NAME: MUHAMMAD ABDULLAH SULTAN

ROLL NUMBER: BY480634

COURSE CODE: 5403

COURSE: BASIC OF INFORMATION AND

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

ASSIGNMENT: 02

SEMESTER: AUTUMN 2019

Q1: Explain utility programs and write down their
purpose. Describe important steps of installation
and in installation of software. Also elaborate the
process of software updating?
Ans:
To run software and work on different programs, on
a computer system one needs the operating system to work
smoothly. Utility programs, as the name suggest not only help
in executing various crucial tasks for operating the system but
also help in overall maintenance of the system.
UTILITY PROGRAMS
Utility program is a system application that executes a specific
task, generally pertaining to optimal maintenance or operation
of the system resources. Operating system such as windows,
macOS, and Linux come with their own set of utility programs
to maintain and execute different utility functions such as
formatting, compressing, scanning and exploring.
Utility programs also assist with the management of computer
functions, resources and files. You can ensure complete
password protection and keep your systems virus free using
different utility programs.
 PURPOSE OF UTILITY PROGRAM
Programs by the utilities are to achieve a desired result, usually
some kind of efficiency or efficiency measure. Most utility
programs today seems to be the result of decision made by
their governing agencies, the public utility commission or public
service commission or the like, who impose or approve of
measures to increase the utilization of new technologies, for
example or to shift loads to investment is deferred.
 Disk Defragmentation:
Defragmentation is a process which helps
reduce the amount of fragmentation in file systems. Utility
programs function by organizing the disk content and
storing the pieces of each file togather. It can also help
create large amount of free space using compaction to
impede the return of fragmentation. This happens when
any operating system is unable to allocate space for
storage as single unit.
 Disk Clean-up:
With the help of utility program, user can
remove the unnecessary files that are taking up the space
in their system. The program assist users to choose the
drivers folders and files that need to be scanned and
cleaned-up. By removing unused files, the system will be
able to increase the storage space and optimism the
overall speed of the system.
 File Management:
With the help of file management program,
user can perform various functions related to the files
saved in the system, such as searching, renaming opening,
renaming deleting and grouping. These functions can be
executed with the help of file management program such
as window explorer. In addition, windows also helps in
keeping a track of the root and the path of a file.
 Compression:
One of the biggest concern of any computer
system is its storage space. With time the limited storage
space in the hard disk starts getting smaller. Therefore
with help of compression program such as WinZip and Win
war important yet unused files can be compressed, stored
and easily extracted when required.
 Disk Management:
Disk management is one of the most vital
programs that an operating system like windows provides.
With the help of utility program, user can seamlessly
manage various drive such as hard drives, optical drives,
flash drivers etc. it helps users in partitioning drives,
allocating spaces. Format drives and much more.
 Antivirus and Firewall:
Antivirus and firewall programs such as windows Defender
help users protect their computers by getting infected with
viruses. Adware and malware. Firewalls prevent harmful
programs and files from entering the system via internet
 or any external hardware. On the other hand, antivirus
helps in removing malicious programs and files that have
infected the system.
SOFTWARE INSTALLATION AND UNINSTALATION STEPS
Process of installation and un-installation of executable file is
very simple. Just like a kiddy game. You just follow the below
steps to install or uninstall any window application.
INSTALLATION STEPS:
 Double click on setup exe.file. Now a popup window will
open on screen and after that you just follow the message
shown on every window. In most of cases, you just need to
click on ‘Next’ button on every popup Window.
 In between the installation process, application provides
you some option to create shortcut icon of installation file.
You just create shortcut icon to use application worry free.
 After successful installation, a notification message shown
on the screen for successful installation. Now you just use
your installed application flawlessly.
UN-INSTALLATION STEPS:
 Click SART-> control panel-> Add/Remove Programs’ or
‘programs and features’ and at least select application
which you want to uninstall.
 Double click on application which you want to remove
from system.
 After successful uninstallation a notification message
shown on the screen for successful un-installation.
PROCESS OF SOFTWARE UPDATING
1. IDENTIFY AND ENGAGE YOUR STAKE HOLDERS:
Remember to include both internal and external
stakeholders. End users, trainers, content developers,
administrators, support and hosting teams, QA and testing
teams, system owners, external suppliers and service
partners. Work out how each group interacts with the
system, how an upgrade will affect them and what level of
ongoing engagement they might require.
2. UNDERTAKE CHANGE CONTROL PLANNING:
Besides the technical work involved in
upgrading your system, effective change control will
probably be the biggest challenge surrounding a software
upgrade. Keeping the balance between adequate
communication and consultation and overwhelming
stakeholders with detail can be difficult. Consider assigning
a dedicate change control manager to the process and
include developing a communication plan (At a minimum)
a high level project plan as deliverables for the role.
3. PERFORM A SITE REVIEW:
Performing a site review involves taking a stock
take of any and all customization within the site. Identify
all the bespoke developments and dig out the
specifications and other relevant documentation relating
 to this work. Assess each development for upgrade or
reimplementation.
4. ESTABLISH UPGRADE REQUIRMENTS:
Based on your site review do you need to re-
develop customization and integrations or upgrade
bespoke plugins? Do you need to make allowance for
historical data from those customization?
5. MAKE AN UPGRADE PLAN:
Who will perform the upgrade? What needs
to be upgraded? What needs to be developed? Does
anything needs to be newly developed? How will the
upgrade be performed?
6. MAKE A ROLL-OUT-PLAN:
When will the upgrade be performed? Will
there be an outage? How long will it be? What sort of
message need to go out to stakeholders?
7. BACKUP EVERYTHING:
Store that backup somewhere very safe and
secure. Backup again, and store that file somewhere else
safe and secure.
8. RUN A TRIAL UPGRADE:
The best way to know if any issue will crop up
during the upgrade is to try upgrading a copy of the live
site. It will identify any code and / or database to allow
plenty of time for this step and to engage with the
relevant stakeholders.
9. UPGRADE A STAGING SITE:
Once the technical aspect of the upgrade has
been completed and any issues resolved, it’s time to
upgrade a copy of the live site of staging or testing
environment. Remember to switch off any email process
so users aren’t messaged as part of any testing and make
sure the staging site is only available to permitted users.
10. PERFORM TESTING:
This includes functional, non-functional and
technical testing, quality assurance, data integrity,
security, performance and theme/ design testing including
browser and device testing. Vital to testing process is a
shared mechanism for capturing and tracking issues. Issues
should be described in detail, have a unique identifier for
tracking purposes, have a current status and be allocated
to someone until fully resolved. It also important to allow
time for, and manage expectations around, user
acceptance testing.
11. UNDERTAKE CONFIGURATION:
With your freshly upgraded staging site
now deployed, tested and issue resolved, site
administrators will need some time to ensure any new
features and functionality introduced by the updates are
configured correctly. This might involve turning on or off
features or updating setting to best accommodate your
users.
 12. PREPARE DOCUMENTATION:
Preparing help files or user manuals, as well
as technical documentation detailing any custom
developments or deployment requirements is vital to
success of your current upgrade as well as any future
upgrades. Leverage any documentation provided by the
software supplier or your technology vendor and highlight
the difference between versions to emphasize important
changes in the new release.
_____________________________

Q2 (a): Write down the process for creating saving,

editing and deleting on MS word document with
the help of diagrams?
Ans:
Every word project you create whether it is a personal
letter, a TV sitcom script, or a thesis in microbiology begins and
end in a same way. You start by creating a document and you
end by saving your work. Sound simple but to manage your
word documents effectively you need to know these basic and
beyond.
 CREATING A NEW DOCUMENT
When you start word 2007 for the first time, it may took a little
too heavy. The ribbon takes up more real state then the old
menus and toolbars. This change may not matter if you have a
nice big monitor. But if you want to reclaim some of that space,
you can hide ribbon by double clicking the active tab. Later,
when you need to see the ribbon commands just click a tab.
Open Saved Document (file) in Microsoft Word:
While you are creating a document, it is often
important to save it for future use. The saved document now
become file. A file is complete, named collection of
information, such as a user created document. It is the basic
unit of storage that enables a computer to distinguish one set
of information from another. It is a collection of data that a
user can retrieve, change, delete, save or send to an output
device, such as printer or email program.
From the foregoing explanation, you realize that a saved
document can be retrieved, viewed and reused. Here are the
steps involved in opening/retrieving a saved document file in
word environment.
Editing and deleting an MS Word document:
You may move your cursor to the right, the left
and up or down by using the Arrow keys.
You may move the cursor around by moving the mouse pointer
to the place you have in mind and clicking the mouse.
If you have not done a lot of typing and don’t have experience
with the mouse, you may find the arrows to be the easiest
method of moving around. Once you have conquered the
mouse, you will only occasionally use the arrows keys.
Deleting Characters or Words:
There are number of ways to delete characters
or words. We will explore many of them. You should be aware
that you will develop preferences for getting your work done
that may be different from your neighbor. MS word is a very
flexible application and there are many ways to get the same a
job done.
You may delete characters moving to the right using the delete
key or delete words moving to the right typing CTRL Delete.
You can delete characters or words by selecting them by
highlighting them with the mouse and then click the edit button
on the menu bar and then clicking clear (delete).
Undo and Redo OR Repeat Buttons:
Don’t panic if you touch a wrong key, or do
something that seems to change everything from the way you
want it. There is an Undo Key and a Redo key.
The undo and redo keys are found on the formatting toolbar.
They are represented by curved arrows. Undo is on the left and
curves backwards and redo or repeat is on the right.
Click the undo button. The last center that you deleted should
reappear unless you have done some other command since
then. Click redo and it will be gone again.
Undo and redo are also on the Edit menu. Click on edit and the
first two buttons are undo and repeat. Redo is grayed out
meaning it is unavailable until you have hit the undo key.
Bold, Italics and Underline:
These keys are focused on the formatting Toolbar
and can easily dress up your document and make it appear
more professional. They are represented by the B, I and U.

Exercise:
Using our paragraph. Let’s practice using these
formatting tools. Highlight the center’s name and then click on
B for bold. Highlight the information in the parentheses and
click on I for italics. Highlight “meet old and new frndz” and
click on the U for underline.
Your paragraph should now look something like this:
The “Golden Hour Senior Citizen’s Center” is a great place to
relax, meet old and new friends and get training on computer
and word processing.
Font Size and Fonts:
Changing the size of words in your documents is one
of the best ways to call attention to specific parts or provide a
title or section.
You can change the size of the whole document, or just a word,
or just a character. My paragraph above is in 12- point size. We
will increase the size to 14. Select and highlight the entire
paragraph using our mouse.
With the paragraph selected, click on the point that is probably
a 10 or 12. The standards text in documents varies between 9
and 12 for effect, we’ll select 14.
Click on the down arrow to the right to point size. The matching
size in the drop down menu is highlighted. Either select 14 by
moving the mouse pointer to 14 or type 14 when the number in
the box is highlighted. Your standard choice are 8 through 72
but you can enter any number between 1 and 99.
Let’s decrease the size of the words with in the parentheses to
8 point. Select the word within the parenthesis by going to the
beginning or end of the phrase, clicking the mouse and then
going across the words to select them all. Then click on the
down arrow to the right of the 14 and select the number 8. The
text within the parenthesis will now appear smaller than the
rest.
________________________

Q2 (b): Enlist and describe different formulas

available in Microsoft Excel? Also explain basic
rules for applying a formula in MS Excel?
Ans:
Mastering the basic Excel formulas is critical for
beginners to become highly proficient in financial analysis.
Microsoft Excel is considered the industry standard piece of
software in data analysis. Microsoft spreadsheet program also
happens to be one of the most preferred software by
investment bankers and financial analysis in data processing,
financial modeling and presentation.
This guide will provide an overview and list of basic Excel
functions. Being primarily designed as a spreadsheet program,
Microsoft Excel is extremely powerful and versatile when it
comes to calculating numbers or solving math and engineering
problems. It enables you to total or average a column of
numbers in the blink of an eye. Apart from that you can
compute a compound interest and weighted average, get the
optimal budget for our advertising campaign, minimize the
shipment costs or make the optimal work schedule for your
employees. All this is done by entering formulas in cells.
This tutorial aims to teach you the essentials of Excel functions
and show how to use basic formulas in Excel.
The basic of Excel formulas
Before providing the basic Excel formulas list.
 Formula: is an expression that calculates values in a cell or
in a range of cells.
For example, = A2+A2+A3+A3 is a formula that adds up
the values in cells A2 through A4.
 Function: is a predefined formula already available in
Excel, Function perform specific calculations in a particular
order based on the specified values called argument or
parameters.
 For example, instead of specifying each value to be
summed like in the above formula, you can use the SUM
function to add up a range of cells: = SUM (A2:A4)

There exist 400+ functions in Excel and the number is growing

by version to version. Of course, it’s next to impossible to
memorize all of them and you actually don’t need to. The
function wizard will help you find the function best suited for a
particular task, while the Excel Formula Intelligence will prompt
the function’s syntax and arguments as soon as you type the
function’s name preceded by an equal sign in a cell:

Clicking the function’s name will turn it into a blue hyperlink,

which will open the help topic for that function.
TIPS: you don’t necessarily have to type a function name in all
caps, Microsoft Excel will automatically capitalize it once you
finish typing the formula and press the enter key to compare it.
10 Excel basic functions you should definitely know.
What follows below is a list of 10 simple yet really helpful
function that are a necessary skill for everyone who wishes to
turn from an excel novice to an Excel professional.
SUM:
The first Excel Function you should be familiar with is the
one that perform the basic arithmetic operation of addition:
Sum (number1, [number2]…)
In the syntax of all Excel function an argument enclosed in
[square brackets] is optional, other argument are required.
Meaning, your Sum formula should include at least 1 number,
reference to a cell or a range of cells For example:
= SUM (B2:B6): adds up values in cells B2 through B6.
=SUM (B2:B6): adds up values in cells B2 and B6.
If necessary, you can perform other calculations within a single
formula, for example, add up values in cells B2 through B6 and
then divide the sum by 5:
= SUM (B2: B6)/5
To sum with conditions, use the SUMI F function: in
first argument, you enter the range of cells to be tested against
the criteria itself (D2) and in the last argument the cell to the
sum (B2:B6):

=SUMI F (A2:A6, D2, B2:B6)

In your excel worksheet the formulas may look
something similar to this:

TIPS:
The fastest way to sum a column or row of numbers is to
select to call next to the numbers you want to sum and click the
Auto sum button on the Home tab, in the formats group. Excel
will insert a SUM formula for automatically.
Useful Resources:
  Excel sum formula examples formulas to total a column,
rows only filtered (visible cells) or sum across sheets.
 Excel auto sum- the fastest way to sum a column or row of
numbers.
 SUMIF in Excel- formula example to conditionally sum
cells.
 SUMIFS in Excel- formula examples to sum cells based on
multiple criteria.
AVERAGE:
The Excel average function does exactly what its name
suggest, i.e. finds an average, or arithmetic mean, of numbers.
Its syntax is similar to SUMs.
Average (number1, [number2] …)
Having a closer look at the formula from the previous
section (=SUM (B2:B6)/5), what does it actually do? Sums value
in cells B2 through B6 and then divides the result by 5. And
what do you call adding up a group of numbers and then
dividing the sum by the count of those numbers? Yep an
average.
The Excel AVERAGE function performs these calculations
behind the sense. So instead of dividing sum by count, you can
simply put this formula in a cell:
=AVERAGE (B2:B6)
To average cells based on condition, use the following
AVERAGEIF formula, where A2:A6 is the criteria range, D3 is the
criteria and B2:B6 are the cells to average:
=AVERAGEIF (A2:A6, D3, B2:B6)

Useful resources:
 Excel AVERAGE: average cells with the numbers.
 Excel AVERAGEA: find an average of cells with any data
(numbers, Boolean and text values).
 Excel AVERAGEIF: average cells based on one criterion.
 Excel AVERGEIFS: average cells based on multiple criteria.
 How to calculate weighted average in Excel
 How to find moving average in Excel
MAX & MIN
The MAX and MIN formulas in Excel get the largest and
smallest value in a set of numbers, respectively. For our simple
data set, the formulas will be as simple as:
=MAX (B2:B6)
=MIN (B2:B6)
COUNT & COUNTA:
If you are curious to know how many cells in a given range
contain numeric values, don’t waste your time counting them
by hand. The Excel COUNT function will bring you the count in a
heartbeat:

COUNT (value1, [value2] …)

While the COUNT function deals only with those cells that
contain numbers, the COUNTA function counts all cells that are
not blank, whether they contain numbers, dates, times, text,
logical values of TRUE and FALSE, errors or empty text
strings(“”):
COUNTA (value 1, [value2] …)
For example, to find out how many cells in column B contain
numbers, use this formula:
=COUNT (B: B)
To count all non-empty cells in column B, go with this one:
=COUNTA (B: B)
In both formulas, you use the so called “whole column
reference” (B: B) that refers to all the cells within the column B.
The following screen shots shows that the difference: while
COUNT processes only numbers, COUNTA outputs the total
number of non-blank cells in column B, including the text value
in the column header.

IF
Judging by the number of I F- related comments on our blog,
it’s the most popular function in Excel. In simple terms, you use
an
I F formula to ask Excel to test a certain condition and return
one value or perform one calculation if the condition is met,
and another value or calculation if the condition is not met:
I F (logical test, [value if true], [value if false])
For example the following I F statement checks if the order is
completed (i.e. there is a value in column C) or not. To test if a
cell is not blank, you use the “not equal to” operator (<>) in
combination with an empty string (“”). As the result, if cell C2 is
not empty, the formula returns yes otherwise No:
= I F (C2<>””,”YES”,”NO”)

Useful resources:
 I F function in Excel with formula examples
 How to use nested I Fs in Excel.
 I F formulas with multiple AND/OR conditions.
Q3: With the help of Internet, computer features
of windows operating system and Android
Operating system. Also elaborate important
functions of an operating system.
Ans:
Operating System
An operating system is a conglomeration of software that
controls the hardware of the computer and ensures that the
computer can perform all its basic functions. Which are
necessary for all other programs to work. The operating system
helps additional programs integrate with the computer so that
they can run. Because the operating system is so important, it is
usually the first software added to the computer. Operating
systems contain a number of utility.
DEFINATION:
A utility is an operating system is a computer program that
performs a single task, usually very specific and related to any
part of operating system software. Theses program work
mostly with system resource such as memory and basic data
flow. They often help computer organize their memory and set
apart memory for applications that are added later in the life of
the computer.
Operating systems have many different software programs that
help them run basic processes for the computer.
Some of this software users can replace or delete. Other types
of software’s are vital to the operating system and help it
function correctly. Likewise some software is highly complex
and multilayered, while other types are simple and take up only
a little space. Utilities tend to be smaller, more basic types of
software. While you are pretty much free to use your Apple
device as you please there are certain thing you can’t do due to
Apple’s own restriction. These restrictions are spelled out in.
Differences: operating systems also use software known as
applications and it can sometimes be difficult to tell what the
difference is. In general, utilities are smaller and simpler than
applications. Applications are complex and perform many
functions instead of only one often functions that are not
directly related to the basic computer structure. Word
processors and datasheet programs are two of the most
common applications.
Add-Ones:
Some utilities in operating systems may not be completely
necessary and some utilities can even be part of applications.
For instance, simple program within an application that allows
it to print to multiple locations may be considered a utility, as
can simple tools within an operating systems. These tools can
often be added on or taken away from the operating system as
desired.

Different functions of an operating system:

Operating systems manage user interaction with the physical
resources a computer provides. Through an operating system,
users are able to carry out every day computing activities
including running applications, accessing websites, using email
and strong files such as data and media items. The main
operating system used on desktop and laptop computers
include various versions of Microsoft windows and Mac, plus a
variety of Linux distributions, including Ubuntu. Their interface
and approaches may vary, but the main functions with in an
operating system are broadly the same.
Memory Management:
Operating system use Random Access memory to store the
short term data required for applications and other computer
functions to operate. Each computing activity that is ongoing
has a certain amount of memory allocated to it, which the
operating system manage. In case where an application
attempts to do something that there is not enough memory for,
an operating system can sometimes use virtual memory to
carry out the required processing, by utilizing a section of hard
disk memory and using it as though it is RAM.
Input/Output:
Computers use a variety of channels for user’s interaction.
Computer output include the monitor and audio speakers or
headphones, while input includes the mouse and keyboard.
These are the standards input/output elements in a desktop or
laptop computer, while devices sometimes offer additional
elements. These hardware components are managed by the
operating system through the use of drivers.
Applications:
The operating system itself is a software application. In most
cases, however user access to computing resources take place
through other applications. There are some applications
installed on an operating system when it is initially installed
itself, but users can also install additional software either from
disk or by downloading over the web. The operating system
handles the execution of application as well as managing the
resources they require, such as memory and input/output.
Common applications include web browsers, email clients,
word processing programs and media players.
______________________
Q4 (a): Differentiate between different types of
networks topologies with the help of diagrams?
Ans: Bus topology is a network type in which every computer
and network device is connected to single cable. When it has
exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus Topology.

 Features of Bus Topology:

1. It transmit data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable.
 Advantage of Bus Topology:
1. It cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network
topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
 5. Easy to expand joining two cables togather.
 Disadvantage of Bus Topology:
1. Cables fails then whole network fail.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the
performance of the network decrease.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.
RING Topology:
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each
computer is connected to another computer, with the last one
connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.

FEATURES OF RING TOPOLOGY:

1. A number of repeaters used for Ring topology with large
numbers of nodes, because if someone want to send
some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100
nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes
to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
 2. The transmission is under directional but it can be made
bidirectional by having two connections between each
network node it is called Dual Ring Tropology.
Advantages of Ring Topology:
1. Transmitting network is not effected by high traffic or
by adding more nodes, as only the nodes having tokens
can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand.
Disadvantage of Ring Topology:
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring tropology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network
activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturb the whole network.
STAR TOPOLOGY:
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a
single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node and all
others nodes are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology:
1. Every node has its own dedicated to connection to the
hub.
2. Hub act as repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, optical fibers or coaxial
cable.
Advantage of Star Topology:
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network
traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is effected which has failed, rest of the
nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantage of Star Topology:
1. Cost of installation is high
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped
because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that’s is it depend on
its capacity.
MESH Topology:
It is a point to point to point connection to other nodes or
devices. All the network nodes are connected to each other.
Mesh has n (n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh
topology they are:
1. Routing.
2. Flooding.
MESH Topology: Routing:
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic as per the network
requirements. Like routing logic to direct the data to reach the
destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which
has information about the broken links and it avoids those node
etc. we can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed
nodes.
MESH Topology: Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network
nodes, hence no routing logic is required. The network is robust
and it’s very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted
load over the network.

Types of MESH Topology:

1. Partial Mesh Topology:
 In this topology some of the systems are connected in
the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are
only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology:
Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each
other.
Features of Mesh Topology:
1. Fully connected
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
Advantage of Mesh Topology:
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantage of Mesh Topology:
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.
TREE Topology:
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it
forming a hierarchy. It also called hierarchical topology. It
should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
Features of Tree Topology:
1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2. Used in wide area network.
Advantage of Tree Topology:
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology:
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.
HYBIRD Topology:
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two
or more topologies. For example if in an office in one
department ring topology is used and in another star topology
is used, connecting these topologies will result in hybrid
topology (ring topology and star topology).

Feature of Hybrid Topology:

1. It is a combination of two or topologies.
2. Inheritance the advantages and disadvantages of the
topologies included.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology:
1. Reliable as error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
Disadvantage of Hybrid Topology:
 1. Complex is design.
2. Costly.
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(b). Explain the purpose and responsibilities of
each layer of OSI model.
If network communications need to happen without any
trouble, many problems must be solved. Coordinating all these
problems are so complex and not easy to manage. To make
these tasks smooth, in 1977 the international standards
organization (ISO) proposed the open systems interconnection
(OSI) network model. The open system interconnection (OSI)
model breaks down the problems involved in moving data from
one computer to another computer. Open system
interconnection (OSI) model categorize these hundreds of
problems to seven layers. A layer in open systems
interconnections (OSI) model is a portion that is used to
categorize specific problems.
 The physical Layer.
 The data link layer.
 The network layer.
 The transport layer.
 The session layer.
 The presentation layer.
 The application layer.
Layer 1. Physical Layer:
The first layer of the seven layers of Open systems
interconnection (OSI) network model is called the physical
layer. Physical layer circuits are created on the physical layer of
Open systems Interconnection (OSI) model. Physical layers
describe the electrical or optical signals used for
communication. Physical layer of the Open systems
interconnection (OSI) model is concerned with the physical
characteristics of electrical or optical signaling techniques
which includes the voltage of the electrical current used to
transport the signal, the media type (Twisted pair, Coaxial
cable, optical fiber etc.), impedance characteristics, physical
shape of the connector, synchronization etc. the physical layer
is limited to process needed to place the communication signals
over the media and to receive signals coming from that media.
The lower boundary of the physical layer of the Open system
Interconnection (OSI) model is the physical connector attached
to the transmission media. Physical layer of the open system
interconnection (OSI) model does not include the transmission
media. Transmission media says outside the scope of the
physical layer and are also referred to as layer 0 of the open
systems interconnection (OSI) Model.
Layer 2. Data link Layer:
The second layer of the seven layers of open system
interconnection (OSI) network model is called the data link
layer. The data link layer resides above the physical layer and
below the network layer. Data link layer is responsible for
providing end to end validity of the data being transmitted. The
data link layer is logically divide in to two sub layers. The media
Access control (MAC) sub layers and the logical link control
(LLC) sub layers.
The logical link control sub layers is responsible for
synchronizing frames error checking and follow control.
Layer 3. Network layer:
The third layer of the seven layers of Open system
interconnection (OSI) network model is the network layer. The
network layer of the OSI model is responsible for managing
logical addressing information in the packets and delivery of
those packets to the correct destination. Routers which are
special computers used to build the network, direct the data
packet generated by Network layer using information stored in
a table knowing as routing table. The routing table is a list of
available destinations that are stored in memory on the
routers. The network layer is responsible for working with
logical addresses. The logical addresses are used to uniquely
identify computer on the network but at the same time identify
the network that system resides on. The logical address is used
by network layer protocols to deliver the packets to the correct
network. The logical addressing system used in Network layer is
known as IP address.
Layer 4. Transport Layer:
The fourth layer of the seven layers of open systems
interconnection (OSI) network mode is the transport layer the
transport layer handles transport function such as reliable or
unreliable delivery of the data to the destination. On the
sending computer, the transport layer is responsible for
breaking the data into smaller packets, so that if any packet is
lost during transmission the missing packets will be sent again.
Missing packets are determined by acknowledgment (ACKs)
from the remote device, when the remote device receives the
packets. At the receiving system, the transport layer will be
responsible for opening all of the packets and reconstructing
the original message.
Another function of the transport layer TCP segment
sequencing. Sequencing is a connection-oriented service that
takes TCP segments that are received out of the order and
place them in the right order.
The transport layer also enables the option of specifying a
“service address” for the service or application on the source
and the destination computer to specify what application the
request came from and what application the request is going
to.

Layer 5. Session Layer:

The position of session layer of the seven layered open system
interconnection (OSI) model is between transport layer and the
presentation layer. Session layer is the fifth layer of seven
layered open systems interconnection (OSI) model. The session
layer is responsible for establishing, managing and terminating
connection between applications at each end of the
communication.
In the connection establishment phases, the service and the
rules (who transmitted and when, how much data can be sent
at a time etc.) for communication between the two devices are
proposed. The participating devices must agree on the rules.
Once the rules are established, the data transfer phase begins.
Connection termination occurs when the session is complete,
and communication ends gracefully.
In practice, session layer is often combined with the transport
layer.
Layer 6. Presentation Layer:
The position of presentation layer in seven layered Open
systems Interconnection (OSI) model is just below the
Application Layer. When the presentation layer receives data
from the application layer, to be sent over the network, it
makes sure that the data is in in the proper format. If it is not,
the presentation layer converts the data to the proper format.
On the other side of communication, when the presentation
layer receives network data from the session layer, it makes
sure that the data is in the proper format and once again
converts it if it not.
Formatting functions at the presentation layer may include
compression, encryption and ensuring that the character code
set (ASCI, Unicode, EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code, which is used in IBM serves) etc.) can be
interpreted on the other side.
Layer 7. Application Layer:
The application layer the seventh layer in OSI network model.
Application layer is the top most layer of the seven layered
Open systems Interconnection (OSI) network model. Real traffic
data will be often generated from the application layer. This
may be a web request generated from HTP protocol, a
command from talent protocol, a file download request from
FTP protocol etc.
In this lesson (Seven Layers of Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) Model.) you have learned what are the seven layers of
Open systems Interconnection (OSI) Model and the function of
these seven layers. The top most layer of the seven layers of
the seven layers of Open systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
is the Application Layer and the button most layer of the seven
Layers of Open system interconnection (OSI) model is physical
layer. Click “next” to continue.
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Q5 a: What are the important parameters that
influence the selections of a programming
language?
Ans:
All computers programmers are aware that you must
instruct computers through use of a programming language. A
high level programming language is one which hides details of
how a computer operates in favor of making a more abstract,
human way of instructing it to perform tasks. There are distinct
characteristics that higher level languages have over lower level
ones.
Identifications:
High levels programming languages express concepts at a more
abstracted level than lower level languages. A lower level
programming language might require you to directly discuss the
details of allocating a file, for example its higher level peer
would simply require you to create a file object, disguising the
details of implementation. The process of computer
development can be seen through ever-increasing trend toward
making things less technical. What once used to be fed into
machines through punch cards and binary communication is
now delivered through rich verbal usage and abstract concepts
such as objects and their relationship to one another.
History:
During the early days of computer science, new language were
constantly being invented. These represented ideologies that
programmers thought would better help them solve complex
problems while keeping their software maintainable and
understandable by a wide number of humans. This gradual
inclination toward increased abstraction and development of
rich languages with even richer of stored knowledge simplified
the amount of work and technical skill required for a
programmer to accomplish complex tasks in essence,
complicated tasks became easier. As these languages
developed, various methodologies became predominant in
certain feels of programming. For example, Object Oriented
Programming took the forefront of many large scale
development companies and gave rise to languages.
Warning:
Adopting high level programming languages in education is
often criticized in the computer science community. Teaching
them to new students is seen as controversial, because
teaching them often puts the student into the mindset of
understanding a methodology and a set of tool rather than the
finer points of how a computer operates.
Considerations:
Using a computer language is often simply picking the best tool
for the job.
Higher level languages are excellent for raid development and
large applications that requires teams of programmers to
maintain. Modern computers have the processing power for
these tasks, and efficient compilers can do an excellent job in
maintaining efficiency. Highly specialized work, such as writing
device drivers is often done in lower level languages.
Two types of computer languages:
Computer language or programing language is a coded syntax
used by computer programmers to communicate with a
computer. It is the only language that computers, software
programs and computer hardware can understand. Computer
language establish a flow of communication between software
programs. The language enables a computer user to dictate
what commands the computer must perform to process data.
Computer language comes in various types that employ
different sets of syntax.
Machine Language:
Machine language or machine code is the native language
directly understood by the computer’s central processing unit
or CPU. This type of computer language is not easy to
understand, as it only use a binary system, an element of
notations containing only a series of numbers consisting of one
and zero to produce commands. The computer’s processor
needs to convert high level languages into this language before
it can run a program or do a user defined command. To convert
a certain language into machine code, the computer processor
needs a compiler.
A program that converts a source code written in one language
into a different language syntax. The compiler generates a
binary file, or executable file that the CPU will execute. Every
computer processor has its own set of machine code. The
machine code will determine what the computer processor
should do and now it should do it.
Assembly Level Language:
A study in the early 1950s has led to the development of low
level languages or Assembly level language. Also considered as
second generation language, Assembly level language is a set of
codes that can run directly on the computer’s processor. This
type of language is most appropriate in writing operating
systems and maintaining desktop applications. It allows the
programmer to perform several tasks like registry access,
memory management and clock cycle corresponds. With the
Assembly level language, it is easier for a programmer to define
commands because he has the prerogative when it comes to
naming the variables. However, this language is not flexible
because the user cannot reuse the set of codes written using
this language. It is not as explanatory as compared to its other
counterparts.
High Level Language:
The development of high level languages came about when the
computer programmers started to have problems regarding the
computer’s increasing lack of portability. High level languages
ignore the unimportant details found in low level languages.
Many programmers consider the high level language as a
momentous solution to hassles brought about by computer
language because of its ease of use and low tendency to
produce bugs. Programmers often refer to high level languages
as mid-level language that only use the concepts of abstraction
and constructs to the extremes.
Basic features:
In computer science parlance, programming languages are
divided into categories according to the distance in which the
syntax is abstracted from the native processor instructions. Ost
high level language use a compiler to make them portable
among the supported platforms. This allows the programmer to
work in an English like syntax while the complier deals with the
details of converting it into processor-specific instructions. The
efficiency of modern compilers has made high level languages
more popular than the more challenging requirements of low
level tools.
A high level computer programming language has nothing to do
with its complexity and everything to so with its user
friendliness. High level language employ syntax that is easier for
the programmer to work with rather than terse commands and
hexadecimal addresses needed by the processor. Once a
programmer is familiar with the words and symbols used by the
language, she can be much more productive as it is not
necessary to worry about the machine level details and
specifies.

Comparison with Low –level Languages:

A lower level programming language is designed to be much
closer to the machine level commands that processor
understands. Because of the minimal abstraction from the
native instruction set, low level language instructions can often
be directly executed without the need for a compiler or
interpreter. The disadvantage of a low level language is that it is
specific to a single processor’s instruction set so a program is
not portable when it is completed.
Example: C+ +
C++ is a high level language that maintains some of the features
of a low level language. It provides a minimally worded logical
command set that is accessible for programmers on many
platforms without worrying about the underlying processor
instruction set. It retains the C language ability to directly
address the processor or memory hardware when necessary a
feature that many other high-level languages have done away
with.
Example: COBOL
Common business oriented language, or COBOL, is an example
of a verbose high level language. Instructions and variables are
spelled out in lengthy statements designed for the ease of
reading by the programmer. The syntax is portable among the
numerous platforms on which the language is supported.
Though it has been updated with modern object oriented
features, it has been supplanted in recent years by other
programming too.
b). Write down the importance of Multimedia and
explain its different components with the help of
suitable examples.
Ans: Through the proliferation of technology in modern day
homes, people communicate in a variety of ways through
multimedia. The term “multimedia” itself can take many forms,
but it always relates to the way computers present different
elements. Multimedia is common on a variety of kinds of
websites and if you use a computer, you use multimedia
communication daily.
Text Communication:
Text communication encompasses a variety of forms and is one
of the most common forms of multimedia communication in a
computer user’s day to day activities. Text communication
includes such areas of internet use as regarding a website,
reading and writing email messages and instant messaging.
Text communication is also the oldest form of multimedia
communication as the first computers displayed text only.
Image Communication:
Through images might not seem to be a form of communication
in the same way that text is a form of communication, it is a
legitimate form of multimedia communication that many users
enjoy daily. Examples include browsing an online photo album,
opening and viewing images attached to an email and looking
at photos that accompany stories on news websites.
Audio Communication:
A common form of web based multimedia communication is
audio communication. This form involves receiving a message
through an audio format, such as listening to an online radio
station or playing a music life. If you use internet to stream a
radio station broadcast, for example you are engaging in a form
of audio communication. Audio communication often combines
with other forms of multimedia communication. A slideshow,
for example can feature text, images and audio togather.
Video Communication:
As its name indicates, video communication is a form of
multimedia communication through video. It is common on
many websites, including YouTube and the websites of
television stations. Since high-speed Internet has become
common, video communication has increased as users are able
to access this form of multimedia communication. Types of
video communication include AVI, MPEG, WMV and Quick Time
files.
Text:
It may be an easy content type to forget when considering
multimedia systems but text content is by far the most
common media type in computing applications. Most
multimedia systems use a combination of text and other media
to deliver functionality. Text in multimedia systems can express
specific information or it can act as reinforcement for
information contained in other media items. This is a common
practice in applications with accessibility requirements. For
example, when web pages include images elements, they can
also include a short amount of text for the user’s browser to
include as an alternative, in case the digital image item is not
available.
Images:
Digital image files appear in many multimedia applications.
Digital photographs can display application content or can
alternatively elements, such as buttons, often use custom
image created by the designers and developers involved in an
application. Digital image files use a variety of formulas and life
extensions. Among the most common are JPEGs and PNGs.
Both of these often appear on websites as the formats allow
developers to minimize on file size while maximizing on picture
quality. Graphic design software programs such as Photoshop
and paint. NET allow developers to create complex visual
effects with digital images.
Audio:
Audio files and streams play a major role in some multimedia
systems. Audio files appears as part of application content and
also to aid interaction. When they appear within web
applications and sites, audio files sometimes needs to be
deployed using plug in media players. Audio formats include
MP3, WMA, Wave, MIDI and Real Audio. When developers
include audio within a website, they will generally use a
compressed format to minimize on download times. Web
service can also stream audio, so that user can begin playback
before the entire life is downloaded.
Video:
Digital video appears in many multimedia applications,
particularly on the web. As with audio, websites can stream
digital video to increase the speed and availability of playback.
Common digital video formats include Flash, MPEG, AVI, WMV
and Quick Time. Most digital video requires use of browser plug
INS to play with web pages, but in many cases the user’s
browser will already have the required resources installed.
Animation:
Animated components are common within both web and
desktop multimedia applications. Animations can also include
interactive effects, allowing users to engage with the animation
action using their mouse and keyboard. The most common tool
for creating animations on the web is Adobe Flash, which also
facilitates desktop applications. Using Flash, developers can
author FLV files, exporting them as SWF movies for deployment
to users. Flash also uses Action Script code to achieve animated
and interactive effects.
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