1. What is beacon?

Explain RF beacon and reflective beacon based on localization of

navigation system with neat sketch
A radio beacon is a transmitter at a known location, which transmits a continuous or
periodic radio signal with limited information content on a specified radio frequency.
Occasionally the beacon function is combined with some other transmission, like telemetry data
or meteorological information.
GPS is an example of a trilateration system; the position of a GPS unit on earth is
calculated from distance measurements to satellites in space. Similarly, the Millibot localization
system determines the position of each robot based on distance measurements to stationary
robots with known positions.
The localization system uses ultrasound pulses to measure the distances between robots.
Periodically, each beacon simultaneously emits a radio frequency (RF) pulse and an ultrasonic
pulse.
A team leader coordinates the pinging
sequence to ensure that beacon signals from multiple
robots do not interfere with
one another. After all the
beacons finish pinging,
every Millibot hasa set
of distance
measurements from its
current position to
each beacon position.
The ultrasonic
pulse, on the other hand,
travelling only at about 330
m/s and arrives at the
receiver delayed by a time
proportional to its distance to the beacon. Each robot measures this delay,
using the RF pulse for synchronization and converts it to a distance measurement by,
multiplying it with the speed of sound.
Applications of Radio beacons
1. Air and sea navigation,
2. Propagation research,
3. Robotic mapping,
4. Radio-frequency identification (RFID) / Near Field Communication (NFC) and
5. Indoor guidance, as with real-time locating systems (RTLS) like Syledis or simultaneous
localization and mapping (SLAM).
2. Describe potentiometric transducer with neat diagram for measurement of resistance.
Indicate on the loading effect of potentiometer and obtain the expression for Max.eex
A resistive potentiometer consists of a resistance element provided with a movable contact.
 The contact motion can be translation, rotation or a combination of the two (helical motion
in a multi turn rotational device), thus allowing measurement of rotary and translatory
displacements.
 Translatory devices have strokes from about 2 to 500mm and rotational ones range from
about 10 to as much as 60 full turns.
 The cable-extension version allows very long travels (up to 40m) and convenient mounting
in situations that might be awkward for other configuration.
 Such devices are also available using digital encoders in place of the potentiometer or with
both a potentiometer and a tachometer generator, giving position and velocity data.
 The resistance element is excited with either D.C or A.C voltage and the output voltage is a
(ideally) linear function of the input displacement.
 Resistance elements in common use may be classified as wire –wound, conductive plastic,
deposited film, hybrid or Cernet.

 If the distribution of resistance with respect to translational or angular travel of the wiper
(moving contact) is linear, the output voltage eo will faithfully duplicate the input motion xi
or θi , if the terminals at eo are open circuit.
 The potentiometer output voltage is the input, to a meter or recorder that draws some current
from the potentiometer.
 From Figure analysis of this circuit gives,


 The above equation becomes ideal RP/Rm=0 for an open circuit conditions.


 For no “loading” , the input –output curve is a straight line. In actual practice, Rm ≠ α and
equation 1 shows a non-linear between e0 and xi
 To achieve good linearity, for a ‘meter’ of a given resistance Rm , choose a potentiometer of
sufficiently low resistance relative to Rm .
 If the heat dissipation is limited to P watts, the allowable excitation voltage is given by max

Loading effect of potentiometer

3.Elaborate the working of ultrasonic sensor with neat diagram and classify the sensor
based on the distance coverage. Include the merits and demerits of the sensor.(13)

 (Sonic) time of flight measurement

 Distance = speed of sound x time
The sensor sends a sonic pulse signal, which is reflected by
the object to be detected. The time, which the pulse signal
requires from the sensor to the object and back, is
measured and evaluated. The distance is calculated from
the time and the pulse speed.
Ultrasonic sensors are suitable for use in difficult
industrial environments. Disturbances such as dust,
soiling or fog do not influence measurements. Mutually
interfering light influences or temperature fluctuations are not a problem
either. Because almost every material reflects sonic waves, its use is recommended for level
measurements, foils or transparent objects.
Classification of Ultrasonic Sensors:
1. Short-Range Distance Sensors (Displacement) Precision in the millimetre range
Short-range distance sensors are precision instruments, which measure optically in a range from
24 mm to 700 mm using very advanced technology.They measure profles, diameters or object
thicknesses, control processes and handle quality assurance functions in production workfows.
2.Mid-Range Distance Sensors
The solution for measuring ranges from 13 mm to 24 m
 Mid-range distance sensors are high-tech measurement instruments for customer
requirements in the mid-measuring range. Innovative sensor technologies such as OES3
and time of flight measurement enable resolutions down to 0.1 mm.
 Highly precise and reproducible measurements are just as much a matter of course as is
the extremely simple commissioning. Functional teach-in for configuring the sensors
guarantees shorter machine downtimes.
3.Long-Range Distance Sensors
Developed for maximum ranges from 200 mm to 1,200 m
Typical application areas of long-range sensors are distance measurement to prevent collisions,
detecting small parts at large scanning distances, measuring differences, measuring diameters,
measuring gauge heights,
positioning parts, etc.
Advantages of ultrasonic range sensors
1. Reliable with good precision, 2. Not as prone to outside interference, 3. Good maximum
range
4. Inexpensive
Disadvantages
1. Sensitive to smoothness & angle to obstacles 2. Poor resolution 3. Prone to self-interference
from echos
4. Cannot detect obstacles too close

4. Define the term GPS and also explain its navigation systems with necessary diagrams.
Incorporate the different navigation systems of GPS and its application
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based navigations system that provides
location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the earth where
there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.
 GPS is "space based satellite navigation system" which can show the exact position on or
near the Earth surface, anytime, anywhere, in any weather condition. The GPS system provides
critical capabilities to military, civil and commercial users around the world.
Development of GPS

Like many other high-

technology developments, GPS
is maintained by the United
States government and is freely
accessible to anyone with a
GPS receiver.

1973-Decision to
development a satellite
navigation system for
military,1974-1979
conducted system tests US air
force and navy, 1977- first receiver
test was conducted without placing the satellite in the orbit.

Different Navigation Systems

Other satellite navigation systems in use or various states of developments are:

NAVSTAR: Navigation Satellite Timing & Ranging GPS, United States global navigation
system. Fully operational worldwide.

GLONASS: Global Navigation Satellite System, Russia's global navigation system. Fully
operational worldwide.

GALILEO: On the name of famous Space Scientist GALILEO, A global system being
developed by the European Union and other partner countries, planned to be fully deployed by
2019.

BEIDOU: People's Republic of China's regional system, currently limited to Asia and the West
Pacific.

COMPASS: People's Republic of China's global system, planned to be operational by 2020.

IRNSS: Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System, India's regional navigation system,
covering India and Northern Indian Ocean.

System Description

GPS Technology and its application can be conceived by understanding the three components
of GPS. Its three components are:

1. The Space Segment: Consists of satellites and transmitted signals.

2. The Control Segment: Consists of ground stations (located around the world) that make sure
the satellites are working properly.

3. The User Segment: Consists of receivers, which we can hold in our hand or mount in our
car.

The basic functions of satellites are

1. To receive and store data

uploaded by Control Segment.

2. Maintain accurate time by means

of on board ATOMIC CLOCKS
&Transmit information & signals to
users on TWO L- band frequencies.

3. Out of 52 constellation of GPS

Satellites, the 11 were launched as a
experimental satellite in Feb 1978 under so-called `Block 1`Phase, `Block 2` and `Block 2 A`
were launched from 1989 onwards.

Applications of GPS

a) Road Traffic Congestion, b) Tectonics c) GPS and Terrorism d) GPS of Mining e) GPS and
Tours
f) Navigation g) Disaster Relief h) GPS-Equi Radio Sondes and Dropsondes i) Fleet Tracking
j) Cellular Telephony

5. Explain the construction and working of Synchros with neat diagram. Illustrate how the
transducer produces an output voltage for the angular position of the rotor.
The Synchro is a type of transducer which transforms the angular position of the shaft
into an electric signal. It is used as an error detector and as a rotary position sensor. The error
occurs in the system because of the misalignment of the shaft. The transmitter and the control
transformer are the two main parts of the synchro.
Synchros System Types:The synchro system is of two types. They are Control Type Synchro
and Torque Transmission Type Synchro.
Torque Transmission Type Synchros: This type of synchros has small output torque, and
hence they are used for running the very light load like a pointer. The control type Synchro is
used for driving the large loads.
Control Type Synchros System:
The controls synchros is used for error detection in positional control systems. Their systems
consist two units. They are 1.Synchro Transmitter and 2. Synchro receiver
The synchro always works with these two parts. The detail explanation of synchros transmitter
and receiver is given below.

Synchros Transmitter – Their construction is similar to the three

phase alternator. The stator of the synchros is made of steel for
reducing the iron losses. The stator is slotted for housing the three
phase windings. The axis of the stator winding is kept 120º apart from
each other.

The AC voltage is applied to the rotor of the transmitter and it is

expressed as

The coils of the stator windings are connected

in star. The rotor of the synchros is a
dumbbell in shape, and a concentric coil is wound on it. The AC
voltage is applied to the rotor with the help of slip rings. The
constructional feature of the synchros is shown in the figure below.
Consider the voltage is applied to the rotor of the transmitter as shown in the figure above. 

The voltage applied to the rotor

induces the magnetizing current and an alternating flux along its axis. The voltage is induced in
the stator winding because of the mutual induction between the rotor and stator flux. The flux
linked in the stator winding is equal to the cosine of the angle between the rotor and stator. The
voltage is induced in the stator winding.

The synchro transmitter and the control transformer together used for detecting the error.
The voltage equation shown above is equal to the shaft position of the rotors of control
transformer and transmitter.

The error signal is applied to the differential amplifier which gives input to the servo motor. The
gear of the servo motor rotates the rotor of the control transformer.

The figure above shows the output of the synchro error detector which is a modulated signal.
The modulating wave above shown the misalignment between the rotor position and the carrier
wave.

6. Define Bluetooth. Analyze the working of Bluetooth along with its network topologies,
versions and comparison with other network topologies:
Bluetooth is a standardized protocol for sending and receiving data via a 2.4 GHz
wireless link. It's a secure protocol and it's perfect for short-range, lowpower, low-cost, wireless
transmissions between electronic devices.

In these days it feels like everything is wireless and Bluetooth is a big part of that
wireless revolution. We can find Bluetooth embedded into a great variety of consumer products,
like headsets, video game controllers or livestock trackers.

Working of Bluetooth
 The Bluetooth protocol operates at 2.4 GHz in the same unlicensed ISM frequency band
where RF protocols like Zig Bee and WiFi also exist. There is a standardized set of rules and
specifications that differentiates it from other protocols. If you have a few hours to kill and want
to learn every nook and cranny of Bluetooth, check out the published specifications, otherwise
here's a quick overview of what makes Bluetooth special.

There are three classes of BWT radio devices, each with a different maximum range:

 Class 1 (100 meters); Class 2 (50 meters); and Class 3 (10 meters).

 HP notebooks feature Class 3 BWT radios and HP printers feature Class 1 radios.

BWT Network Topologies

BWT-enabled devices form network topologies called piconets and scatternets. A piconet
consists of up to eight BWT-enabled devices. When a piconet is established, one device sets the
frequency-hopping pattern and the other devices synchronize their signals to the same pattern.

Masters, Slaves, and Piconets

Bluetooth networks (commonly referred to as piconets) use a master/slave model to control

when and where devices can send data. In this model, a single master device can be connected
to up to seven different slave devices.

Any slave device in the piconet can only be connected to a single master.

The master coordinates communication throughout the piconet. It can send data to any of slaves
and request data from them as well.

Bluetooth Addresses and Names

Every single Bluetooth device has a unique 48-bit address, commonly abbreviated BD_ADDR.
This will usually be presented in the form of a 12-digit hexadecimal value.

Connection Process
Creating a Bluetooth connection between two devices is a multi-step process involving three
progressive states:

1. Inquiry: If two Bluetooth devices know absolutely nothing about each other, one must run
an inquiry to try to discover the other. One device sends out the inquiry request, and any device
listening for such a request will respond with its address, and possibly its name and other
information.

2. Paging (Connecting): Paging is the process of forming a connection between two Bluetooth
devices. Before this connection can be initiated, each device needs to know the address of the
other (found in the inquiry process).

3. Connection: After a device has completed the paging process, it enters the connection state.
While connected, a device can either be actively participating or it can be put into a low power
sleep mode.

Commonly-encountered Bluetooth profiles.

i) Serial Port Profile (SPP): If you're replacing a serial communication interface (like RS-232
or a UART) with Bluetooth, SPP is the profile for you. SPP is great for sending bursts of data
between two devices. It's is one of the more fundamental. Bluetooth profiles (Bluetooth's
original purpose was to replace RS-232 cables after all).

ii) Human Interface Device (HID)

iii) Hands-Free Profile (HFP) and Headset Profile (HSP)

7. Define the term GPS and also explain its navigation systems with necessary diagrams.
Incorporate the different navigation systems of GPS and its application:
 The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based navigations system that provides
location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the earth where
there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.
 GPS is "space based satellite navigation system" which can show the exact position on or
near the Earth surface, anytime, anywhere, in any weather condition. The GPS system provides
critical capabilities to military, civil and commercial users around the world.
Development of GPS

Like many other high-

technology developments, GPS
is maintained by the United
States government and is freely
accessible to anyone with a
GPS receiver.

1973-Decision to
development a satellite
navigation system for
military,1974-1979
conducted system tests US air
force and navy, 1977- first receiver
test was conducted without placing the satellite in the orbit.

Different Navigation Systems

Other satellite navigation systems in use or various states of developments are:

NAVSTAR: Navigation Satellite Timing & Ranging GPS, United States global navigation
system. Fully operational worldwide.

GLONASS: Global Navigation Satellite System, Russia's global navigation system. Fully
operational worldwide.

GALILEO: On the name of famous Space Scientist GALILEO, A global system being
developed by the European Union and other partner countries, planned to be fully deployed by
2019.

BEIDOU: People's Republic of China's regional system, currently limited to Asia and the West
Pacific.

COMPASS: People's Republic of China's global system, planned to be operational by 2020.

IRNSS: Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System, India's regional navigation system,
covering India and Northern Indian Ocean.
System Description

GPS Technology and its application can be conceived by understanding the three components
of GPS. Its three components are:

1. The Space Segment: Consists of satellites and transmitted signals.

2. The Control Segment: Consists of ground stations (located around the world) that make sure
the satellites are working properly.

3. The User Segment: Consists of receivers, which we can hold in our hand or mount in our
car.

The basic functions of satellites are

1. To receive and store data

uploaded by Control Segment.

2. Maintain accurate time by means

of on board ATOMIC CLOCKS
&Transmit information & signals to
users on TWO L- band frequencies.

3. Out of 52 constellation of GPS

Satellites, the 11 were launched as a
experimental satellite in Feb 1978
under so-called `Block 1`Phase,
`Block 2` and `Block 2 A` were
launched from 1989 onwards.

Applications of GPS

a) Road Traffic Congestion, b) Tectonics c) GPS and Terrorism d) GPS of Mining e) GPS and
Tours
f) Navigation g) Disaster Relief h) GPS-Equi Radio Sondes and Dropsondes i) Fleet Tracking
j) Cellular Telephony