets. Users then access these documents, depending on their needs. A
document management system can track all changes made to a document. It also can
store additional information such as the document’s creation date, the user who
created the document, a summary of the document, and any keywords associated with
the document. Google Docs is a Web-based document management system that
provides basic services to its subscribers at no cost.
Groupware
Groupware is software that helps groups of people work together on projects and share
information over a network. Groupware is a component of a broad concept called
workgroup computing, which includes network hardware and software that enables
group members to communicate, manage projects, schedule meetings, and make group
decisions. To assist with these activities, most groupware provides personal information
manager (PIM) functions, such as an electronic appointment calendar, an address
book, and a notepad. A major feature of groupware is group scheduling, in which a
group calendar can track the schedules of multiple users and help coordinate
appointments and meeting times.
Voice Mail
Voice mail, which functions much like an answering machine, allows someone to leave
a voice message for one or more people. Unlike answering machines, however, a
computer in the voice mail system converts an analog voice message into digital form.
Once digitized, the message is stored in a voice mailbox. A voice mailbox is a storage
location on a hard disk in the voice mail system. Some voice mail systems can send
digital voice mail files to e-mail addresses. Others can convert a voice mail message to a
text message for display on a computer or mobile device.
Web Services
Web services describe standardized software that enables programmers to create

applications that communicate with other remote computers over the Internet or over
an internal business network. Businesses are the primary users of Web services because
this technology provides a means for departments to communicate with each other,
suppliers, vendors, and with clients. For example, third-party vendors can use Web
services to communicate with their online retailer’s Web site to manage their inventory
levels.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Internet — Worldwide collection of networks that links millions of businesses, government agencies, educational institutions, and individuals
Web — Worldwide collection of electronic documents on the Internet that users access through a Web browser
E-Mail — Transmission of messages and files via a computer network
Instant Messaging — Real-time one-on-one communications service on the Internet that notifies you when one or more people are online and
then allows you to exchange messages, pictures, files, audio, and video
Chat Rooms — Real-time typed conversation among two or more people that takes place on a computer connected to a network that also
may allow the exchange of messages, pictures, files, audio, and video
Newsgroups — Online areas in which users have written discussions about a particular subject
Blogs — Time-stamped articles on a network that reflect the author’s interests, opinions, and personality
Wikis — Collaborative Web sites that allow users to create, add to, modify, or delete Web site content
RSS — Specification that enables Web content to be distributed to subscribers
VoIP — Conversation that takes place over the Internet using a telephone connected to a computer or mobile device or telephone adapter
FTP — Internet standard that permits users to upload and download files to and from FTP servers on the Internet
Web Folders — Location on a Web server (also known as an HTTP server) to which users publish documents and other files
Video Conferencing — Real-time meeting between two or more geographically separated people who use a network to transmit audio and
video data
Fax Machine or Computer Fax/Modem — Transmits and receives documents over telephone lines
Lesson 4 - NETWORKS
A network is a collection of computers and devices connected together via communications devices a
transmission media. Many businesses network their computers together to facilitate communications
share hardware, share data and information, share software, and transfer funds.
A network can be internal to an organization or span the world by connecting to the Internet. Instea
using the Internet or an internal network, some companies hire a value-added network provider for
network functions. A value-added network (VAN) is a third-party business that provides networki
services for a fee.
Networks facilitate communications among users and allow users to share resources with other use
Some examples of resources are data, information, hardware, and software.
LANs, MANs, and WANs
Networks usually are classified as a local area network, metropolitan area network, or wide area
network. The main differentiation among these classifications is their area of coverage, as described
the following paragraphs.
LAN A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area such as a home, school computer labora- tory, office building, or closely positione
group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network, called a node, often shares resources s
as printers, large hard disks, and programs. Often, the nodes are connected via cables. A wireless
LAN (WLAN) is a LAN that uses no physical wires. Very often, a WLAN communicates with a wi
LAN for access to its resources.
MAN A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a high-speed network that connects local area networ
a metropolitan area such as a city or town and handles the bulk of communications activity across t
region. A MAN typically includes one or more LANs, but covers a smaller geographic area than a
WAN.
A MAN usually is managed by a consortium of users or by a single network provider that sells the
service to the users. Local and state governments, for example, regulate some MANs. Telephone
companies, cable television operators, and other organizations provide users with connections to th
MAN.
WAN A wide area network (WAN) is a network that covers a large geographic area (such as a city,
country, or the world) using a communications channel that combines many types of media such as
telephone lines, cables, and radio waves (Figure 8-8). A WAN can be one large network or can cons
two or more LANs connected together. The Internet is the world’s largest WAN.
Network Architectures
The design of computers, devices, and media in a network, sometimes called the network architectu
is categorized as either client/server or peer-to-peer.
CLIENT/SERVER On a client/server network, one or more computers act as a server; the other
computers on the network request services from the server (Figure 8-9). A server controls access to
hardware, software, and other resources on the network and provides a centralized storage area fo
programs, data, and information. The clients are other computers and mobile devices on the netwo
that rely on the server for its resources. For example, a server might store a database of customers.
Clients on the network (company employees) access the customer database on the server.
Some servers, called dedicated servers, perform a specific task and can be placed with other dedicat
servers to perform multiple tasks. For example, a file server stores and manages files. A print server
manages printers and documents being printed. A database server stores and provides access to a
database. A network server manages network traffic (activity).
A client/server network typically provides an efficient means to connect 10 or more computers. Mo
client/server networks require a person to serve as a network administrator because of the large size
the network.
PEER-TO-PEER One type of peer-to-peer network is a simple, inexpensive network that typically
connects fewer than 10 computers. Each computer, called a peer, has equal responsibilities and
capabilities, sharing hardware (such as a printer), data, or information with other computers on th
peer-to-peer network. Each computer stores files on its own storage devices. Thus, each computer o
network contains both the network operating system and application software. All computers on th
network share any peripheral device(s) attached to any computer. For example, one computer may
a laser printer and a scanner, while another has an ink-jet printer and an external hard disk. Peer-to
networks are ideal for very small businesses and home users.
INTERNET PEER-TO-PEER Another type of peer-to-peer, called P2P, describes an Internet networ

which users access each other’s hard disks and exchange files directly (Figure 8-11). This type of pee
peer network sometimes is called a file sharing network because users with compatible software a
an Internet connection copy files from someone else’s hard disk to their hard disks. As more users
connect to the network, each user has access to shared files on other users’ hard disks. When users l
off, others no longer have access to their hard disks.
Examples of networking software that support P2P are BitTorrent, Gnutella, Kazaa, and LimeWire
which allow users to swap music and other files via the Web.
Network Topologies
A network topology refers to the layout of the computers and devices in a communications netwo
Three commonly used network topologies are bus, ring, and star. Networks usually use combinatio
these topologies.
BUS NETWORK A bus network consists of a single central cable, to which all computers and other
devices connect. The bus is the physical cable that connects the computers and other devices. The bu
a bus network transmits data, instructions, and information in both directions. When a sending dev
transmits data, the address of the receiving device is included with the transmission so that the da
routed to the appropriate receiving device.
Bus networks are popular on LANs because they are inexpensive and easy to install. One advantag
the bus network is that computers and other devices can be attached and detached at any point on
bus without dis- turbing the rest of the network. Another advantage is that failure of one device usu
does not affect the rest of the bus network. The greatest risk to a bus network is that the bus itself m
become inoperable. If that hap- pens, the network remains inoperative until the bus is back in work
order.
RING NETWORK On a ring network, a cable forms a closed loop (ring) with all computers and dev
arranged along the ring. Data transmitted on a ring network travels from device to device around
entire ring, in one direction. When a computer or device sends data, the data travels to each compu
on the ring until it reaches its destination.
If a computer or device on a ring network fails, all devices before the failed device are unaffected, b
those after the failed device cannot function. A ring network can span a larger distance than a bus
network, but it is more difficult to install. The ring topology primarily is used for LANs, but also is
in WANs.
STAR NETWORK On a star network, all of the computers and devices (nodes) on the network
connect to a central device, thus forming a star. Two types of devices that provide a common centra
connection point for nodes on the network are a hub and a switch. All data that transfers from one n
to another passes through the hub/switch.
Star networks are fairly easy to install and maintain. Nodes can be added to and removed from the
network with little or no disruption to the network.
On a star network, if one node fails, only that node is affected. The other nodes continue to operate
normally. If the hub/switch fails, however, the entire network is inoperable until the device is repair
Intranets
Recognizing the efficiency and power of the Internet, many organizations apply Internet and Web
technologies to their own internal networks. An intranet (intra means within) is an internal network
that uses Internet technologies. Intranets generally make company information accessible to emplo
and facilitate working in groups.
Simple intranet applications include electronic publishing of organizational materials such as teleph
directories, event calendars, procedure manuals, employee benefits information, and job postings.
Additionally, an intranet typically includes a connection to the Internet. More sophis- ticated uses o
intranets include groupware applications such as project management, chat rooms, newsgroups, gr
scheduling, and video conferencing.
An intranet essentially is a small version of the Internet that exists within an organization. Users up
information on the intranet by creating and posting a Web page, using a method similar to that us
on the Internet.
Sometimes a company uses an extranet, which allows customers or suppliers to access part of its
intranet. Package shipping companies, for example, allow customers to access their intranet to print
bills, schedule pickups, and even track shipped packages as the packages travel to their destination
Network Communications Standards
Today’s networks connect terminals, devices, and computers from many different manufacturers ac
many types of networks, such as wide area, local area, and wireless. For the different devices on var
types of networks to be able to communicate, the network must use similar techniques of moving d
through the network from one application to another.
To alleviate the problems of incompatibility and ensure that hardware and software components ca
integrated into any network, various organizations such as ANSI and IEEE (pronounced I triple E)
propose, develop, and approve network standards. A network standard defines guidelines that spe
the way computers access the medium to which they are attached, the type(s) of medium used, the
speeds used on different types of networks, and the type(s) of physical cable and/or the wireless tec
nology used. A standard that outlines characteristics of how two network devices communicate is c
a protocol. Hardware and software manufacturers design their products to meet the guidelines spec
in a particular standard, so that their devices can communicate with the network.
The following sections discuss some of the more widely used network communications standards f
both wired and wireless networks including Ethernet, token ring, TCP/IP, 802.11 (Wi-Fi), Bluetooth
UWB, IrDA, RFID, WiMAX, and WAP.
ETHERNET Ethernet is a network standard that specifies no central computer or device on the netw
(nodes) should control when data can be transmitted; that is, each node attempts to transmit data w
it determines the network is able to receive communications. If two computers on an Ethernet netw
attempt to send data at the same time, a collision occurs, and the computers must attempt to send th
messages again.
Ethernet is based on a bus topology, but Ethernet networks can be wired in a star pattern. The Ether
standard defines guidelines for the physical configuration of the network, e.g., cabling, network car
and nodes. Today, Ethernet is the most popular LAN standard because it is relatively inexpensive a
easy to install and maintain. Ethernet networks often use cables to transmit data.
TOKEN RING The token ring standard specifies that computers and devices on the network share o
pass a special signal, called a token, in a unidirectional manner and in a preset order. A token is a
special series of bits that function like a ticket. The device with the token can transmit data over the
network. Only one token exists per network. This ensures that only one computer transmits data at
time. Token ring is based on a ring topology (although it can use a star topology). The token ring
standard defines guidelines for the physical configuration of a network. Some token ring networks
connect up to 72 devices. Others use a special type of wiring that allows up to 260 connections.
TCP/IP Short for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, TCP/IP is a network standard,

specifically a protocol, that defines how messages (data) are routed from one end of a network to th
other. TCP/IP describes rules for dividing messages into small pieces, called packets; providing
addresses for each packet; checking for and detecting errors; sequencing packets; and regulating the
flow of messages along the network.
TCP/IP has been adopted as a network standard for Internet communications. Thus, all hosts on the
Internet follow the rules defined in this standard. Internet communications also use other standards
such as the Ethernet standard, as data is routed to its destination.
When a computer sends data over the Internet, the data is divided into packets. Each packet contain
the data, as well as the recipient (destination), the origin (sender), and the sequence information use
reassemble the data at the destination. Each packet travels along the fastest individual available pat
the recipient’s computer via communications devices called routers.
802.11 (WI-FI) Developed by IEEE, 802.11 also known as Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) and wireless

Ethernet, is a series of network standards that specifies how two wireless devices communicate ove
air with each other. Using Wi-Fi, computers or devices that have the appropriate wireless capa- bili
communicate via radio waves with other computers or devices. The Wi-Fi standard uses tech- niqu
similar to the Ethernet standard to specify how physically to configure a wireless network. Most of
today’s computers and many personal mobile devices, such as smart phones and handheld game
consoles, are Wi-Fi enabled.
One popular use of the Wi-Fi standard is in hot spots that offer mobile users the ability to connect to
Internet with their Wi-Fi enabled wireless computers and devices. Many homes and small businesse
also use Wi-Fi to network computers and devices together wirelessly.
BLUETOOTH Bluetooth is a standard, specifically a protocol, that defines how two Bluetooth devic
use short-range radio waves to transmit data. To communicate with each other, Bluetooth devices o
must be within about 10 meters (about 33 feet) but can be extended to 100 meters with additional eq
ment. Examples of Bluetooth devices can include desktop computers, notebook computers, handhe
computers, smart phones, PDAs, headsets, microphones, digital cameras, and printers.
UWB UWB, which stands for ultra-wideband, is a network standard that specifies how two UWB
devices use short-range radio waves to communicate at high speeds with each other. For optimal co
munications, the devices should be within 2 to 10 meters (about 6.5 to 33 feet) of each other. Examp
UWB uses include wirelessly transferring video from a digital video camera, printing pictures from
digital camera, downloading media to a portable media player, or displaying a slide show on a
projector.
IRDA Some computers and devices use the IrDA specification to transmit data wirelessly to each ot
via infrared (IR) light waves. Infrared requires a line-of-sight transmission; that is, the sending devi
and the receiving device must be in line with each other so that nothing obstructs the path of the
infrared light wave.
RFID RFID (radio frequency identification) is a standard, specifically a protocol, that defines how a

network uses radio signals to communicate with a tag placed in or attached to an object, an animal,
person. The tag consists of an antenna and a memory chip that contains the information to be
transmitted via radio waves. Through an antenna, an RFID reader reads the radio signals and trans
the information to a computer or computing device. Readers can be handheld or embedded in an ob
such as a doorway or tollbooth.
WIMAX WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access), also known as 802.16, is a ne

network standard developed by IEEE that specifies how wireless devices communicate over the air
wide area. Using the WiMAX standard, computers or devices with the appropriate WiMAX wireles
capability communicate via radio waves with other computers or devices via a WiMAX tower. The
WiMAX tower, which can cover up to a 30-mile radius, connects to the Internet or to another WiMA
tower.
Two types of WiMAX specifications are fixed wireless and mobile wireless. With fixed wireless
WiMAX, a customer accesses the Internet from a desktop computer at home or other permanent
location. Mobile wireless WiMAX, by contrast, enables users to access the WiMAX network with m
computers and mobile devices such as smart phones.
The WiMAX standard provides wireless broadband Internet access at a reasonable cost over long
distances to business and home users. The WiMAX standard, similar to the Wi-Fi standard, conne
mobile users to the Internet via hot spots. The next generation of game consoles also plans to suppo
the WiMAX standard.
WAP The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a standard, specifically a protocol, that specifies

some mobile devices such as smart phones can display the content of Internet services such as the W
e-mail, and chat rooms. For example, users can check weather, sports scores, and headline news fro
their WAP-enabled smart phone. To display a Web page on a smart phone, the phone should conta
microbrowser. WAP uses a client/server network. The wireless device contains the client software,
which connects to the Internet access provider’s server.
Lesson 5 - COMMUNICATIONS OVER THE

TELEPHONE NETWORK
Communications software consists of programs that
(1) help users establish a connection to another computer or network;
(2) manage the transmission of data, instructions, and information; and
(3) provide an interface for users to communicate with one another.
The first two are system software and the third is application software. Examples of application
software for communications: e-mail, FTP, Web browser, newsgroup/message boards, chat rooms,
instant messaging, video conferencing, and VoIP.
Some communications devices are preprogrammed to accomplish communications tasks. Other

communications devices require separate communications software to ensure proper transmission
data. Communications software works with the network standards and protocols defined earlier to
ensure data moves correctly through a network. Communications software usually is bundled wit
the operating system or purchased network devices.
Often, a computer has various types of communications software, each serving a different purpose
One type of communications software helps users establish a connection to the Internet using
wizards, dialog boxes, and other on-screen messages. Communications software also allows home
and small office users to configure wired and wireless networks and connect devices to an existing
network.
COMMUNICATIONS OVER THE TELEPHONE NETWORK
The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is the worldwide telephone system that handles
voice-oriented telephone calls (Figure 8-15). Nearly the entire telephone network today uses digita
technology, with the exception of the final link from the local telephone company to a home, whic
often is analog.
The telephone network is an integral part of computer communications. Data, instructions, and
information are transmitted over the telephone network using dial-up lines or dedicated lines. Th
following sections discuss dial-up lines and the various types of dedicated lines that use the
telephone network for data communications.
Dial-Up Lines
A dial-up line is a temporary connection that uses one or more analog telephone lines for
communications. A dial-up connection is not permanent. Using a dial-up line to transmit data is
similar to using the telephone to make a call. A modem at the sending end dials the telephone
number of a modem at the receiving end. When the modem at the receiving end answers the call, a
connection is established and data can be transmitted. When either modem hangs up, the
communications end.
Using a dial-up line to connect computers costs no more than making a regular telephone call.
Computers at any two locations establish an Internet or network connection using modems and th
telephone network.
Dedicated Lines
A dedicated line is a type of always-on connection that is established between two communication
devices (unlike a dial-up line where the connection is reestablished each time it is used). The qual
and consistency of the connection on a dedicated line are better than a dial-up line because dedica
lines provide a constant connection.
Businesses often use dedicated lines to connect geographically distant offices. Dedicated lines can
either analog or digital. Digital lines increasingly are connecting home and business users to
networks around the globe because they transmit data and information at faster rates than analog
lines.
Five types of digital dedicated lines are ISDN lines, DSL, FTTP, T-carrier lines, and ATM. Althou
cable television (CATV) lines and fixed wireless are not a type of standard telephone line, they are
very popular ways for the home user to connect to the Internet. Fixed wireless Internet connection
use an antenna on your house or business to communicate with a tower location via radio signals.
Later sections in this chapter discuss the use of CATV lines and radio signals to connect to the
Internet.
The table in Figure 8-16 lists the approximate monthly costs of various types of Internet connectio
and transfer rates (speeds), as compared with dial-up lines. The following sections discuss ISDN
lines, DSL, FTTP, T-carrier lines, and ATM.
ISDN LINES For the small business and home user, an ISDN line provides faster transfer rates th
dial-up telephone lines. Not as widely used today as in the past, ISDN (Integrated Services Digita
Network) is a set of standards for digital transmission of data over standard copper telephone line
ISDN requires that both ends of the connection have an ISDN modem. The ISDN modem at your
location must be within about 3.5 miles of the telephone company’s ISDN modem. Thus, ISDN
may not be an option for rural residents.
DSL DSL is a popular digital line alternative for the small business or home user. DSL (Digital
Subscriber Line) transmits at fast speeds on existing standard copper telephone wiring. Some DSL
installations include a dial tone, providing users with both voice and data communications.
To connect to DSL, a customer must have a special network card and a DSL modem. Not all areas
offer DSL service because the local telephone company or the lines in the area may not be capable
supporting DSL technology. As with ISDN, DSL may not be an option for rural residents because
user’s location (and DSL modem) and the telephone company’s DSL modem must be located with
about 3.5 miles of each other.
ADSL is one of the more popular types of DSLs. ADSL (asymmetric digital subscriber line) is a ty
of DSL that supports faster transfer rates when receiving data (the downstream rate) than when
sending data (the upstream rate). ADSL is ideal for Internet access because most users download
more information from the Internet than they upload.
FTTP FTTP, which stands for Fiber to the Premises, uses fiber-optic cable to provide extremely hig
speed Internet access to a user's physical permanent location. Two specific types of FTTP are FTTH
(Fiber to the Home) and FTTB (Fiber to the Building). With FTTP service, an optical terminal at yo
premises receives the signals and transfers them to a router connected to your computer. As the co
of installing fiber decreases, increasingly more homes and businesses will opt for this high-speed
Internet access.
T-CARRIER LINES A T-carrier line is any of several types of long-distance digital telephone lines

that carry multiple signals over a single communications line. T-carrier lines provide very fast dat
transfer rates. Only medium to large companies usually can afford the investment in T-carrier line
because these lines are so expensive.
The most popular T-carrier line is the T1 line. Businesses often use T1 lines to connect to the
Internet. Many Internet access providers use T1 lines to connect to the Internet backbone. Home a
small business users purchase fractional T1, in which they share a connection to the T1 line with
other users. Fractional T1 is slower than a dedicated T1 line, but it also is less expensive.
A T3 line is equal in speed to 28 T1 lines. T3 lines are quite expensive. Main users of T3 lines inclu
large companies, telephone companies, and Internet access providers connecting to the Internet
backbone. The Internet backbone itself also uses T3 lines.
ATM ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) is a service that carries voice, data, video, and multime
at extremely high speeds. Telephone networks, the Internet, and other networks with large amoun
of traffic use ATM. Some experts predict that ATM eventually will become the Internet standard f
data transmission, replacing T3 lines.
LESSON 6 - COMMUNICATION DEVICES

A communications device is any type of hardware capable of transmitting data, instructions, and
information between a sending device and a receiving device. One type of communications device th
connects a communications channel to a sending or receiving device such as a computer is a modem
Computers process data as digital signals. Data, instructions, and information travel along a
communications channel in either analog or digital form, depending on the communications channe
An analog signal consists of a continuous electrical wave. A digital signal consists of individual
electrical pulses that represent bits grouped together into bytes.
For communications channels that use digital signals (such as cable television lines), the
modem transfers the digital signals between the computer and the communications
channel. If a communications channel uses analog signals (such as some telephone
lines), however, the modem first converts between analog and digital signals.
The following pages describe the following types of communications devices: dial-up
modems, ISDN and DSL modems, cable modems, wireless modems, network cards,
wireless access points, and routers.
Dial-Up Modems
As previously discussed, a computer’s digital signals must be converted to analog

signals before they are transmitted over standard telephone lines. The communications
device that performs this conversion is a modem, sometimes called a dial-up modem.
The word, modem, is derived from the combination of the words, modulate, to change
into an analog signal, and demodulate, to convert an analog signal into a digital signal.
A modem usually is in the form of an adapter card that you insert in an expansion slot
on a computer’s motherboard. One end of a standard telephone cord attaches to a port
on the modem card and the other end plugs into a telephone outlet.
ISDN and DSL Modems

If you access the Internet using ISDN or DSL, you need a communications device to
send and receive the digital ISDN or DSL signals. An ISDN modem sends digital data
and information from a computer to an ISDN line and receives digital data and
information from an ISDN line. A DSL modem sends digital data and information from
a computer to a DSL line and receives digital data and information from a DSL line.
ISDN and DSL modems usually are external devices, in which one end connects to the
telephone line and the other end connects to a port on the system unit.
Cable Modems
A cable modem is a digital modem that sends and receives digital data over the cable
television (CATV) network (Figure 8-18). With more than 110 million homes wired for
cable television, cable modems provide a faster Internet access alternative to dial-up for
the home user and have speeds similar to DSL. Cable modems currently can transmit
data at speeds that are much faster than either a dial-up modem or ISDN.
Wireless Modems
Some mobile users have a wireless modem that uses the cell phone network to
connect to the Internet wirelessly from a notebook computer, a smart phone, or other
mobile device (Figure 8-19). Wireless modems, which have an external or built-in
antenna, are available as PC Cards, ExpressCard modules, and flash cards.
Network Cards
A network card is an adapter card, PC Card, ExpressCard module, USB network

adapter, or flash card that enables a computer or device that does not have networking
capability to access a network. The network card coordinates the transmission and
receipt of data, instructions, and information to and from the computer or device
containing the network card.
Network cards are available in a variety of styles (Figure 8-20). A network card for a
desktop computer is an adapter card that has a port to which a cable connects. A
network card for mobile computers and devices is in the form of a PC Card,
ExpressCard module, USB network adapter, or a flash card. Network cards that provide
wireless data transmission also are available. This type of card, sometimes called a
wireless network card, often has an antenna.
A network card follows the guidelines of a particular network communications

standard, such as Ethernet or token ring. An Ethernet card is the most common type of
network card.
Wireless Access Points
A wireless access point is a central communications device that allows computers and
devices to transfer data wirelessly among themselves or to transfer data wirelessly to a
wired network (Figure 8-7 on page 303). Wireless access points have high-quality
antennas for optimal signals.
Routers
A router is a communications device that connects multiple computers or other routers

together and transmits data to its correct destination on the network. A router can be
used on any size of network. On the largest scale, routers along the Internet backbone
forward data packets to their destination using the fastest available path. For smaller
business and home networks, a router allows multiple computers to share a single high-
speed Internet connection such as a cable modem or DSL modem (Figure 8-21). These
routers connect from 2 to 250 computers.
To prevent unauthorized users from accessing files and computers, many routers are
protected by a built-in firewall, called a hardware firewall. Some also have built-in
antivirus protection. Today’s routers or combination wireless access point/routers are
easy to configure and secure against unauthorized access.
LESSON 7 - HOME NETWORKS

HOME NETWORKS
Many home users are connecting multiple computers and devices together in a home network. Each
networked computer in the house has the following capabilities:
 Connect to the Internet at the same time

 Share a single high-speed Internet connection
 Access files and programs on the other computers in the house
 Share peripherals such as a printer, scanner, external hard disk, or DVD drive
 Play multiplayer games with players on other computers in the house
 Connect game consoles to the Internet
 Subscribe to and use VoIP
Many vendors offer home networking packages that include all the necessary hardware
and software to network your home using wired or wireless techniques. Some of these
packages also offer intelligent networking capabilities. An intelligent home network
extends the basic home network to include features such as lighting control, thermostat
adjustment, and a security system.
Wired Home Networks
As with other networks, a home network can use wires, be wireless, or use a
combination of wired and wireless. Three types of wired home networks are Ethernet,
powerline cable, and phoneline.
ETHERNET Some home users have an Ethernet network. As discussed earlier in this

chapter, traditional Ethernet networks require that each computer have built-in
networking capabilities or contain a network card, which connects to a central network
hub or similar device with a physical cable. This may involve running cable through
walls, ceilings, and floors in the house. For the average home user, the hardware and
software of an Ethernet network can be difficult to configure.
POWERLINE CABLE NETWORK A home powerline cable network is a network that

uses the same lines that bring electricity into the house. This network requires no
additional wiring. One end of a cable plugs in the computer’s parallel or USB port and
the other end of the cable plugs in a wall outlet. The data transmits through the existing
power lines in the house.
PHONELINE NETWORK A phoneline network is an easy-to-install and inexpensive

network that uses existing telephone lines in the home. With this network, one end of a
cable connects to an adapter card or PC Card in the computer and the other end plugs
in a wall telephone jack. The phoneline network does not interfere with voice and data
transmissions on the telephone lines. That is, you can talk on the telephone and use the
same line to connect to the Internet.
Wireless Home Networks
To network computers and devices that span multiple rooms or floors in a home, it may
be more convenient to use a wireless strategy. One advantage of wireless networks is
that you can take a mobile computer outside, for example in the backyard, and connect
to the Internet through the home network as long as you are in the network’s range.
Most home networks use a Wi-Fi network, which sends signals through the air at
distances of up to 1,500 feet in some configurations. Home users set up Wi-Fi networks
in their homes because Wi-Fi networks are fairly easy to configure. Each computer that
accesses the network must have the appropriate built-in wireless networking
capabilities or a wireless network card, which communicates with a wireless access
point or a combination router/wireless access point (Figure 8-22).
COMMUNICATIONS CHANNEL
As described at the beginning of the chapter, a communications channel is the

transmission media on which data, instructions, or information travel in a
communications system. The amount of data, instructions, and information that can
travel over a communications channel sometimes is called the bandwidth. The higher
the bandwidth, the more the channel transmits. For example, a cable modem has more
bandwidth than a dial-up modem.
For transmission of text only, a lower bandwidth is acceptable. For transmission of

music, graphics, photos, virtual reality images, or 3-D games, however, you need a
higher bandwidth. When the bandwidth is too low for the application, you will notice a
considerable slow-down in system performance.
A communications channel consists of one or more transmission media. Transmission

media consist of materials or substances capable of carrying one or more signals. When
you send data from a computer, the signal that carries the data may travel over various
transmission media. This is especially true when the transmission spans a long distance.
Figure 8-23 illustrates a typical communications channel and shows the variety of
transmission media used to complete the connection.
Baseband media transmit only one signal at a time. By contrast, broadband media

transmit multiple signals simultaneously. Broadband media transmit signals at a much
faster speed than baseband media. Home and business users today opt for broadband
Internet access because of the much faster transfer rates. Two previously discussed
services that offer broadband transmission are DSL and the cable television Internet
service. Satellites also offer broadband transmission. Read Looking Ahead 8-1 for a look
at the future of communications.
Transmission media are one of two types: physical or wireless. Physical transmission
media use wire, cable, and other tangible materials to send communications signals.
Wireless transmission media send communications signals through the air or space
using radio, microwave, and infrared signals. The following sections discuss these types
of media.
LESSON 8 - PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION MEDIA
PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Physical transmission media used in communications include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and
fiber-optic cable. These cables typically are used within or underground between buildings. Ethernet
and token ring LANs often use physical transmission media.
Twisted-Pair Cable
One of the more commonly used transmission media for network cabling and telephone
systems is twisted-pair cable. Twisted-pair cable consists of one or more twisted-pair
wires bundled together (Figure 8-24). Each twisted-pair wire consists of two separate
insulated copper wires that are twisted together. The wires are twisted together to
reduce noise. Noise is an electrical disturbance that can degrade communications.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable, often referred to as coax (pronounced KO-ax), consists of a single copper
wire surrounded by at least three layers: (1) an insulating material, (2) a woven or
braided metal, and (3) a plastic outer coating (Figure 8-25).
Cable television (CATV) network wiring often uses coaxial cable because it can be
cabled over longer distances than twisted-pair cable. Most of today’s computer
networks, however, do not use coaxial cable because other transmission media such as
fiber-optic cable transmit signals at faster
rates.
Fiber-Optic Cable
The core of a fiber-optic cable consists of dozens or hundreds of thin strands of glass or

plastic that use light to transmit signals. Each strand, called an optical fiber, is as thin as
a human hair. Inside the fiber-optic cable, an insulating glass cladding and a protective
coating surround each optical fiber (Figure 8-26).
Fiber-optic cables have the following advantages over cables that use wire, such as
twisted-pair and coaxial cables:
 Capability of carrying significantly more signals than wire cables

 Faster data transmission
 Less susceptible to noise (interference) from other devices such as a copy
machine
 Better security for signals during transmission because they are less susceptible
to noise
 Smaller size (much thinner and lighter weight)
Disadvantages of fiber-optic cable are it costs more than twisted-pair or coaxial cable
and can be difficult to install and modify. Despite these limitations, many local and
long- distance telephone companies are replacing existing telephone lines with fiber-
optic cables, enabling them to offer fiber Internet access to home and business users.
LESSON 9 - WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Many users opt for wireless transmission media because it is more convenient than installing cables.
addition, businesses use wireless transmission media in locations where it is impossible to install cab
Types of wireless transmission media used in communications include infrared, broadcast radio,
cellular radio, microwaves, and communications satellites.
Infrared
As discussed earlier in the chapter, infrared (IR) is a wireless transmission medium that
sends signals using infrared light waves. Mobile computers and devices, such as a
mouse, printer, and smart phone, often have an IrDA port that enables the transfer of
data from one device to another using infrared light waves.
Broadcast Radio
Broadcast radio is a wireless transmission medium that distributes radio signals

through the air over long distances such as between cities, regions, and countries and
short distances such as within an office or home. Bluetooth, UWB, Wi-Fi, and WiMAX
communications technologies discussed earlier in this chapter use broadcast radio
signals.
Cellular Radio
Cellular radio is a form of broadcast radio that is used widely for mobile
communications, specifically wireless modems and cell phones. A cell phone is a
telephone device that uses high-frequency radio waves to transmit voice and digital
data messages.
Some mobile users connect their notebook computer or other mobile computer to a cell
phone to access the Web, send and receive e-mail, enter a chat room, or connect to an
office or school network while away from a standard telephone line. Read Looking
Ahead 8-2 for a look at the next generation of cellular communications.
Personal Communications Services (PCS) is the term used by the United States Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) to identify all wireless digital communications.
Devices that use PCS include cell phones, PDAs, pagers, and fax machines.
Microwaves
Microwaves are radio waves that provide a high-speed signal transmission. Microwave

transmission, often called fixed wireless, involves sending signals from one microwave
station to another (shown in Figure 8-1 on page 296). Microwaves can transmit data at
rates up to 4,500 times faster than a dial-up modem.
A microwave station is an earth-based reflective dish that contains the antenna,

transceivers, and other equipment necessary for microwave communications.
Microwaves use line-of-sight transmission. To avoid possible obstructions, such as
buildings or mountains, microwave stations often sit on the tops of buildings, towers, or
mountains.
Microwave transmission is used in environments where installing physical
transmission media is difficult or impossible and where line-of-sight transmission is
available. For example, microwave transmission is used in wide-open areas such as
deserts or lakes; between buildings in a close geographic area; or to communicate with
a satellite. Current users of microwave transmission include universities, hospitals, city
governments, cable television providers, and telephone companies. Home and small
business users who do not have other high-speed Internet connections available in their
area also opt for lower-cost fixed wireless plans.
Communications Satellite
A communications satellite is a space station that receives microwave signals from an

earth-based station, amplifies (strengthens) the signals, and broadcasts the signals back
over a wide area to any number of earth-based stations.
These earth-based stations often are microwave stations. Other devices, such as smart
phones and GPS receivers, also can function as earth-based stations. Transmission from
an earth-based station to a satellite is an uplink. Transmission from a satellite to an
earth-based station is a downlink.
Applications such as air navigation, television and radio broadcasts, weather

forecasting, video conferencing, paging, global positioning systems, and Internet
connections use communications satellites. With the proper satellite dish and a sat-
ellite modem card, consumers access the Internet using satellite technology. With
satellite Internet connections, however, uplink transmissions usually are slower than
downlink transmissions. This difference in speeds usually is acceptable to most Internet
satellite users because they download much more data than they upload. Although a
satellite Internet connection is more expensive than cable Internet or DSL connections,
sometimes it is the only high-speed Internet option in remote areas.
IP Addressing
Two most important functions in a data network are:
1. To uniquely identify each host or computer or device participating in network. This is ca

2. To be able to connect and move data packets between any devices in a network. This is
switches and routers respectively.
An IP address and Subnet Mask are very basic entities of data network.
What is an IP Address?
An IP address is a 32 bit number like 11000000101010000000000100000001 in binary or 3232235
in decimal. So it is written in 4 parts like 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001 in binary form
192.168.1.1 in decimal form. This way it is easier to understand.
Now, a unique number is sufficient to identify each host in a network but that alone cannot help
reaching from one host to another. Imagine if every house in world had a unique number or some na
but no state, city and country info. Would it be possible to reach a particular house even if its numbe
known?
So logically, addresses are made up of parts, like state, city, street and finally house number. Most of
parts of an address are common to many people, like people living at same street or city. Generally o
the house number and name finally differentiates between any two similar addresses.
Similarly in case of IP address, we logically partition an IP address in parts so that we can reac
computer from anywhere (yes, obviously if the route exists). Also not that logically partitioning an
address is different than writing an IP address in 4 parts, that’s just a notation.
So to keep things simple we generally divide an IP address in two logical parts. One is network part
the other is host part. Network part is like street, city, state which is shared by multiple IP address
Host part is like house number and name of the person. Both parts together uniquely identifies a hos
computer. We can also partition an IP address in more than two parts.
What is a subnet mask?
Subnet mask is a 32 bit number just like an IP address and is written just like it. But subnet mask is
used as a 32 bit number. It cannot hold just any value like IP address. Subnet mask is something wh
draws a line somewhere is an IP address to help logically partition an IP address into logical parts. N
again, from logical parts I don’t mean writing an IP address as four 8 bit numbers, that’s the notatio
mean logical parts like Network, Sub-network and host, just like state, city and house number.
A subnet mask should only have continuous 1s starting from MSB (Most Significant Bit).
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000. Which means first 16 bits of an IP address belongs to netw
part and rest is host part. A subnet mask can also have non-contiguous 1s, but that is str
discouraged and not recommended by RFC 950.
Why is it called Subnet Mask, why not Network Mask?
“Subnet” means sub-network. So the purpose of subnet mask was to create another partition (3rd p
in an IP Address after network part. But then how we defined and identified the network part of an
address? Why we required another logical partition of sub-networks when we already had network p
Now, to understand all this we need to know a little history of how networks worked in its starting day
History of Subnet Mask
In 1969:
THERE WAS NO SUBNET MASK!!!
THERE WERE NO NETWORK CLASSES (CLASS A, B, C, D and E)
Standard reserved first 8 bits for network part. That meant we could only have 254 distinct networks
each network can have 16,777,214 IP addresses.
In 1981:
NETWORK CLASSES WERE INTRODUCED!!!
AGAIN, THERE WAS NO SUBNET MASK!!!
24-bits for host address can hold 16,777,214 IP addresses. Not every organization in world require
network of thousands of computers. Rather we required more networks of smaller size. Also it was c
that different organization have different requirement of network size. This meant that we will hav
partition IP addresses in a way so that we can have different sizes of network. The different size
network bits created different classes of network, which we called Class A, Class B and Class C.
But as there was nothing other than IP address, not even subnet mask, we needed a way to iden
what is the network class of a given IP address. Take 12.1.2.3 for an example. We cannot identify w
part of it belongs to network and to host without any other information given.
In 1981, numbers of networks being used were very less and were limited to 6 LSB (Least Signific
Bits) of Network bits (First 8 bits). You can say if 50 networks existed at that time then 50 will tak
value of 00110010. So by standard we fixed the values of MSBs of first octet to identify class of an
address which automatically divided the decimal value of first octet in ranges. Also we wanted that n
scheme should not cause to change existing IP addresses in use.
For example Class A’s IP address will always have MSB always 0. Which means any class A addr
will always be between 0-127 in its first octet.
Class
Network Bits Host Bits Range First Octet Leading Bits
Class A
8 24 0-127 0XXXXXXX
Class B
16 16 128-191 10XXXXXX
Class C
24 8 192-224 110XXXXX
Class D
Not Defined Not Defined 225-239 1110XXXX
Class E
Not Defined Not Defined 240-255 1111XXXX
In 1985:
Enough, we require a Subnet Mask now!
Finally in RFC 950 Subnetting was introduced. Soon after classes were introduced, as numbe
organizations grew at a very past pace, we realized that we needed some way to further partitio
network into Sub-networks of smaller sizes. Here was the subnet mask introduced. That is why
called a “subnet” mask, but not network mask. Use of a subnet mask along with an IP Address a
gave the flexibility to define subnets of various sizes to network administrators.
Network Devices, Operating systems and protocols were updated to accommodate for subnet ma
Classes still existed. Still we used the MSBs to identify Class of an IP address. Subnet mask alw
took value greater than 255.0.0.0 like 255.240.0.0. We used it to further subnet a Classful netw
Subnet mask logically partitioned an IP address into three parts. This methodology of allocating
addresses is called Classful Networking.
From 1993 onwards:
Classless Networking was introduced!
Why do we need to divide an IP address in three parts, why not just two? You can just merge sub
part with network part using a subnet mask or call it a Network Prefix. Why do we need clas
anymore? Nowadays when we enter an IP address 192.168.1.1 in network card properties, subnet m
255.255.255.0 will be automatically populated in subnet mask field. This does not mean that we can
set subnet mask 255.0.0.0 for an IP address 192.168.1.1 in case of classless networking. It is just
we are being compatible with Classful network and respecting private IP range. But technically it
work with any network prefix. Network devices, operating systems and protocols do not care ab
classes anymore.
IP ADDRESS FORMAT
Exclusions
Some address ranges are excluded from the above classes. All addresses of the form 127.xx.yy.xx are used for diagnostic
The following address ranges are designated as "private": meaning thay can only be used on networks which are not
connected to the global Internet:
10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255
Examples
Find the class, network and host addresses for:
4.23.145.90
227.34.78.7
246.7.3.8
129.6.8.4
198.76.9.23
Subnetting, Supernetting and Network Address Translation
The classfull addressing scheme has proved to be too inflexible to accommodate the demand for IP addresses; specifica
the convention that the part of the address which identifies a physical network must come on an 8-bit boundary meant
the address space could not be allocated efficiently and a significant proportion of addresses would be wasted. For
instance, a Class A network can in theory have 16 million host IDs, which is way more than would be possible for a single
physical network (subnet). Many enterprises have been allocated Class B addresses, giving them a theoretical maximum
65,535 hosts, and may have no more than a few hundred hosts or less: under the classfull scheme the remaining host ID
for that network ID would be unused.
The lack of inflexibility in the addressing scheme is particulalrly undesirable because according to many authorities there
a real danger of the Internet running out of addresses, as a result of several factors which were not envisaged when the
Internet protocols were originally designed, such as :
 take-up by business and domestic users

 increasing demand for "always-on" connections requiring a dedicated IP address, so that ISPs have less ability to
share out a limited number of IP addresses by reallocating them as customers disconnect
 convergence of computing, communications and entertainment industries could mean that every TV set, mobile
phone, playstation and DVD player will want to have an IP address.
Subnetting
The basic idea behind subnetting is that we take away some bits from the host portion of the address and use them to
identify the subnet. This will only be visible to hosts and routers on the local network; from the point of view of the Inte
at large only the network ID portion will have any particular meaning. The way this works is that the network administra
defines a subnet mask, a string of 32 binary digits indicating the boundary between the subnet and host sections of the
"local" portion of an IP address. Some examples should help make this clear:
Take the Class A address 9.67.38.1, where 9 is the network address and 67.38.1 identifies a particular host on that netw
Suppose the network administrator wants to use bits 8 to 25 to identify the subnet, leaving 26 to 31 for host addresses.
is done by means of a mask which is all 1's from bits 0 to 25 with the remainder set to 0's:
11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000The subnet can then be indentified by ANDing the complete IP address with th
mask giving the result shown below:
00001001 01000011 00100110 00000001 = class A address 9.67.38.1
00001001 01000011 00100110 00000000 = subnet base address 9.67.38.0

Suppose a class C network has the subnet mask
11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000This means that the first three bits from the host ID are used to identify the
subnet, and the remaining 5 bits indicate the host itself. Take a host with the IP address
11010100 01110010 00010000 01110001 = 212.114.32.113Applying the subnet mask gives us

11010100 01110010 00010000 01100000 = 212.114.32.96The host ID proper comes out as 00010001 = 17.
For compatibility, routers include masks for unsubnetted addresses:
 255.0.0.0
 255.255.0.0
 255.255.255.0
 N/A
 N/A
Supernetting and Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)

CIDR is in a sense the converse of subnetting, in that bits are taken from the network ID to identify a cluster of network
addresses which are to be treated as a single entity. The main reasons for this are:
 As a consequence of the address exhaustion problem, Class B addresses are only assigned to organisations that
show a clear need for them: organisations which do not meet the requirements are instead given a contiguous
block of Class C addresses.
 Having a series fo router table entries for networks which all map onto the same route is wasteful of space and
degrades routing algorithms.
CIDR uses a supernet mask along with the lowest network address in the assigned block to identify the range of assigned
network addresses.
Network Address Translation and IPv6
Network Address Translation is a technique which allows for the composition of a network to be completely hidden from
the outside world, with the entire network identified by a single IP address. Within the network, hosts and routers have
addresses which are unique to that network, typically taked from the ranges designated as "private" (see above). In ord
to make sure that responses get back to the right hosts when packets are sent out into the Internet, the router will
construct a table associating outgoing packets with private IP addresses; the address of the relevant table entry will be
stored in the packet itself. This technique is controversial however; for one thing the field in the packet where the index
into the table is stored is part of the TCP header, which violates the principles of modularity and encapsulation on which
"protocol stack" models are based.
A longer term solution to the address exhaustion problem is offered by IP version 6 (IPv6) which among other innovatio
will support 128-bit addresses.
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TEACHING COMPUTER NETWORKING

Lesson 1 - Introduction to TEACHING COMPUTER

A network connects members of a family together.

Restaurant Network: The Client and the Server

A computer network can be as simple as two or more computers communicating.

The first computer, yours, is commonly referred to as your local computer. It is more

In addition, a company’s cost of doing business can be reduced as a result of sharing

The collection and proper manipulation of many seemingly unimportant pieces of

Information sharing, therefore, has serious security issues to be considered, and

The hierarchy of information

Lesson 2 - Identifying the Benefits of Networks

One sneakernet alternative was the floppy disk,

Once computers were connected by networks, information sharing in- creased

Facilitating Centralized Management

It came about as a direct result of standardization and interoperability, which meant

Maintaining the Network

Lesson 3 - USE OF COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS

Computer communications describes a process in which two or more computers or

 A sending device that initiates an instruction to transmit data, instructions, or

 A communications device that connects the communications channel to a

Computer communications are everywhere. Many require that users subscribe to an

Wireless Messaging Services

Users can send and receive wireless messages to

 Mobile to Provider: send a message by entering a four- or five-digit number assigned to a

WIRELESS INSTANT MESSAGING Wireless instant messaging (IM) is a real-time Internet

PICTURE/VIDEO MESSAGING With picture messaging, users can send pictures and

 Mobile to Mobile: send the picture/video from your mobile device to

Wireless Internet Access Points

A hot spot is a wireless network that provides Internet connections to mobile

A mobile wireless network provides users with high-speed Internet connections, as

Global Positioning Systems

Some companies use document management systems to make collaboration possible

employees. A document management system provides for storage and manage- ment

Web services describe standardized software that enables programmers to create

E-Mail — Transmission of messages and files via a computer network

RSS — Specification that enables Web content to be distributed to subscribers

LANs, MANs, and WANs

INTERNET PEER-TO-PEER Another type of peer-to-peer, called P2P, describes an Internet networ

Network Communications Standards

TCP/IP Short for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, TCP/IP is a network standard,

802.11 (WI-FI) Developed by IEEE, 802.11 also known as Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) and wireless

RFID RFID (radio frequency identification) is a standard, specifically a protocol, that defines how a

WIMAX WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access), also known as 802.16, is a ne

WAP The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a standard, specifically a protocol, that specifies

Lesson 5 - COMMUNICATIONS OVER THE

(1) help users establish a connection to another computer or network;

(2) manage the transmission of data, instructions, and information; and

(3) provide an interface for users to communicate with one another.

Some communications devices are preprogrammed to accomplish communications tasks. Other

COMMUNICATIONS OVER THE TELEPHONE NETWORK

T-CARRIER LINES A T-carrier line is any of several types of long-distance digital telephone lines

LESSON 6 - COMMUNICATION DEVICES

As previously discussed, a computer’s digital signals must be converted to analog

ISDN and DSL Modems

A network card is an adapter card, PC Card, ExpressCard module, USB network

A network card follows the guidelines of a particular network communications

Wireless Access Points

A router is a communications device that connects multiple computers or other routers

LESSON 7 - HOME NETWORKS

 Connect to the Internet at the same time

Wired Home Networks

ETHERNET Some home users have an Ethernet network. As discussed earlier in this