Sistemas eléctricos de

Potencia (SEP)
Flujos de Potencia (Reparto de
Carga)
Camilo Andrés Cortés, Ph.D.
Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Electrónica
Universidad Nacional de Colombia

I semestre, año 2020

2016851-02, Análisis de Sistemas de Potencia

Importance of a power
flow study
• It allows to determine active and reactive power flows in
an electric network
• It allows to determine the voltage buses of an electric
network
• It allows to calculate the losses of an electric network
• It allows to study alternatives for planning new systems,
or the expansion of existing ones.
• It allows to evaluate the effects of temporal
disconnection of generators or transmission circuits

1
 Importance of a power
flow study

• It allows to evaluate the effects of reconfiguring circuits

of a power system
• For example, the disconnection of a transmission line

• It allows to evaluate the improvements that are produced

in a power system when the cross sectional area of
conductors are changed

Power flow
• There are several methods (iterative) to solve the power flow problem:
• Gauss-Seidel, Newton Raphson (complete and fast-decoupled)

• Deterministic Problem: independent variables are fixed or considered

as exact => unique feasible solution
• Stochastic Problem: Uncertainty about independent variables (e.g.
active and reactive loads)
• To solve many deterministic power flows for different values of loads
• To deal with variables as random => Solution has a probable range around
the most probable value

• Optimal Power flow: Security, Quality and Economic requirements

• Minimizing objective function (losses, cost of generation, etc.)
• Satisfying the flow equations

2
 Power Flow Analysis
• When analyzing power systems we know neither the
complex bus voltages nor the complex current
injections
• Rather, we know the complex power being consumed
by the load, and the power being injected by the
generators plus their voltage magnitudes
• Therefore we can not directly use the Ybus equations,
but rather must use the power balance equations

Real Power Balance Equations

n
Pi = å Vi Vk (Gik cosqik + Bik sin qik ) = PGi - PDi
k =1
n
Qi = å Vi Vk (Gik sin qik - Bik cosqik ) = QGi - QDi
k =1

N
Pi = å Yik Ei Ek cos (qik - d i + d k )
k =1
N
Qi = -å Yik Ei Ek sin (qik - d i + d k )
k =1 6

3
 Power Flow Requires Iterative
Solution
In the power flow we assume we know Si and
the Ybus. We would like to solve for the V’s.
The problem is the below equation has no
closed form solution:
*
æ n ö n
Si = Vi I i* = Vi ç å YikVk ÷ = Vi å Yik*Vk*
è k =1 ø k =1

Rather we must pursue an iterative approach

Exception: Holomorphic Embedding Load-Flow
Method (HELM), it is currently studied in the
academic community 7

Numerical Methods to solve

the power flow equations
l Requirements
1. Rapid
2. Deal with complex numbers
3. Capacity to solve Non-linear equations
4. Deal with hundreds of nodes and thousands
of lines
5. Consider electrical losses in lines
8

4
 Frequently used methods
1. GAUSS – SEIDEL (G-S)
2. NEWTON – RAPHSON (N-R)
l Normal
l Decoupled

l Fast Decoupled
3. DC Power flow
4. ….
Characteristics:
1.- Iterative 2.- Initial solution
9

Gauss Iteration
With the Gauss method we need to rewrite our
equation in an implicit form: x=h(x)

To iterate we first make an initial guess of

(v +1) (v)
x, x (0) ,and then iteratively solve x = h( x )
ˆ = h(x).
until we find a “fixed point”, x̂ ,such that x ˆ

10

10

5
 Gauss Iteration Example
Example: Solve x - x - 1 = 0
x ( v +1) = 1 + x ( v )
Let v = 0 and arbitrarily guess x (0) = 1 and solve
v x(v) v x(v)
0 1 5 2.61185
1 2 6 2.61612
2 2.41421 7 2.61744
3 2.55538 8 2.61785
4 2.59805 9 2.61798 11

11

Basic Concept
Find the roots of f(x)=x3-6x2+9x-4=0
1 6 4
g ( x) = x = - x 3 + x 2 +
9 9 9
[0 ]
x = 2 Initial Aprox.
x [1] = 2.2222
x [2] = 2.5173
x [3] = 2.8966
x [4] = 3.3376
!
x [8] = 4.0000 12

12

6
 Stopping Criteria
A key problem to address is when to stop the
iteration. With the Gauss iteration we stop when
Δx (v) < ε with Δx (v) ! x (v+1) − x (v)
If x is a scalar this is clear, but if x is a vector we
need to generalize the absolute value by using a
norm
Dx ( v ) < e
j

Two common norms are the Euclidean & infinity

n
Dx 2 = å Dxi2 Dx ¥ = max i Dx i
i =1
13

13

Gauss Power Flow

We first need to put the equation in the correct form
*
æ n ö n
Si = Vi I i* = Vi ç å YikVk ÷ = Vi å Yik*Vk*
è k =1 ø k =1
n n
Si* = Vi*I i = Vi* å YikVk = Vi* å YikVk
k =1 k =1

Si* n n

Vi*
= å YikVk = YiiVi + å YikVk
k =1 k =1, k ¹ i Pi - jQi n
+ å yijV j
1 æ Si* n ö Vi* j =1
Vi = ç * - å YikVk ÷ Vi = j¹i
Yii çè V k =1, k ¹i ÷ n
i ø å yij
j =0 14

14

7
 Three Types of Power Flow
Buses
l There are three main types of power flow buses
• Load (PQ) at which P/Q are fixed; iteration solves
for voltage magnitude and angle.
• Slack at which the voltage magnitude and angle
are fixed; iteration solves for P/Q injections
• Generator (PV) at which P and |V| are fixed;
iteration solves for voltage angle and Q injection
l special coding is needed to include PV buses in the
Gauss-Seidel iteration

15

15

GAUSS-SEIDEL Power Flow

Equations
l Slack Bus
l Vk is known. It is not necessary to include it in the
iteration process
l Bus PQ
l Psch and Qsch are known. In each iteration you
have to calculate

1 æ Pk - jQk k -1 N ö
Vk( ) =
i +1
ç
Ykk çè V * ( i )
- å kn n
Y V ( i + 1) - å kn n ÷÷
Y V ( i )
k n =1 n = k +1 ø

16

16

8
 GAUSS-SEIDEL Power Flow
Equations
l Bus PV
l Psch and |Vk| are known. In each iteration you
have to calculate and approximation of
N
Q k = Vk ( i ) å Ykn Vn ( i ) sin (d k ( i ) - d n ( i ) - q kn )
n =1
l Then, you can calculate
1 æ Pk - jQk k -1 N ö
Vk(
i +1)
= ç
Ykk ç V * ( i )
- å kn n ( ) å kn n ( ) ÷÷
Y V i + 1 - Y V i
è k n =1 n = k +1 ø
l But, you have to correct the Voltage magnitude

(Vk( )
i +1) Corr
= Vk d k(i +1) 17

17

18

18

9
 5 − 𝑗10 −2 + 𝑗4 −3 + 𝑗6 11.18∠ − 63.43° 4.47∠116.6° 6.71∠116.6°
Y! = −2 + 𝑗4 2 − 𝑗4 0 = 4.47∠116.6° 4.47∠ − 63.43° 0
−3 + 𝑗6 0 3 − 𝑗6 6.71∠116.6° 0 6.71∠ − 63.43°

19

19

20

20

10
 Having the Voltages:
l Current and power flows:
i® j j ®i
I ij = I L + I i 0 = yij (Vi - V j ) + yi 0Vi I ji = - I L + I j 0 = yij (V j - Vi ) + y j 0V j
Sij = Vi I ij* = Vi 2 ( yij + yi 0 )* - Vi yij*V j* S ji = V j I *ji = V j2 ( yij + y j 0 )* - V j yij*Vi *

l Power loss S Loss ij = Sij + S ji

Bus i Bus j
I ij Vi IL yij V j I ji
Ii 0 I j0
yi 0 y j0

21

21

Accelerated G-S Convergence

Previously in the Gauss-Seidel method we were
calculating each value x as

x (v +1) = h( x ( v ) )
To accelerate convergence we can rewrite this as
x(v +1) = x(v ) + h( x (v ) ) - x (v )
Now introduce acceleration parameter a
x(v +1) = x(v ) + a (h( x (v ) ) - x (v ) )
With a =1 this is identical to standard gauss-seidel.
Larger values of a may result in faster convergence.
22

22

11
 Accelerated Convergence,
cont’d
Consider the previous example: x - x - 1 = 0
x ( v +1) = x ( v ) + a (1 + x ( v ) - x ( v ) )
Comparison of results with different values of a
k a =1 a = 1.2 a = 1.5 a = 2
0 1 1 1 1
1 2 2.20 2.5 3
2 2.4142 2.5399 2.6217 2.464
3 2.5554 2.6045 2.6179 2.675
4 2.5981 2.6157 2.6180 2.596
5 2.6118 2.6176 2.6180 2.626 23
23

Gauss-Seidel Advantages
l Each iteration is relatively fast (computational
order is proportional to number of branches +
number of buses in the system)
l Relatively easy to program

24

24

12
 Gauss-Seidel Disadvantages
l Tends to converge relatively slowly, although this can
be improved with acceleration
l Has tendency to miss solutions, particularly on large
systems
l Tends to diverge on cases with negative branch
reactances (common with compensated lines and
three-winding transformers)
l Perhaps, the only practical application of the Gauss–
Seidel method nowadays consists of its use as a starter
of the Newton–Raphson method, only in those rare
cases in which the latter does not converge from the flat
start profile

25

25

13