International Journal of Agronomy and Plant Production. Vol.

, 4 (12), 3470-3484, 2013

Available online at http:// www.ijappjournal.com
ISSN 2051-1914 ©2013 VictorQuest Publications

Major Post Harvest Diseases of Mango and their Management

1 2
Shazia Iram , Hamd Meer Iftikhar Ahmad

1- Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi.

2- PARC Institute of Advanced Studies in Agriculture, National Agricultural Research Center, Islamabad.

*Corresponding Author: Shazia Iram

Abstract

Mango post harvest diseases cause maximum losses in the quality and marketing of
fresh mango fruits. Ultimately, post harvest diseases become major hurdle in the export
and cause high economic loss in international and national markets. In Pakistan decline
in mango export is increasing every year due to the lack of proper post harvest handling.
The objective of present study is to provide a review on the symptoms, epidemiology,
etiology and management of post harvest diseases so that a background history is
available for various strategies and new techniques may develop to mitigate the loss.

Keywords: post harvest, national markets, diseases and mango.

Introduction

Origin and Distribution of mango

th largest
Pakistan is the 5 mango growing country in the world and stands second after citrus fruit. Mango
is growing on 1987.38 thousand hectares area and produce 1846.0 thousand tons of mango (Govt. of
Pakistan, 2010).

Mango varieties in Pakistan

Pakistan offer about 200 number of mango varieties of which langra, dosehri, sindhri are the most
popular varieties. These all varieties were introduced from 1949 to 1965 and unfortunately, after that no
popular variety came to know. Here is the list ofMango varieties, year of release and yield potential (kg/ha.)
(Table 1).

Irrigation of mango
In Pakistan different irrigation methods are used like:-
- basin method
- modified basin method
- furrow method
- flood irrigation method
- drip irrigation system
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Table 1. Mango varieties in Pakistan

Name of variety Year of release Yield potential (kg/ha.)
Neelum 1965 11070
Mid season
Swarnarika 1953 21000
Summer BehishtChaunsa 1959 9000
Beganpali 1953 20430
SalehBhai 1965 9450
Anwar Ratole 1967 9900
Early season
Sindhri 1949 21600
Zafran 1958 12600
Siroli 1953 8000
Langra 1952 10000
Dusheri 1951 12870
GulabKhasa 1959 9900
* Source: Introduction to Agriculture Research in Sindh.
Directorate General, Agriculture Research Sindh, Hyderabad, June 1990

Table 2. Time and number of irrigation of mango orchard

Time Month irrigation
At flowering Feb-March 1
After flowering April –June 3
Rainy season July - August 1
Autumn Sep. – Oct. 1
Winter Nov. – Jan. 2

Post harvest losses

The estimated post harvest losses in fruits are at Rs. 31 billion and in vegetables Rs.
18 billion per annum (Minfal, 2001) while loss of value in case of mango, banana, and dates is over 4 billion
rupees annually. Post harvest losses of fresh mango fruits are more in Pakistan as compare to India. It is
reported that total losses of fresh mango are 25-40 % in India while 69 % in Pakistan and microbial decay
accounts for 17.0 – 26.9 % of the total post harvest losses in Asian countries (Prabakar et al., 2005).
Similarly Pakistan average mango losses due to post harvest diseases have been estimated 25.2 %. It is
also noticed that all varieties in Pakistan are old varieties so these varieties become susceptible to diseases.

Post-harvest Diseases of Pakistan

Mango post harvest diseases minimize fruit quality and cause losses. In most cases, blemished fruit
does not meet the required standard, so it causes economic loss in international markets (Diedhiou 2007).
Mango susceptibility to post harvest diseases increases during storage as a result of physiological
changes and senescence which favors’ pathogen development (Prusky 1996). Similarly, Eckert et al in 1996
described that susceptibility of mango fruit to post harvest diseases increases after harvest and favoring
pathogen development. Major post harvest diseases of Pakistanare anthracnose, stem end rot and soft rot
(Jeffries et al., 1990). Anthracnose and stem end rot are two most common diseases, caused by several
fungi and also infects before and after harvest, (Johnsons and Coates, 1993). Fruit quality must be improved
to fulfill the desire of successful shipment of mango to distant markets (Simmons, 1997). In Pakistan post
harvest management is a major challenge faced by mango industry (Amin et al., 2008).

Anthracnose
Anthracnose is one of the most important , prevalant and severe disease of mango in most areas where
this crop is grown (Pitkethley and Conde, 2007 : ploetz, 19994). It is mostly occur in humid production areas
(Arauz, 2000; Dodd et al.,1997; Lim and Khoo, 1985; Ploetz and Freeman , 2009; ploetz and Prakash, 1997
; Ploetz, 2003). According to the mcguire and Campbell 1993, anthracnose is pre and post harvest disease
as it attacks on leaves, twigs , petioles and fruit as well at both stages.in Pakistan anthracnose is a common
disease of mango. Fateh et al. 2010 surveyed different districts of Punjab namely; Multam, Bhawalpur,
Rahim yarKhan, Jhang,Lahore and Faisalabaad. During their survey they noticed that anthracnose is a
common disease of mango with30% disease incidence. While, In India during post harvest handling mango
is attacked by twenty different genera of fungi (Pathak, 1980) of which anthracnose disease is the most
important (Snowdon, 1990; Johnson and Coates, 1993).

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Symptoms on Leaves
Spots are formed towards the margin. They are tan to dark brown in colour, often with a darker border.
Infection appears as lesions along the margin of the pale green leaves, in which case they are semi-circular
in shape (Pitkethley and Conde, 2007). On leaves, small, angular, brown to black spots are formed that
become dead areas later. On immature leaves its colour is light brown to blackish (plant diseases-48 2008).
Symptoms on mangoes include the tearstain patterns which result when conidia are washed down the
fruit by rain (Snowdon, 1990).

Figure . Mango leaves infected with anthracnose.

Infection on twigs
In very humid weather new twigs may show a dark affected area from the tip backwards, sometimes with
defoliation of the young shoots .The newly formed affected fruit show large, sunken, black lesions and then
fruit drop off (Pitkethley and Conde, 2007).

Infection on panicles
Initially infection occur as tiny, well defined specks on all tissues of panicle; but, as infection spread
cluster of flower become inky black and die (PD-48 2008).

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Infection on mango fruit

The color of the fruit is turning from In severe conditions, acervuli appear on
Dark brown to black, sunken and irregular lesions are formed on the fruit surface that later on penetrate
yellow to darker brown after some fruit body that cause rottening
into the flesh and diseases process starts.
days.
Etiology
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is one of the most important pathogen as it can infect at least 1000 plant
species. Anthracnose is mostly caused by C. gloeosporioides while to C. acutatum pathogen is also
responsible but to a lesser extent. (Fitzell, 1979; Dodd et al., 1997; Ploetz and Prakash,1997). For the
availability of living cultures and sequence data Colletotrichum gloeosporioides was recently epitypified so
that comparison can be made with the fresh collections(Sittisack et al., 2010).

Taxonomy

Phylum Ascomycota
Class Ascomycetes
Order Phyllacorales
Family Phyllacoraceae
Genus Colletotrichum
Filamentous fungi in the genus Colletotrichum are destructive pathogens that cause disease and crop
losses in plants worldwide. Taxonomy and nomenclature in the group is confusing, even to scientists working
in the field, and inaccurate diagnosis of species is not uncommon. Hyde et al., (2009) provided an overview
of the 66 Colletotrichum names that are in common use, and the 19 recently used names which are regarded
as doubtful. Their paper represented the first comprehensive overview of the genus in 17 years and is the
first summary treatment of Colletotrichum to incorporate data generated through DNA analysis and
phylogenetic systematics. Species were listed alphabetically and annotated with their taxonomic entry,
teleomorph, hosts and disease brief summaries of taxonomic and phylogenetic research and outstanding
issues for the genus that are necessary to stabilize species names. The paper serves to provide a new
starting point for usage of current names in Colletotrichum and indicates future work needed.

Epidemology
Anthracnose disease spreads within mango trees by water-borne conidia of Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides var. minor. Conidia were produced in the laboratory from acervuli in leaf lesions over a wide
temperature range (10–30°C) both in wet and humid (95–97% R.H.) conditions. Majority of conidia were
trapped during prolonged periods of rain, and during active growth or flowering, severe outbreaks of disease
were recorded. No conidia were trapped following dews. Ascospores of Glomerellacingulata var. minor were
not trapped while the disease was active in the orchard. These spores do not appear to contribute to the
infection cycle of mango anthracnose (Fitzell and Peak, 2008). Moist conditions and high humidity are
primary factors in the spread and development of anthracnose. Conidia produced on branch terminals,
mummified inflorescences, flower bracts and leaves (most important) are significant sources of inoculums
(Fitzell and Peak, 1984; Dodd et al., 1991).
They are produced most abundantly when free moisture is available, but also at relative humidity as low
as 95%. Conidia are dispersed by rain splash and infection requires free moisture (Jeffries et al., 1990). As
aspersoria age, they become melanized. Melanization strengthens the aspersorium and facilitates
penetration of the cuticle by infection pegs that the aspersoria produce. The presence and prevalence of

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melanized aspersoria have been used to predict when infection is possible and anthracnose control
measures are needed (Fitzell and Peak, 1984; Dodd et al., 1991). Infections of fruit are associated with
rainfall and occur from fruit set until harvesting, with dead leaves entangled in the tree canopy, defoliated
branch terminals, mummified inflorescences and flower bracts constituting the main source of inoculums,
(Dodd et al., 1997). Conidia spread throughout the orchard by means of heavy dew, irrigation and light rain,
with rainy weather being conducive to conidium production, dispersal and infection (Prusky, 1994).

Anthracnose Disease Cycle

(Arauz, 2000; Nelson, 2010).Spores disseminate by mean of rain and fall on infection sites. On immature
fruits spores penetrate through panicles to ramify through the tissue while on mature, infection penetrate the
cuticle but remain quiescent until ripening of fruit. Sticky masses of conidia are produced in acervuli during
moist conditions.

Physiological studies of colletotrichum gleosporides causing Anthracnose

Khalid et al. (1999) studied the physiological charecteristics of colletotrichumgleosporides. Very little work
is done on physiological studies in Pakistan. Here are the summary of his results in which best conditions are
studied for maximum growth of Colletotrichum speciesWhile, 28 ºC temperature and 5.5 pH is also studied
as best conditions for maximum growth also, when this fungus is exposed to alternate cycle of light and dark,
then highest sporulation rate is obtained. (Tasiwal and benagi, 2009; Huballi et al., 2011).

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Best media PDA

Least media Water agar
Best temperature 25 ± 2
Best pH 7–8
Best light effect Continuous light

Management of Anthracnose of Mango

Pre-harvest treatment
Sanitation should be practiced as it has a potential beneficial impact but normally this is not done due to
its complexity and cost (Akem, 2006; prusky et al, 2009). Removing the sources of inoculum and integration
of chemicals and other biological measures are also effective for pre- harvest control (Johnsons and
Hofman, 2009) Copper fungicides are also generally used world wide but it is most effective when combine
with other fungicides (Arauz, 2000 : Lonsdale, 1993). It is also noted that the retention period of CuO is more
than Cucl2 when applied on the fruit surface (Johnsons and Hofman, 2009).
Postharvest treatments
Fungicides and hot water treatment
Post harvest treatments are available for control of anthracnose in mango fruits. Regular spraying of
trees from flowering time onwards with mencozeb (at recommended label rates every 14 days) is useful to
reduce the level of infection in the developing fruit while copper sprays recommended for the control of
mango scab that will also control anthracnose in only a one day with holding period. Hot water treatments
are also recommended and for this dipping of fruit for 15 minutes at 120 -130ºF is effective (Pitkethley and
Conde, 2007; Ploetz 1999).
Different fungicides, hot water quarantine treatment and their combination used to check the effect of
these treatments on post-harvest diseases and disorders of mango. After harvesting, the fruits were
subjected to eight different treatments as:-
T1: Control
T2: HWQT @ 45°C for 75 min (Iran Protocol)
T3:NaOCl @ 2.5 g 10L-1 for field dip for 1 min
T4: NaOCl @ 2.5 g 10L-1 in field dip for 1min + HWQT @ 48°C for 60 min
T5: Topsin-M @ 1 g L-1 in field dip for 1 min
T6:Topsin-M @ 1 g L-1 in field dip for 1 min + HWQT @ 48°C for 60 min
T7: HWQT @48°C for 60 min (China Protocol) and T8: HWQT @ 48°C for 60 min + Carbendazim @0.4 g L-
1 at 52°C for 5 min.

It was found that T6 showed significant effect to minimize the post-harvest diseases while T2 caused
increased internal discoloration as compared to T1, and hot water injury was higher in fruit subjected to Iran
protocol (45°C for 75 min) compared to China protocol (48°C for 60 min). T3 and T4 caused higher internal
discoloration of fruit. It was also observed that all physical treatments induced a little bit of soft nose but; T4
was found to accelerate the problem compared to Tl. when fruits were subjected to NaOCl @ 2.5 g 10L-1
and Topsin-M @ 1 g L-1 both followed by + HWQT @ 48°C for 60 min, this treatment showed higher levels
of total titratable acidity. However, non-significant effects of the treatments were observed on fruit colour,
total soluble solids, total and non-reducing sugar contents and organoleptic acceptability of the fruits. Overall,
T4 was good to reduce incidence of postharvest diseases, besides fulfilling market access criteria. The
higher degree of soft nose development in HWQT fruits; and generally poor post-storage peel colour
development warrant further studies (Jabbaret a,l 2011).
To check the in vitro fungitoxicity against Colletotrichumgloeosporioides Lim (1980) investigated fifteen
fungicides and two commercial formulations of the insecticides, and he analyzed that two miscellaneous
fungicides, chlorothalonil and lprodione and the two insecticides showed extremely low and negligible
fungitoxicity, respectively. Similarities and differences between and within groups of fungicides tested are
further discussed in relation to their chemical structures, biochemical modes of actions and formulations.

Field Control
In the field improvement can be done by crop hygiene, varietal tolerance, dry climate fruiting, and through
growth flushes coverage. It is also reported that use of copper, mencozeb as a field spray may also effective
as a field control. Different mixtures of fungicides for example metiram mixture with pyra clostrobin, calcium
and potassium while avoidance of excessive nitrogen nutritions are also useful strategy (Johnson’s 2008;
Johnson et al., 2011).

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Stem End Rot

Stem end rot of mango is a serious problem and occur only in ripe mango. Although this disease was
reported and investigated in Burma, Ceylon, Philippines, Mauritius and U.S.A; but, it was first recorded in
India 1964. In different parts of world this fungus attacks more than 280 species (Domschet al., 1980). In
Pakistan it is found more than 50 plants (Ahmed et al., 1997).

Biology of stem end rot

Many endophytes fungi causing stem end rot of mango associated with twig dieback, inflorescence
blightening, branch necrosis and seedling blights. First they appear as symptomless, later on when tree
stress, cause disease. Contact between the injured surface of peduncle and soil at the time of harvesting
may further enhance the infection from the soil borne inoculumn of stem end rot pathogens specially
lasiodiplodiatheobromae. In hot climatic conditions, L. theobromae is the main causal agent of stem end rot
disease and associated with tree blights and dieback. (Salakidis et al., 2009; 2011).
An abscission zone barrier at the stem end stop and delay the colonization of fruit tissues and this is a
common feature of stem end rot pathogens. During ripening, abscission of pedicle initiate and stem end rot
pathogens invade the fruit.

Symptoms

Fig. a Fig. b Fig. c

In the initial stage, the epicarp darkens around the base of the pedicel and the stem ends of affected
fruit become water soaked ,extend internally into the fruit (Pernezny and Ploetz, 2000) (shown in fig. a and
b). Later, the affected area enlarges to form a circular, brownish-black patch which under humid atmosphere
extends rapidly and turns the whole fruit black within 2–3 days.(c). The pulp of the diseased fruits becomes
brown and somewhat softer. The pedicel, if present, becomes dry (Srivastava, 1972). Drying of tips,
discolorazation and darkened of bark are common symptoms (Ploetz, 1999; Iqbalet al., 2007).

Etiology
Dothiorella dominicana has been the predominant cause of stem end rot at all sites. Lasiodiplodia
theobromae (Sangchote,1989), Phomopsis manqiferae and other fungi (Dothiorella manqiferae,
Cytosphaeria manqiferae and other Dothiorella spp.) cause stem end rot much less frequently (<10%
affected fruit), although a higher incidence of L. theobromae) occurred at a few sites (Johnson et al,1989)
but; Dothiorelladominicana, D. manqifera, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, and Phomopsis manqiferae are
consider as the dominant fungi associated with stem end rot (R.A. Peterson et al, 1988). Lasiodiplodia
theobromae is a most aggressive fungus of class deuteromycetes (Adwaiet al., 2003). The main cause of
stemend rot is Lasiodiplodia theobromae in tropical asia and Dothiorella dominicana in Australia (Muirhead
and Grattidge, 1986).

Taxonomy (Fateh et al., 2010)

Kingdom Fungi
Phylum Ascomycota
Class Ascomycetes
Order Dothideles
Family Botryosphaeriaceae
Genus Botryodiplodia
Species B.theobromae

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Epidemiology
The sources of primary inoculum were dead mango twigs and bark of the tree. Aeroscope slides exposed
in the orchard showed that the atmosphere gets charged with spores of the fungus during June to August.
Fruit with and without pedicels, left uncovered in the orchard after harvest, developed 9 and 24 per cent
stem-end rot, respectively on ripening. Sporulation does not occur unless the fruit is left over under humid
condition for over a month. Under dry condition, the blackened fruit get mummified (Srivastava, 1972).
Pathogen is encountered in its anamorph stage, named as Lasiodiplodia. This pathogen is soil-born
saprophyte or wound parasite distributed among tropic and subtropics regions (Domsch et al., 1980).The
postharvest quiescent period for SER pathogens was influenced by the storage temperature, the pathogen
involved, and the mode of infection, ranging from 4 to 5 d at 22°C, to 14 d at 13°C, in fruit that were naturally
infected with Dothiorellaspp. and C. gloeosporioides, or inoculated with D. dominicana at the stem-end, and
from 8 to 13 d at 23°C, depending upon whether the primary inoculums was soil borne (L. theobromae) or
entophytic (Dothiorella spp.) respectively. (Johnson et al, 1992).
Botryodiplodia theobromae grew and sporulated best at 28°C on media amended with ripe mango-extract
and dextrose or sucrose. A pink pigment was secreted into the medium, with the highest rate of production at
32°C. Inoculation of mangoes with B. theobromae produced infections, especially above 25°, only when
fruits began to ripen (Meahet al., 1989). Johnson et al (1992) sampled stem, inflorescence and peduncle
tissue between flowering and harvest. He revealed that SER fungi occurred endophytically in mature stem
tissue, and colonized the fruit peduncle tissue by entophytic outgrowth of hyphae within the inflorescence,
several weeks prior to harvest. Thus sampling indicates that airborne inoculums were not a significant source
of inoculums for SER. Length of pedicel also affected disease development (Sangchote, 1989).

Disease cycle of stem end rot (Dr. chrysakem and Mr. Tonny Cooke)

Physiology
Different studies revealed that lasiodiplodia theobromae grew best at 28 ºC. It is also noted that tea root
extract supplemented with PDA, and continuous light exposure give maximum growth (Saha et a.l, 2008) but
on the other hand, alternate cycle of light and darkness induce earlier sporulation (Fateh et al., 2010). Least
growth occurs on water agar media (kausar et al., 2009).

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Best media Potato dextrose agar with tea root

extract
Best temperature 28ºC

Light conditions 24 hr. light

pH range 6 – 6.5

Disease management
Use Of Fungicides
Treated the fruit for 5 minutes after harvesting in 500 ppm suspension of benomy l(benlate) heated on a
temperature of 52ºC; but, it gives satisfactory results against stem end rot disease.(Johnson et al.,1990).
Treatment in hot benomyl provided good control of stem end rot caused by both D. dominicana and L.
theobromae during storage at 20°C for 14 days (Johnson et al, 1989).
Hot benomyl followed by prochloraz provided effective control of stem end rot caused by D. dominicana
and of Alternaria rot (Alternaria alternata) during longer storage in a controlled atmosphere at 13°C (Johnson
et al, 1989).
Immersion of infected fruit in benomyl (500 ppm) at 52°C for 5 mints provided the most effective control.
Control measures were most effective on fruit inoculated 3 hr or 6 hr previously using a benomyl suspension
prepared 3 hr previously (Sangchote1989).
Test of different fungicides against the fungus L. theobromae under laboratory conditions showed that
seven fungicides namely; aureo fungin, carbendazim, captan, benomyl, mancozeb, copper oxychloride and
thiophanate were effective against L. theobromae (Shelar et al.,1997 ;Ahmed et al., 1995).
Lasiodiplodia theobromae was controlled in harvested mango fruit for up to 4 weeks by fungicidal dipping
of pared fruit followed by storage at 13°C.Muller and Burt (2000, 1989) compared two fungicides to check the
efficiency. He suggest that Stem-end rot was significantly reduced by a 0.025% prochloraz dip at an ambient
water temperature of 31°C or by a 0.05% benomyl dip at 50°C water temperature, while,a hot water dip at
50°C, or 0.1% thiabendazole at 50°C water temperature, did not significantly control stem-end rot. Peterson
et al 1988 observed that Propiconazole gave a level of control and also prochloraz (as a postharvest dip)
reduced the incidence of fruit diseases.

Application of essential oils for postharvest control of stem end rot of mango fruits during storage
Screening of geranium, mint, palmarosa, and thyme oils against Botryodiplodia theobromae exhibit
absolute fungitoxic activity. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of fungus was 200, 100, 100 and 50
ppm respectively. When these oils were treated to fruits, enhancement of shelf storage life from just five to
ten days was observed. Thus, results proved that oils could be recommended as botanical fumigants after a
long-term and wide range of trials. (Tripathi and Shukla, 2009).
Care full management of temperature and ripening can reduce the diseases expansion. Similarly spray of
hot water with fludioxonil at 52 ºC for five minutes is also useful.

Alternaria Fruit Rot (Alternaria alternata)

Taxonomy
Phylum Ascomycota
Class Dothidedeomycetes
Order Pleosporales
Family Pleosporaceae
Genus Alternaria
Species Alternariaalternata

Symptoms
Actually, after prolonged storage in cool conditions, alternaria rot develops on fruit surface when
anthracnose and stem end rot are absent. During dry and hot growing conditions (this conditions reduce the
buildup of mango anthracnose) it is major cause of post-harvest losses in mango fruits in India, Australia,
Israel, Egypt and south Africa (Prusky et al., 2008). Alternaria rot in mango can cause side lesions during
long storage (Johnson et al, 1990; Ploetz and Freeman, 2008). Similarly it is also reported that it may also
responsible for leaf and inflorescence spotting and colonizing flowers (Johnson et al 1991). Brown soft

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lesions, similar to anthracnose but with redish margins around the lesions are appear on fruit surface as
shown in fig;

Alternaria mango fruit rot

Causes of Alternaria rot
It is caused by Alternaria alternata fungi and a major cause of post harvest lossess in mango. A.
alternata causes the disease on mango only in arid environment (Prusky el al., 1983; 2008, Johnson’s,
2008).

Epidemiology
Spore of Alternaria alternate are easily found from all dry tissues of mango trees from the orchard.
Disease is spread by air borne conidia germinating on surface. Disease incidence is dependent on relative
humidity. Infection will increase as the number of hours of exposure to the RH ≥80% is increased over 320 h
(Prusky, 1983).It is also noted that this disease develops on fruit in cool conditions (Johnsons, 2008).

Disease Cycle (Thomas, 2003)

Alternaria fungi overwinter the fruit. conidia releasing from the infected leaves, twigs , inflorescence or
any dry tissue of mango tree and spread by wind , rain, dew or insects to other fruit. depending on relative
humidity ( RH≥80%) spores germinate and penetrate the on surface, causing lesions to form within a few
days. These new lesions produce more air borne conidia and infect (Prusky et al, 1983:1994).

Physiological studies
Different media, pH ranges, temperature light conditions were tested against the growth of alternaria
alternate. Studies reveal that 25 – 30ºC is most suitable temperature for the growth.

Table 3. physiological studies of alternaria alternate (Hubballiet al., 2010).

Optimum temperature 28 ºC
Best media Potato dextrose agar
Light conditions Alternate cycle of light
and dark
pH range 6.00 – 6.50

Management
Fungicides
By regular spraying and post-harvest fungicides treatments, we can mitigate the losses. Dithiocarbamate
fungicide as a pre harvest treatment will suppress the latent infection.
For the control of this disease a combined hot water spray and fruit brushing (hot water brushing-HWB)
−1
treatment for 15–20 s with 225 μg ml prochloraz is the most effective treatmentJohnson’s (2008).

Plant extracts
Extracts of Halfabarr and ginger are the most effective plant extract to inhibit the growth of the Alternaria
alternata fungi followed by avocado, cinnamon and laurel. Furthermore, for the management of pathogenic
fungi plant extracts may also use as natural fungicides. Halfabarr, which is found to be the most efficient

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extract (75% inhibition), might be a promising material for controlling the fungi.. Post harvest usage of Neem
leaf extract (5%) or Strobulin (0.1%) proceeded by pre harvest application of Azoxystrobin (0.1) was most
effective in controlling post harvest rots in mango (Fawzi et al, 2009).

Aspergillus rot
Aspergillus Fruit Rot (Aspergillusniger)
Aspergillus niger is one of the most common species of the genus Aspergillus. It is responsible for much
disease called black mold on certain fruits and vegetables such as grapes, onions, and peanuts, mango and
is a common contaminant of food. It is ubiquitous in soil and is commonly reported from indoor environments,
where its black colonies can be confused with those of Stachybotrys (species of which have also been called
"black mould"(Samson et al., 2001).
It is reported that some strains of A. niger produce potent mycotoxins called ochratoxins(Abarcaet al,
1994) but this report may be misidentification of the fungal species. Recent evidence suggests some true A.
niger strains do produce ochratoxin A(Suchuster et al, 2001).

Micrograph of A. niger (100x magnification).

Taxonomy
A. niger include in Aspergillus subgenus Circumdati, section Nigri. Fifteen related black-spored species
are included in this section (Nigri) that may be confused with A. niger, including A. tubingensis, A. foetidus,
A. carbonarius, and A. awamori( Klich 2002; Samson et al, 2004). During 2004 Samson with his coworkers
described a number of morphologically similar species.
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Ascomycota
Subphylum: Pezizomycotina
Class: Eurotiomycetes
Order: Eurotiales
Family: Trichocomaceae
Genus: Aspergillus
Species A.niger

Etiology and Symptoms

Aspergillusrot caused by Aspergillusniger affect fruit after harvest (Johnson, 2008). Sunken, pale brown
lesions are formed often at the fruit shoulder where sap burn has occurred. When conditions are favorable, in
the center of lesion a small black spored fruiting body is develop. On mature lesions white spherical resting
bodies (sclerotia) are formed which later on become dark brown (Snowdon, 2010).

Biology and Epidemiology

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When fruits suffer from this disease, become mummified and black spore cover the surface. Infections
occur from soil and water- borne spores through damaged tissue (Johnson’s, 2008). The optimal
temperature for the disease development is 30 ºC (Srivasta, 1968). It is a weak pathogen of mango fruit and
its occurrence indicates that mangoes have been over heated prior to marketing (Snowdon, 1990).

Disease cycle of Aspergillus niger

Aspergillus niger produce the conidia in the same manner as aspergillus nidulans. Both exist in asexual
stage but aspergillus nidulans sometimes it also produce teleomorph in Ascomycota. Following is the life
cycle of aspergillus niger (Lee et al, 2010).
Conidia produce in conidiophore and spread by means of wind, rain or insects. Where they germinate
and produce more spores.

Management
Simple techniques
Aspergillus rot occur due to the mismanagement and carelessness so we should prevent those
conditions that favors the disease. As it is caused by overheat so avoid from sap burn is primary strategy.
Keeping the harvesting fruit cool and after harvesting never expose the fruit in the sun for long period
(Johnson, 2008).
Temperature of water by which fruits are washed should be maintained because if the bathing water of
fruit will be so hot then this disease would penetrate.
By spraying and post harvest treatments with hot water containing fungicides are effective. Furthermore
storage of fruits between 10 –15º Cmay also prevent the black mould (Snowdon, 2010).

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