Essay Plans

- What motivates Hera’s seduction of Zeus in Iliad 14, and what difference does it make to the
course of events? Does its inclusion make the Iliad a better poem?
o Thesis – even the temporary changing of events that the seduction causes, cannot change
the inevitable course of events, but postponement and character development make the
Iliad a better poem.

o Main arguments

 The continued success of the Trojans makes Achaian-supporting Hera desire to

change the events
 Re-establishment of Hera’s power and ability to change events
 Though Poseidon can now rally the Achaians to push back the Trojans from the
wall, they return only one book later and this reveals the inevitable course of fate,
but also the inherent power Zeus wields
 Significantly, it provides greater anger on the Trojan-supporting side as
Hera then reveals to Ares that his son has been killed leading to anger, and
the seduction forces
 Provides an opportunity to develop the world of the divine through the
personification of Sleep and the relationship that can be forged through
manipulation or negotiation.
 Reveals power of gods – Hera (and therefore, Zeus), but also
anthropomorphic Sleep who is humanised
 Poem improved by foreshadowing the power of immortal gold worn by
divinity (Poseidon chariot and controlling seas book 14 vs Ares and Athene
on shield of Achilleus

o Historians/context
 Stafford – personification of Sleep – humanises (connection to audience)

 Willcock – Sleep created by Homer to influence narrative of Iliad

 Insight into domesticity of divine lives on Olympos (Zeus moving cloud to hide their
love-making
 Manipulation of Aphrodite – Xenophanes – Homer attributes negative traits of men
in behaviour of the gods

- How do the events of Iliad 24 help us to understand heroic values?

o Thesis – heroic values are challenged in book 24, but they mostly provide resolution of
previous fluctuations in the heroic code throughout the poem and portray Achilleus as the
greatest hero in the Iliad.6

o Main arguments

 Supplication from Priam reveals honour and power of Achilleus

 Can be an emotional hero (mutual weeping over loss and future loss – lonely
fathers)
  Achilleus aidos (ensuring standard of conduct) when requesting that Priam stays to
eat and sleep
 Must be maintained at all times
 Cannot lose anger – Achilleus kills Hektor but still stalks shore, still angry even after
funeral games and also small anger at Priam – for daring to visit
 Will of Zeus must be obeyed (said by Achilleus that it is gods making them do this)

o Historians and context

 Dodds - ‘Loss of face’ unbearable for a hero
 Lesky – Humans are in control of their actions not gods (Achilleus’ wrath caused
Zeus intervention etc.)


- To what extent are the gods of Iliad subject to the power of fate?
Thesis
o

Main Arguments
o Large extent – immortality to enforce the course of fate (mainly Zeus)
 Book 15 after seduction wakes and restores order
 Zeus with scales for Hektor (debates to help Sarpedon, Patroklos as well)
 Troy will always fall, Achilleus will die – know end goal
 Thetis pathos  bound to mortal son’s fate – gives armour that leads to his
destruction
o Limits (make their own fate) – Athene and Hera diversions of narrative
 Seduction of Zeus
 Inspiring Greek heroes

Context/Historians
o Lesky – humans are in control of their actions
o Slatkin – maternal Thetis
o Willcock (created for narrative) vs Whitman (person acts, not gods)

- What ethical values are at work in the supplication scene between Achilleus and Priam?

- Are Homer’s battle narratives boring? If they are, why did he include them? If they are not, how
was this achieved?

- Why are Hektor’s decisions so consistently misguided

o Part of his destiny (Achilleus will fall soon after him)
o Life of a tragic hero
 Domesticity (Farron)
 Weak fighter (Farron)
 Overconfidence
 Best fighter for Troy (Sarpedon criticism of him for self-obsession in book 5)
(Geddes)

- Is it a help or a hindrance to the Iliad’s human characters to know the will of the gods?
- Does Achilleus move beyond the ethics of the heroic code?
o Yes
 Becomes almost immortal in aristeia with no mercy (
o No
 Maintains elements of code such as nemesis with Hektor over Patroklos and
armour

- How much influence do the gods have on the outcome of individual battles in the Iliad, and on the
Trojan War as a whole?

- Do you find consistent and convincing characterisation in the Iliad?

o Consistent Agamemnon – flee book 2, 9
o Characterisation often associated with simple and consistent elements – particularly of
divinity e.g. Hephaistos with fire, Aphrodite weak in war etc. (Camps)

o Achilleus and Paris are problematic heroes – coward and refusal to fight
o Ares – failed god of war

- Discuss the various ways in which the gods intervene in the mortal action of the Iliad.

- From the point of view of heroic ethics how honourable and/or shameful are Paris and Helen?

- Embassy of Achilleus in book 9 is unsuccessful. Does it make any difference to the course of events?
Does its inclusion make the Iliad a better poem in any way?
o Ensures Achilleus cannot fight when talking to Patroklos in book 16
o

- How justifiable is Achilleus’ anger against either Agamemnon or Hektor?

o Agamemnon
 Justifiable –
 Treatment of best warrior = to take his prize
o Complete devaluation of his honour
 Material wealth (women) important in ancient Greek
society for status
o Agamemnon even invoked dissatisfaction of the gods with his
actions (Athene send by Hera (who liked them both))
 Even embassy in book 9 contains Agamemnon-enforced terms
 Not justified
 Does offer full gifts and apology in book 9 (as Odysseus omits crucial
submission part  audience, not Achilleus know this)
 Also participated in argument – threatened leader of army with verbal
threats (dog for shamelessness)
 - Are the gods essential to the plot of the Iliad?

Yes

- Ensure heroic values and fate are adhered to and continue narrative
o Athene
o Zeus in 24
- Provide poem with individual characters of interest that mirror the mortal conflict
- Add depth to mortal character discussion (Athene support and )
- Explain unexplainable human moments such as aristeia, changing morale, omens (luck – no such
thing in Homeric epic)
- Add to emphasis of mortality (Thetis) in humans and
o Slatkin

No

- People act not personifications (Whitman)

- Snell – Action occurs for humans not by them
- Achilleus instigates the action of the gods, hints that other parts of the book are human-led
o Needed but not essential?

- Is Agamemnon a consistent and convincing character in the Iliad?

o Yes
 He continually requests army sail away home (2 test, 9 for real) – despairing, but
justified due to false Dream? Loss of confidence
 Epithets continue his personality
 Always in leadership role as lord of men, shepherd of people (metaphor)
 Camps – Homer characterises his heroes with distinguishable features –
consistency (and effectiveness for audience)
o No
 Aristeia shows him as good warrior, immediately countered by injury unlike Aias or
Diomedes in 5 for example
 Although other heroes are injured with him
 Book 1 anger at giving up gifts vs book 9 very happy to give gifts
 Due to losing war?

- What is hubris? Can a successful hero realistically avoid it?

o Hubris is an act of arrogance that often takes away aidos (honour and modesty) from a
hero
o A hero’s main method of claiming glory and success in the Iliad is through nemesis (so
needs hubris)
 E.g. Achilleus with Hektor, Menelaos with Euphorbos, Diomedes with Pandaros
o

- Homer and Hesiod have attributed all things to the gods which are things of shame among men,
stealing, adultery and deceiving one another (Xenophanes). Are the gods of the Iliad immoral?
- To what extent do the Trojans in the Iliad share the Greeks’ religious outlooks and practices?

- Both Achilleus (22) and Hekabe (24) express the urge to eat the raw flesh of their enemies. What
does this shared response tell us about the values of the Iliad?

- Why does the Iliad end with an account of Hektor’s funeral? Does this make a good ending to the
poem?

- Why is so much of the Iliad taken up with religious ritual?

- Why is there so much repetition in the Iliad? What techniques does the poet use to prevent the
repetition from becoming boring?

- What techniques does Homer use to make the Iliad varied and interesting?
o Repetition (epithets to make characters more individual)
o Figurative language
 Metaphors and similes
 Personifications
o Pathos (unexpected) for smaller heroes

- What do we learn about heroic values from the interactions between mothers and sons in the
Iliad?
o Power of maternal nature can assist increasing heroism
 Thetis and Achilleus
 Slatkin – power with Zeus
 Aphrodite with Aineias – saves to fight another day
o Helplessness of being a mother of a hero warrior indicates value warriors place on war not
family
 Hekabe – cannot bring Hektor inside due to his realisation of what is a hero
 Counter with Hektor fighting for Astyanax’s future glory (6)
 Thetis helpless and slave to her maternal nature (Slatkin) as Achilleus’ need for war
enforces her to bring Achilleus closer to destruction with new armour


- How much of an influence do the gods have on the outcome of individual battles in the Iliad, and of
the Trojan War as a whole?

- What beliefs and practices surround death in the Iliad?

- Are the gods essential to the plot of the Iliad?

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3.

- Book 10 – Trojan bivouac outside the gate after success led to embassy of Achilleus – Diomedes
frustrated with this and calls for assembly…
o Diomedes and Odysseus lead successful night mission with positive omen from Athene and
find Dolon, extract information, kill and raid newly-arrived Thracian camp
o Interlude between days of battle – Trojan success to counter book 11 Achaian early success

- Agamemnon swerves Diomedes from choosing his companion based on status alone (Menelaos –
who has been previously undistinguished in battle and not chosen for second duel)
- Praises Odysseus and reveals support from Athene that will ensure success
o Importance for uniqueness of event

- Flattery – to praise him for volunteering for mission

- Hyperbole to indicate skill

- Stanford – Villainization of Odysseus

- Replacement of Achilleus with Diomedes for favourite warrior of Agamemnon (Clarke)

4.

- Book 23 – funeral games for Patroklos – calmer Achilleus sets out games to celebrate Patroklos,
best described is the chariot race (with events similar to Iliad with gods, arguments, fights and
resolutions) with Eumelos, Diomedes, Menelaos and Antilochos – son of Nestor receives advice
from father to run dangerous strategy to beat faster competitors – comes in 2 nd place behind
Diomedes – Eumelos fell and came last place despite faster horses  Achilleus proposes to give
prize to him on his status
 o Achilleus then smiles and grants Antilochos’ request – extra prize for Eumelos, then
Menelaos anger and Antilochos gives older more respected king his earned prize

- Anger of Antilochos for being denied his gift

- Proposes solution but will not give up prize (granted, but does not follow through with this himself)
o Same insolence that challenges Achilleus and Menelaos in race, bows to Menelaos after
race

- Loss of face is unbearable (Dobbs)

- Epithet used by poet for characterisation (challenged by Antilochos change of mind)