Fundamentals of Kinematics

Vectors and coordinate frames are human-made tools to study the motion of particles
and rigid bodies. We introduce them in this chapter to review the fundamentals of
kinematics.
1.1 COORDINATE FRAME AND POSITION VECTOR
To indicate the position of a point P relative to another point O in a three-dimensional
(3D) space, we need to establish a coordinate frame and provide three relative coordinates.
The three coordinates are scalar functions and can be used to define a position
vector and derive other kinematic characteristics.
1.1.1 Triad
Take four non-coplanar points O, A, B, C and make three lines OA, OB, OC. The
triad OABC is defined by taking the lines OA, OB, OC as a rigid body. The position
of A is arbitrary provided it stays on the same side of O. The positions of B and C are
similarly selected. Now rotate OB about O in the plane OAB so that the angle AOB
becomes 90 deg. Next, rotate OC about the line in AOB to which it is perpendicular
until it becomes perpendicular to the plane AOB. The new triad OABC is called an
orthogonal triad .
Having an orthogonal triad OABC, another triad OA_BC may be derived by moving
A to the other side of O to make the opposite triad OA_BC. All orthogonal triads can
be superposed either on the triad OABC or on its opposite OA_BC.
One of the two triads OABC and OA_BC can be defined as being a positive triad
and used as a standard. The other is then defined as a negative triad . It is immaterial
which one is chosen as positive; however, usually the right-handed convention is chosen
as positive. The right-handed convention states that the direction of rotation from OA
to OB propels a right-handed screw in the direction OC. A right-handed or positive
orthogonal triad cannot be superposed to a left-handed or negative triad. Therefore,
there are only two essentially distinct types of triad. This is a property of 3D space.
We use an orthogonal triad OABC with scaled lines OA, OB, OC to locate a point
in 3D space. When the three lines OA, OB, OC have scales, then such a triad is called
a coordinate frame.
Every moving body is carrying a moving or body frame that is attached to the body
and moves with the body. A body frame accepts every motion of the body and may
also be called a local frame. The position and orientation of a body with respect to
other frames is expressed by the position and orientation of its local coordinate frame.
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4 Fundamentals of Kinematics
When there are several relatively moving coordinate frames, we choose one of them
as a reference frame in which we express motions and measure kinematic information.
The motion of a body may be observed and measured in different reference frames;
however, we usually compare the motion of different bodies in the global reference
frame. A global reference frame is assumed to be motionless and attached to the ground.
Example 1 Cyclic Interchange of Letters In any orthogonal triad OABC, cyclic
interchanging of the letters ABC produce another orthogonal triad superposable on the
original triad. Cyclic interchanging means relabeling A as B, B as C, and C as A or
picking any three consecutive letters from ABCABCABC . . . .
Example 2 _ Independent Orthogonal Coordinate Frames Having only two types
of orthogonal triads in 3D space is associated with the fact that a plane has just two
sides. In other words, there are two opposite normal directions to a plane. This may
also be interpreted as: we may arrange the letters A, B, and C in just two orders when
cyclic interchange is allowed:
ABC, ACB
In a 4D space, there are six cyclic orders for four letters A, B, C, and D:
ABCD, ABDC, ACBD, ACDB, ADBC, ADCB
So, there are six different tetrads in a 4D space.
In an nD space there are (n − 1)! cyclic orders for n letters, so there are (n − 1)!
different coordinate frames in an nD space.
Example 3 Right-Hand Rule A right-handed triad can be identified by a right-hand
rule that states: When we indicate the OC axis of an orthogonal triad by the thumb of
the right hand, the other fingers should turn from OA to OB to close our fist.
The right-hand rule also shows the rotation of Earth when the thumb of the right
hand indicates the north pole.
Push your right thumb to the center of a clock, then the other fingers simulate the
rotation of the clock’s hands.
Point your index finger of the right hand in the direction of an electric current.
Then point your middle finger in the direction of the magnetic field. Your thumb now
points in the direction of the magnetic force.
If the thumb, index finger, and middle finger of the right hand are held so that
they form three right angles, then the thumb indicates the Z -axis when the index finger
indicates the X-axis and the middle finger the Y -axis.