OAN551 SENSORS & TRANSDUCERS

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION
PART -B
1. Define the static terms
a. Precision: Precision is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be
repeatedly measured.
b. Resolution: It is defined as the smallest incremental change in the input that
would produce a detectable change in the output.
c. Linearity: Linearity is a measure of the maximum deviation of the plotted
transducer response from a specified straight line.
d. Static Sensitivity: ​It is defined as the slope of the static calibration curve. If the
calibration curve is not a straight line then the sensitivity will vary with input
value.
e. Threshold: ​When the input to a transducer is increased from zero, there is a
minimum value below which no output can be detected. This minimum value of
the input is defined as the threshold of the transducer.
f. Hysteresis: When the input to a transducer which is initially at rest is increased
from zero to full scale and then decreased back to zero, there may be two output
values for the same input. This mismatching of the input - output curves is mainly
due to internal friction.
g. Hysteresis effects can be minimized by taking readings corresponding to
ascending and descending values
h. Range: The range of the transducer is specified as from the lower value of input
to higher value of input.
i. Span: The ​span of the transducer is specified as the difference between the
higher and lower limits of recommended input values.
j. Loading effect of the transducer: A transducer used in any instrument normally
extracts some energy from the measuring medium and thereby disturbs the value
of the measured quantity this property is known as the loading effect of the
transducer.

2. Write a short note on dynamic characteristics of the transducers.

a. The dynamic characteristics of a transducer refer to the performance of the
transducer when it is subjected to time varying input. The number of parameters
required to define the dynamic behavior of a transducer is decided by the group to
which the transducer belongs.
b. The transducers can be categorized into
i. Zero order transducers

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 ii. First order transducers
iii. Second order transducers
iv. Higher order transducers
The dynamic response of an instrument to a signal input may be described by the n th order
differential equation such as following

y – Measured quantity or value indicated by the instrument

x – Input quantity
t – Time
Where a0,a1 & b0 are constants which are the combination of system physical parameters.
Zero order Instrument:
The simplest model for a measurement system is a zero order differential equation

y= KX where K is called static sensitivity

Remarks:
• It is obvious that X may vary with time however the instrument output follows it
perfectly with no distortion or time lag.
• In zero order behaviour the system ​output is considered to respond to the input signal
instantly.
• The static sensitivity is found from the static calibration curve of the measurement
system.
First order Instrument:
● The transducer that contains storage element cannot respond instantaneously to
change in input.
● The mercury in glass thermometer is an example of a first order instrument.

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 ● The bulb takes energy from the environment until the two are at the same
temperature or steady state conditions has been reached.
● The temperature of the bulb will change with time until the equilibrium is
reached.
● The rate at which the temperature change, with time can be modelled with the
first order derivates

where K is called static sensitivity

τ​
is called the time constant of the system and it always has dimension of time.

3. Why do we need to calibrate sensors?

● Sensors subject to heat, cold, shock, humidity etc. during storage, shipment and/or
assembly may show a change in response.
● Some sensor technologies 'age' and their response will naturally change over time –
requiring periodic re-calibration.
Calibration procedures vary from sensor to sensor, the general calibration procedure involves
taking a number of measurements over the full operating range and comparing the measured
value with actual values (or plotting the sensor input -output curve against a standard /reference
curve) .
The actual value (or the standard curve )may be obtained
• Using more accurate sensor as the calibration reference.

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 • Provided by the sensor manufacturer.
Smart Sensor may have self calibration and adaptive features to adjust themselves to different
operating conditions

In this example, the sensor has a linear response for values of the physical input less than X0.
The Sensitivity of the device is determined by the slope of the calibration curve. In this example,
for values of the physical input greater than X0 , the calibration curve becomes less sensitive
until it reaches a limiting value of the output signal. This behavior is referred to as Saturation,
and the sensor cannot be used for measurements greater than its saturation value.
Offset – ​An offset means that the sensor output is higher or lower than the ideal output. Offsets
are easy to correct with a single-point calibration.
Sensitivity or Slope – A difference in slope means that the sensor output changes at a different
rate than the ideal. The Two-point calibration process can correct differences in slope.
Linearity – ​Very few sensors have a completely linear characteristic curve. Some are linear
enough over the measurement range that it is not a problem. But some sensors will require more
complex calculations to linearize the output.
Calibration Methods
• One Point Calibration
• Two Point Calibration
To perform a one point calibration:
• 1. Take a measurement with your sensor.

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 • 2. Compare that measurement with your reference standard.
• 3. Subtract the sensor reading from the reference reading to get the offset.
• 4. In your code, add the offset to every sensor reading to obtain the calibrated value.

To perform a two point calibration:

A common example of a two-point calibration is to calibrate a temperature sensor using an
ice-water bath and boiling water for the two references.
1. ​Take two measurements with your sensor: One near the low end of the measurement range
and one near the high end of the measurement range. Record these readings as "RawLow" and
"RawHigh"
2. Repeat these measurements with your reference instrument. Record these readings as
"ReferenceLow" and "ReferenceHigh"
3. Calculate "RawRange" as RawHigh – RawLow.
4. Calculate "ReferenceRange" as ReferenceHigh – ReferenceLow
5. In your code, calculate the "CorrectedValue" using the formula below:
CorrectedValue = (((RawValue + RawLow) * ReferenceRange) / RawRange) + ReferenceLow
Ex:
ReferenceLow = 0.01°C (ice)
ReferenceHigh = 100°C (boiling water)
ReferenceRange = 99.99
Lab thermometer need to calibrate
RawLow = -0.5°C
RawHigh = 96.0°C
RawRange = 96.5°C
So, if we get a raw reading of 37°C with this thermometer,
CorrectedValue = (((RawValue + RawLow) * ReferenceRange) / RawRange) + ReferenceLow
(((37 + 0.5) * 99.99) / 96.5) + 0.01 = 38.9°C
4. Six determinations of a quantity, as entered on the data sheet and presented to you for
analysis are 12.35, 12.71, 12.48, 12.63, 12.58 & 10.64. Examine the data and on the basis of
your conclusions calculate: (8m)
i) arithmetic mean
i. ii)standard deviation
ii) the probable error in percent of the average of the readings
iii) the average deviation
5. Write short notes on sensors output signal types.
There are three basic types of signals that will consider as sensor outputs:
Analogy voltage, PWM, and serial digital
Analogy voltage

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 Sensors output analogy voltage is proportional to some parameter which they are sensing.
Analogy signals are much more susceptible to noise than digital signals, so there are several
measures that must be taken to ensure the data obtained from the sensor is accurate. The most
common techniques for noise reduction are differential signal transmission and passive low
pass filtration.

PWM
PWM is a popular technique for transmitting digital data in embedded systems.
A PWM signal is much more immune to noise than an analog signal, but signal integrity can still
benefit from differential transmission (as in USB).
If the rise time of a PWM signal is too slow, it may not be possible to use.

Serial Digital
Serial digital signals are the most complicated. This is the type of signal used for communication
between the arduino and a computer over USB.

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6. Classify and explain errors in measuring system.(8m)
Gross errors ​– Gross errors are largely due to human factors such as misreading of instruments,
incorrect adjustment and improper application of instruments.
Complete elimination of gross errors is probably impossible in analog meters.
This error is almost eliminated in auto ranging digital meters.
A large number of gross errors is due to the carelessness of observer.
Ex: Failure to set zero before measurement is made, improper positioning of the instrument
causes gross errors.
Systematic errors are due to shortcomings of the instrument and changes in external conditions
affecting the measurements.
i. Instrumental errors arise out of the changes in the properties of the components
used in the instrument. This can be avoided by calibrating the instrument
frequently.
ii. Environmental errors ​are due to the changes in the environmental conditions
such as temperature, humidity, pressure and electrostatic & magnetic field.
Ex: ​the resistance of a strain gauge changes with variation in temperature.
These errors can be minimized by controlling the environmental conditions in the
lab.
iii. Systematic errors can also be divided​ into static and dynamic errors
iv. Static ​errors are caused by the limitations of the measuring device or the
assumption in the physical laws governing its behavior.
v. Dynamic errors are caused by the instruments slow response in following the
changes in the measured variable.
Random errors are unpredictable errors and occur even when all systematic errors ae accounted
for. However these errors can be avoided by taking more number of readings and using statistical
method to obtain the true value.

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Difference between Sensors & Transducers
Sensors Transducers

Definition Senses the physical changes occur in the The transducer

surrounding and converting it into a readable actuates transfor
quantity. form to another.

Components Sensor itself Sensor and signal

Function Detects the changes and induces the Conversion of o

corresponding electrical signals. another.

Examples Proximity sensor, Magnetic sensor, Thermistor, Pote

Accelerometer sensor, Light sensor etc. etc.

Performance measures of sensors:

The characteristics that describe sensor performance can be classified into four groups:
● Static characteristics, ​describing the performance with respect to very slow changes.
● Dynamic characteristics, ​specifying the sensor response to variations in time and in the
measurand (the quantity that has to be measured).
● Environmental characteristics, relating the sensor performance after or during exposure
to specified external conditions (e.g. pressure, temperature, vibration and radiation).
● Reliability characteristics, ​describing the sensor’s life expectancy.

In an experiment, ten observations of pressure are made which we given below Calculate
i) arithmetic mean

ii) average deviation iii) standard deviation iv) variance

Trial
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No.

Scale
readi 10.02 10.20 10.26 10.20 10.22 10.13 9.97 10.12 10.09 9.9
ng

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(K
Pa)

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