CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 REVERSE OSMOSIS (RO)

This is a water purification technology that uses a semi permeable

membrane to remove ions, molecules, and larger particles from drinking water.
In reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pressure,
a colligative property that is driven by chemical potential differences of the
solvent, a thermodynamic parameter. Reverse osmosis can remove many types
of dissolved and suspended species from water, including bacteria, and is used
in both industrial processes and the production of potable water. The result is
that the solute is retained on the pressurized side of the membrane and the
pure solvent is allowed to pass to the other side. To be "selective", this
membrane should not allow large molecules or ions through the pores (holes),
but should allow smaller components of the solution (such as solvent
molecules) to pass freely.

Fig 1.1 Reverse osmosis

1
 In the normal osmosis process, the solvent naturally moves from an area
of low solute concentration (high water potential), through a membrane, to an
area of high solute concentration (low water potential). The driving force for the
movement of the solvent is the reduction in the free energy of the system when
the difference in solvent concentration on either side of a membrane is reduced,
generating osmotic pressure due to the solvent moving into the more
concentrated solution. Applying an external pressure to reverse the natural flow
of pure solvent, thus, is reverse osmosis. The process is similar to other
membrane technology applications. However, key differences are found
between reverse osmosis and filtration. The predominant removal mechanism in
membrane filtration is straining, or size exclusion, so the process can
theoretically achieve perfect efficiency regardless of parameters such as the
solution's pressure and concentration. Reverse osmosis also involves diffusion,
making the process dependent on pressure, flow rate, and other conditions.
Reverse osmosis is most commonly known for its use in drinking water
purification from seawater, removing the salt and other effluent materials from
the water molecules.

1.1.1 PROCESS

Osmosis is a natural process. When two solutions with different

concentrations of a solute are separated by a semi permeable membrane, the
solvent has a tendency to move from low to high solute concentrations for
chemical potential equilibration.

Formally, reverse osmosis is the process of forcing a solvent from a

region of high solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane to a
region of low solute concentration by applying a pressure in excess of the
osmotic pressure. The largest and most important application of reverse osmosis
is the separation of pure water from seawater and brackish waters; seawater or
brackish water is pressurized against one surface of the membrane, causing
2
transport of salt-depleted water across the membrane and emergence of potable
drinking water from the low-pressure side.

Fig 1.2 reverse osmosis process

The membranes used for reverse osmosis have a dense layer in the
polymer matrix either the skin of an asymmetric membrane or an interfacially
polymerized layer within a thin-film-composite membrane—where the
separation occurs. In most cases, the membrane is designed to allow only water
to pass through this dense layer, while preventing the passage of solutes (such
as salt ions). This process requires that a high pressure be exerted on the high
concentration side of the membrane, usually 2–17 bar (30–250 psi) for fresh and
brackish water, and 40–82 bar (600–1200 psi) for seawater, which has around
27 bar (390 psi) natural osmotic pressure that must be overcome. This process is
best known for its use in desalination (removing the salt and other minerals
from sea water to produce fresh water), but since the early 1970s, it has also
been used to purify fresh water for medical, industrial, and domestic
applications.

3
1.2 TYPES OF FILTRATION

1.2.1 WATER TREATMENT PLANT FILTERS

Types of water filters include media filters, screen filters, disk filters,
slow sand filter beds, rapid sand filters and cloth filters.

1.2.2 POINT-OF-USE FILTERS

Point-of-use filters for home use include granular activated carbon filters
(GAC) used for carbon filtering; metallic alloy filters, micro porous ceramic
filters, and carbon block resin (CBR) and ultra-filtration membranes. Some
filters use more than one filtration method. An example of this is a multi-barrier
system. Jug filters can be used for small quantities of drinking water. Some
kettles have built-in filters, primarily to reduce lime scale buildup.

1.2.3 PORTABLE WATER FILTERS

Water filters are used by hikers, by aid organizations during humanitarian

emergencies, and by the military. These filters are usually small, portable and
light (1-2 pounds/0.5-1.0 kg or less), and usually filter water by working a
mechanical hand pump, although some use a siphon drip system to force water
through while others are built into water bottles. Dirty water is pumped via a
screen-filtered flexible silicon tube through a specialized filter, ending up in a
container. These filters work to remove bacteria, protozoa and microbial cysts
that can cause disease. Filters may have fine meshes that must be replaced or
cleaned, and ceramic water filters must have their outside abraded when they
have become clogged with impurities. These water filters should not be
confused with devices or tablets that are water purifiers, some of which remove
or kill viruses such as hepatitis A and rotavirus.

4
1.2.4 HOMEMADE WATER FILTERS

Water filters can be made on-site using local materials such as grass,
charcoal (e.g. from burned firewood), and sand. These filters have been used by
soldiers and outdoor enthusiasts. Due to their low cost they can be made and
used by anyone, including the poor, who often do not have access to safe
drinking water. Regrettably such filters do little if anything to mitigate against
pathogens and other harmful constituents and can give a false sense of security
that the water so produced is potable.

1.2.5 WATER POLISHING

The term water polishing can refer to any process that removes small
(usually microscopic) unwanted material from a portion of water. The process
and its meaning vary from setting to setting: a manufacturer of aquarium filters
may claim that its filters perform water polishing by capturing "micro particles"
within nylon or polyester pads just as a chemical engineer can use the term to
refer to the removal of magnetic resins from a solution by passing the solution
over a bed of magnetic particulate. In this sense, water polishing is simply
another term for water filtration.

1.3FRESH WATER APPLICATIONS

1.3.1 DRINKING WATER PURIFICATION

Around the world, household drinking water purification systems,

including a reverse osmosis step, are commonly used for improving water for
drinking and cooking.

Such systems typically include a number of steps,

 a sediment filter to trap particles, including rust and calcium carbonate

 optionally, a second sediment filter with smaller pores
5
  an activated carbon filter to trap organic chemicals and chlorine, which
will attack and degrade thin film composite membrane reverse osmosis
membranes
 a reverse osmosis filter, which is a thin film composite membrane
 optionally, a second carbon filter to capture those chemicals not removed
by the reverse osmosis membrane
 optionally an ultraviolet lamp for sterilizing any microbes that may
escape filtering by the reverse osmosis membrane

The latest developments in the sphere include nano materials and

membranes.In some systems, the carbon prefilter is omitted, and a cellulose
triacetate membrane is used. CTA (cellulose triacetate) is a paper by-product
membrane bonded to a synthetic layer and is made to allow contact with
chlorine in the water. These require a small amount of chlorine in the water
source to prevent bacteria from forming on it. The typical rejection rate for CTA
membranes is 85–95%.

The cellulose triacetate membrane is prone to rotting unless protected by

chlorinated water, while the thin film composite membrane is prone to breaking
down under the influence of chlorine. A thin film composite (TFC) membrane
is made of synthetic material, and requires chlorine to be removed before the
water enters the membrane. To protect the TFC membrane elements from
chlorine damage, carbon filters are used as pre-treatment in all residential
reverse osmosis systems. TFC membranes have a higher rejection rate of 95–
98% and a longer life than CTA membranes.

1.3.2 PORTABLE REVERSE OSMOSIS

Portable reverse osmosis water processors are sold for personal water
purification in various locations. To work effectively, the water feeding to these
units should be under some pressure (40 pounds per square inch (280 kPa) or

6
greater is the norm). Portable reverse osmosis water processors can be used by
people who live in rural areas without clean water, far away from the city's
water pipes. Rural people filter river or ocean water themselves, as the device is
easy to use (saline water may need special membranes). Some travellers on long
boating, fishing, or island camping trips, or in countries where the local water
supply is polluted or substandard, use reverse osmosis water processors coupled
with one or more ultraviolet sterilizers.

In the production of bottled mineral water, the water passes through a

reverse osmosis water processor to remove pollutants and microorganisms. In
European countries, though, such processing of natural mineral water is not
allowed under European law. In practice, a fraction of the living bacteria can
and do pass through reverse osmosis membranes through minor imperfections,
or bypass the membrane entirely through tiny leaks in surrounding seals. Thus,
complete reverse osmosis systems may include additional water treatment
stages that use ultraviolet light or ozone to prevent microbiological
contamination.

Membrane pore sizes can vary from 0.1 to 5,000 nm (4×10−9 to 2×10−4
in) depending on filter type. Particle filtration removes particles of 1μm
(3.9×10−5 in) or larger. Microfiltration removes particles of 50 nm or larger.
Ultra filtration removes particles of roughly 3 nm or larger. Nano filtration
removes particles of 1 nm or larger. Reverse osmosis is in the final category of
membrane filtration, hyper filtration, and removes particles larger than 0.1 nm.

1.3.3 MILITARY USE: THE RO WATER PURIFICATION UNIT

A reverse osmosis water purification unit (ROWPU) is a portable, self-

contained water treatment plant. Designed for military use, it can provide
potable water from nearly any water source. There are many models in use by

7
the United States armed forces and the Canadian Forces. Some models are
containerized, some are trailers, and some are vehicles unto themselves.

Each branch of the United States armed forces has their own series of
reverse osmosis water purification unit models, but they are all similar. The
water is pumped from its raw source into the reverse osmosis water purification
unit module, where it is treated with a polymer to initiate coagulation. Next, it is
run through a multi-media filter where it undergoes primary treatment by
removing turbidity. It is then pumped through a cartridge filter which is usually
spiral-wound cotton. This process clarifies the water of any particles larger than
5 micrometres (0.00020 in) and eliminates almost all turbidity.

The clarified water is then fed through a high-pressure piston pump into a
series of vessels where it is subject to reverse osmosis. The product water is free
of 90.00–99.98% of the raw water's total dissolved solids and by military
standards, should have no more than 1000–1500 parts per million by measure of
electrical conductivity. It is then disinfected with chlorine and stored for later
use.

Within the United States Marine Corps, the reverse osmosis water
purification unit has been replaced by both the Lightweight Water Purification
System and Tactical Water Purification Systems. The Lightweight Water
Purification Systems can be transported by Humvee and filter 125 US gallons
(470 l) per hour. The Tactical Water Purification Systems can be carried on a
Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacement truck, and can filter 1,200 to 1,500 US
gallons (4,500 to 5,700 l) per hour.

1.3.4 WATER AND WASTEWATER PURIFICATION

Rain water collected from storm drains is purified with reverse osmosis
water processors and used for landscape irrigation and industrial cooling in Los
Angeles and other cities, as a solution to the problem of water shortages.In
8
industry, reverse osmosis removes minerals from boiler water at power plants.
The water is distilled multiple times. It must be as pure as possible so it does not
leave deposits on the machinery or cause corrosion. The deposits inside or
outside the boiler tubes may result in underperformance of the boiler, bringing
down its efficiency and resulting in poor steam production, hence poor power
production at the turbine.

It is also used to clean effluent and brackish groundwater. The effluent in

larger volumes (more than 500 m3/d) should be treated in an effluent treatment
plant first, and then the clear effluent is subjected to reverse osmosis system.
Treatment cost is reduced significantly and membrane life of the reverse
osmosis system is increased. The process of reverse osmosis can be used for the
production of deionised water.

Reverse osmosis process for water purification does not require thermal
energy. Flow-through reverse osmosis systems can be regulated by high-
pressure pumps. The recovery of purified water depends upon various factors,
including membrane sizes, membrane pore size, temperature, operating
pressure, and membrane surface area.

In 2002, Singapore announced that a process named NEWater would be a

significant part of its future water plans. It involves using reverse osmosis to
treat domestic wastewater before discharging the NEWater back into the
reservoirs.

1.3.5 FOOD INDUSTRY

In addition to desalination, reverse osmosis is a more economical

operation for concentrating food liquids (such as fruit juices) than conventional
heat-treatment processes. Research has been done on concentration of orange
juice and tomato juice. Its advantages include a lower operating cost and the
ability to avoid heat-treatment processes, which makes it suitable for heat-
9
sensitive substances such as the protein and enzymes found in most food
products.

Reverse osmosis is extensively used in the dairy industry for the

production of whey protein powders and for the concentration of milk to reduce
shipping costs. In whey applications, the whey (liquid remaining after cheese
manufacture) is concentrated with reverse osmosis from 6% total solids to 10–
20% total solids before ultra-filtration processing. The ultra-filtration retentate
can then be used to make various whey powders, including whey protein isolate.
Additionally, the ultrafiltration permeate, which contains lactose, is
concentrated by reverse osmosis from 5% total solids to 18–22% total solids to
reduce crystallization and drying costs of the lactose powder.

Although use of the process was once avoided in the wine industry, it is
now widely understood and used. An estimated 60 reverse osmosis machines
were in use in Bordeaux, France, in 2002.

1.3.6 MAPLE SYRUP PRODUCTION

In 1946, some maple syrup producers started using reverse osmosis to

remove water from sap before the sap is boiled down to syrup. The use of
reverse osmosis allows about 75–90% of the water to be removed from the sap,
reducing energy consumption and exposure of the syrup to high temperatures.
Microbial contamination and degradation of the membranes must be monitored.

1.3.7 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION

For small-scale hydrogen production, reverse osmosis is sometimes used

to prevent formation of minerals on the surface of electrodes.

10
1.3.8 REEF AQUARIUMS

Many reef aquarium keepers use reverse osmosis systems for their
artificial mixture of seawater. Ordinary tap water can contain excessive
chlorine, chloramines, copper, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates, silicates, or many
other chemicals detrimental to the sensitive organisms in a reef environment.
Contaminants such as nitrogen compounds and phosphates can lead to excessive
and unwanted algae growth. An effective combination of both reverse osmosis
and deionization is the most popular among reef aquarium keepers, and is
preferred above other water purification processes due to the low cost of
ownership and minimal operating costs. Where chlorine and chloramines are
found in the water, carbon filtration is needed before the membrane, as the
common residential membrane used by reef keepers does not cope with these
compounds.

1.3.9 WINDOW CLEANING

An increasingly popular method of cleaning windows is the so-called

"water-fed pole" system. Instead of washing the windows with detergent in the
conventional way, they are scrubbed with highly purified water, typically
containing less than 10 ppm dissolved solids, using a brush on the end of a long
pole which is wielded from ground level. Reverse osmosis is commonly used to
purify the water.

11
 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 HISTORY BEHIND RO SYSTEM

The process of osmosis through semi permeable membranes was first

observed in 1748 by Jean-Antoine Nollet. For the following 200 years, osmosis
was only a phenomenon observed in the laboratory. In 1950, the University of
California at Los Angeles first investigated desalination of seawater using semi
permeable membranes. Researchers from both University of California at Los
Angeles and the University of Florida successfully produced fresh water from
seawater in the mid-1950s, but the flux was too low to be commercially viable
until the discovery at University of California at Los Angeles by Sidney Loeb
and SrinivasaSourirajan at the National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, of
techniques for making asymmetric membranes characterized by an effectively
thin "skin" layer supported atop a highly porous and much thicker substrate
region of the membrane.

Fig 2.1 Reverse osmosis production train, North Cape

Coral Reverse Osmosis Plant

12
 John Cadotte, of Film Tec Corporation, discovered that membranes with
particularly high flux and low salt passage could be made by interfacial
polymerization of m-phenylenediamine and trimesoyl chloride. Cadotte's patent
on this process was the subject of litigation and has since expired. Almost all
commercial reverse osmosis membrane is now made by this method. By the end
of 2001, about 15,200 desalination plants were in operation or in the planning
stages, worldwide.

In 1977 Cape Coral, Florida became the first municipality in the United
States to use the RO process on a large scale with an initial operating capacity
of 3 million gallons (11350 m³) per day. By 1985, due to the rapid growth in
population of Cape Coral, the city had the largest low pressure reverse osmosis
plant in the world, capable of producing 15 million gallons per day (MGD)
(56800 m³/d).

2.2 REVIEWS

Synthetic polymer composite membrane for the desalination of saline water

M.A. Ashraf a, M.J. Maah a, A.K. Qureshi a, M. Gharibreza b & I. Yusuf
[1]. In this research, composite membrane with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as
separatinglayer material while cellulose acetate (CA) and polyethylene glycol
(PEG) as supportinglayer material were used. In the present research work, the
synthesis andcharacterization of a multilayer PVA/CA/PEG membrane was
attempted where membraneperformance and applicability were investigated for
reverse osmosis desalination of differentfeed concentrations of groundwater,
brackish, highly saline, and also extremely saline water(seawater). Values of
both salt rejection and water flux were assessed as a measure ofmembrane
efficiency. In addition to suitable application of the prepared synthetic
membranes,the antimicrobial sustainability was also evaluated where
prospective functionagainst gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria was

13
depicted. It can be concluded by this work that multilayer PVA/CA/PEG
membrane performed excellently for the desalination ofgroundwater, brackish,
highly saline, and also extremely saline water. The flux reductionwas reduced
significantly when PEG was incorporated in the composite membrane.
Theimportance of structural differences for antimicrobial activity of the
prepared membraneshas been studied with the use of gram-negative and gram-
positive bacteria. Antimicrobialefficiency improves with the use of PEG and
membranes with smaller pore sizes.

Membranes With Surface-Enhanced Antifouling Properties For Water

Purification NimaShahkaramipour, Thien N. Tran, SankaraRamanan And
HaiqingLin[2]Wastewater Reuse And Seawater Desalination Are Some Of The
Key Solutions In Meeting TheIncreasing Demand For Clean Water. As An
Energy-Efficient And Low-Cost Technology, PolymericMembranes Permeate
Pure Water And Reject Contaminants Ranging From Bacteria In Microns To
IonsIn Angstroms. For Example, Microfiltration (Mf) Membranes With Pore
Sizes Of 1–100 _M CanRemove Microbes, Cells And Bacteria. Ultrafiltration
(Uf) Membranes With Pore Sizes Of 1–100 NmCan Remove Small
Contaminants, Such As Proteins And Viruses ;Nanofiltration (Nf)
MembranesHaving Pore Sizes Of A Few Angstroms Can Remove Divalent Ions
(E.G., Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+) And SmallMolecules With A Molecular Weight Of
200–1000 Da ; And Reverse Osmosis (Ro) Membranes With ADense Selective
Layer That Can Desalinate Brackish Water And Seawater. The Core Of
Membrane Technology Is High Performance Membranes With High Water
Permeance And High Selectivity In APractical Environment. Industrial
Membranes Achieve High Water Permeance From An Asymmetric Structure
ComprisingA Thin Skin Layer Exhibiting Good Separation Properties On Top
Of A Thick Support Layer ProvidingMechanical Strength And Low Resistance
To Water Transport. While The Skin Layer Has Been DesignedTo Be As Thin

14
As Possible To Increase Water Permeance, Contaminants In The Feed Water
May DepositAnd Accumulate On The Membrane Surface Contaminants May
Even Block The Internal Pores (I.E., Internal Fouling. TheReduction Of Water
Permeance With Time Would Not Only Cause Inconvenience For Practical
Operation,But Also Increase The Operating Costs Because Of The Required
Membrane Cleaning And Replacement OrIncreased Energy Input To
Compensate The Permeance Decrease. Fouling Is One Of The Key
BarriersPreventing A More Widespread Adoption Of Energy-Efficient
Membranes For Industrial Applications.
Polyvinyl Alcohol-Cellulose Acetate Composite Reverses Osmosis
Membranes: I. Synthesis and Characterization Amera Muhammad, El-
Hashash, Mekewi, Guirguis, Ramadan and Hassanien [3]To overcome the
high salinity water resources problem, reverse osmosis (RO) process is
considered one of the most required techniques due to its high portable water
quality produced. Optimization of membranes quality and function is still
pursued and considered as of an important added value to the RO processes. In
the present study, thin film PVA/CA+PEG membranes were prepared and the
PVA layer was cross linked by a varying maleic acid concentration at different
reaction periods. The polymer composite is to be employed for the reverse
osmosis process of brackish, saline and sea water purification. Optimization of
reaction conditions and parameters such as salt rejection and water flux that
affect on the membrane efficiency were verified. Structural and functional
characterization of the PVA/CA composite membranes through Fourier
Transform Infrared (FT-IR), thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray
diffraction pattern, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), swelling behaviour
and membrane mechanical properties were monitored

15
 CHAPTER 3
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
3.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

a) Use of chain drives increasing human effort.

b) Centering of the axis of the driver to the driven causing whirling.

c) Effort getting waste to overcome the friction.

3.2 PROBLEM DEFINITION

To overcome the above said problems belt drive is used instead of chain
drive which is utilizing maximum effort, previously which was going waste in
overcoming friction. Also the whirling problem is resolved.

3.3 PROPOSED METHOD

In this project we generally give mechanical power to the shaft, and the
shaft is connected to pump which is mounted on bicycle.

The power generated by pedaling is transferred to the rear sprocket as is

done in bicycle via chain drive. The rear sprocket is connected to pulley, which
is connected to another pulley on the same shaft & axes. The power generated is
being supplied to the rear sprocket then to the pulley connected, then to the
second pulley connected mounted on the same shaft.

The power by this shaft is transferred to the pump. The inlet of the pump
is connected to the surge tank via pipe. Outlet of the pump is connected to the
water purifier for purification process. With the help of this setup we can have a
discharge to a certain head if required or we can purify water when needed.

16
 CHAPTER 4
WORKING METHODOLOGY

EXISTING
METHODS

PROPOSED
METHOD

DESIGN

COMPONENTS
SELECTION

ASSEMBLY

WORKING
AND
OUTPUT

17
4.1 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
Main objective of our project is Wastewater reuse and seawater or salt
water desalination are some of the key solutions in meeting the increasing
demand for clean water by using pedal operated. As an energy-efficient and
low-cost technology.
4.2 COMPONENTS USED
The followings are the components to be used in our project which is going
to fulfill the requirements of our “SALT WATER CONVERTED TO
PURIFIED DRINKING WATER BY USING PEDAL POWER”,

 PEDAL
 SPROCKET
 CHAIN DRIVE
 FREEWHEEL
 FILTER
 MEMBRANE
 PEDALLING SYSTEM
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
 STORAGE TANK
 FRAME STRUCTURE

18
 CHAPTER 5

COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

5.1PEDAL

The pedal is the part of a bicycle that the rider pushes with their foot to
propel the bicycle. It provides the connection between the cyclist's foot
or shoe and the crank allowing the leg to turn the bracket spindle and propel the
bicycle's wheels. Pedals usually consist of a spindle that threads into the end of
the crank and a body, on which the foot rests or is attached, that is free to rotate
on bearings with respect to the spindle.

Fig 5.1 Pedals

Pedals were initially attached to cranks connecting directly to the driven

(usually front) wheel. The safety bicycle, as it is known today, came into being
when the pedals were attached to a crank driving a sprocket that transmitted
power to the driven wheel by means of a roller chain.

5.2SPROCKET

19
 A sprocket or sprocket-wheel is a profiled wheel with teeth, or cogs, that
mesh with a chain, track or other perforated or indented material. The name
'sprocket' applies generally to any wheel upon which radial projections engage a
chain passing over it. It is distinguished from a gear in that sprockets are never
meshed together directly, and differs from a pulley in that sprockets have teeth
and pulleys are smooth.

Fig 5.2 Sprocket

Sprockets are used in bicycles, motorcycles, cars, tracked vehicles, and

other machinery either to transmit rotary motion between two shafts where
gears are unsuitable or to impart linear motion to a track, tape etc. Perhaps the
most common form of sprocket may be found in the bicycle, in which the pedal
shaft carries a large sprocket-wheel, which drives a chain, which, in turn, drives
a small sprocket on the axle of the rear wheel. Early automobiles were also
largely driven by sprocket and chain mechanism, a practice largely copied from
bicycles.

Sprockets are of various designs, a maximum of efficiency being claimed

for each by its originator. Sprockets typically do not have a flange. Some
20
sprockets used with timing belts have flanges to keep the timing belt centered.
Sprockets and chains are also used for power transmission from one shaft to
another where slippage is not admissible, sprocket chains being used instead of
belts or ropes and sprocket-wheels instead of pulleys. They can be run at high
speed and some forms of chain are so constructed as to be noiseless even at high
speed.

5.3CHAIN DRIVE 

Fig 5.3 Chains

Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to
another. It is often used to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle,
particularly bicycles and motorcycles. It is also used in a wide variety of
machines besides vehicles.

Most often, the power is conveyed by a roller chain, known as the drive

chain or transmission chain, passing over a sprocket gear, with the teeth of the
gear meshing with the holes in the links of the chain. The gear is turned, and
this pulls the chain putting mechanical force into the system. Another type of
drive chain is the Morse chain, invented by the Morse Chain Company
of Ithaca, New York, United States. This has inverted teeth.
21
 Sometimes the power is output by simply rotating the chain, which can be
used to lift or drag objects. In other situations, a second gear is placed and the
power is recovered by attaching shafts or hubs to this gear. Though drive chains
are often simple oval loops, they can also go around corners by placing more
than two gears along the chain; gears that do not put power into the system or
transmit it out are generally known as idler-wheels. By varying the diameter of
the input and output gears with respect to each other, the gear ratio can be
altered. For example, when the bicycle pedals' gear rotate once, it causes the
gear that drives the wheels to rotate more than one revolution.

5.4 FREEWHEEL

In mechanical or automotive engineering, a freewheel or overrunning

clutch is a device in a transmission that disengages the driveshaft from the
driven shaft when the driven shaft rotates faster than the driveshaft.
An overdrive is sometimes mistakenly called freewheel, but is otherwise
unrelated.

The condition of a driven shaft spinning faster than its driveshaft exists in
most bicycles when the rider holds his or her feet still, no longer pushing
the pedals. In a fixed-gear bicycle, without freewheel, the rear wheel would
drive the pedals around.

An analogous condition exists in an automobile with a transmission going

downhill or any situation where the driver takes his or her foot off the gas pedal,
closing the throttle; the wheels want to drive the engine, possibly at a higher
RPM.

22
 Fig 5.4 Freewheel

In a two-stroke engine this can be a catastrophic situation: as many two

stroke engines depend on a fuel/oil mixture for lubrication, a shortage of fuel to
the engine would result in a shortage of oil in the cylinders, and
the pistons would seize after a very short time causing extensive engine
damage. Saab used a freewheel system in their two-stroke models for this
reason and maintained it in the Saab 96 V4 and early Saab 99 for better fuel
efficiency.

5.5 FILTER

A water filter removes impurities from water by means of a fine physical

barrier, a chemical process or a biological process. Filters cleanse water to
various extents for irrigation, drinking water, aquariums, and swimming pools.

5.5.1METHODS OF FILTRATION

Filters use sieving, adsorption, ion exchanges and other processes. Unlike
a sieve or screen, a filter can remove particles much smaller than the holes
through which the water passes.

23
5.5.1.1 PRE FILTER

Water from the raw water storage tank to supply line enters the Reverse
Osmosis Pre Filter first. There may be more than one pre-filter used in a
Reverse Osmosis system. The most commonly used pre-filters are sediment
filters. These are used to remove sand silt, dirt and other sediment. Additionally,
carbon filters may be used to remove chlorine, which can have a negative effect
on TFC (thin film composite) & TFM (thin film material) membranes. Carbon
pre filters are not used in the RO system contains a CTA (cellulose tri-acetate)
membrane.

Fig 5.5 PRE FILTER

5.5.1.2 POST FILTER

After the water leaves the RO storage tank, but before going to the RO
faucet, the product water goes through the post filter (s). The post filter (s) is
generally carbon (either in granular or carbon blocks form). Any remaining
tastes and odors are removed from the product water by post filtration.

24
 Fig 5.6 POST FILTER

5.6 MEMBRANE

Membrane can be defined as essentially as a barrier; which separates two

phases and restricts transport of various chemicals in a selective manner.
Membrane is a heart of every purification process. The membrane can be made
of an inorganic or organic, synthetic or biological product. Membrane of reverse
osmosis system permeable for solvent and impermeable for solute.

A membrane is a selective barrier that allows the passage of certain

constituents and retains other constituents found in the liquid. The influent of a
membrane is known as the feed-stream, the liquid that passes through the
membrane is known as the permeate and the liquid containing the retained
constituents is the retentive or concentrate.

The concept of a membrane has been known since the eighteenth century,
but was used little outside of the laboratory until the end of World War II.
Drinking water supplies in Europe had been compromised by the war and
membrane filters were used to test for water safety. However, due to the lack of
reliability, slow operation, reduced selectivity and elevated costs, membranes
were not widely exploited. The first use of membranes on a large scale was with

25
micro-filtration and ultra-filtration technologies. Since the 1980s, these
separation processes, along with electro dialysis, are employed in large plants
and, today, a number of experienced companies serve the market.

5.6.1 MEMBRANE PROCESSES CLASSIFICATIONS

5.6.1.1 Microfiltration (MF)

Microfiltration removes particles higher than 0,08-2 µm and operates

within a range of 7-100 kPa. Microfiltration is used to remove residual
suspended solids (SS), to remove bacteria in order to condition the water for
effective disinfection and as a pre-treatment step for reverse osmosis.

Relatively recent developments are membrane bioreactors (MBR) which

combine microfiltration and a bioreactor for biological treatment.

5.6.1.2 Ultrafiltration (UF)

Ultrafiltration removes particles higher than 0,005-2 µm and operates

within a range of 70-700kPa. Ultrafiltration is used for many of the same
applications as microfiltration. Some ultrafiltration membranes have also been
used to remove dissolved compounds with high molecular weight, such as
proteins and carbohydrates. In addition, they are able to remove viruses and
some end toxins.

5.6.1.3 Nano-filtration (NF)

Nano-filtration is also known as “loose” RO and can reject particles

smaller than 0,002 µm. Nano-filtration is used for the removal of selected
dissolved constituents from wastewater. NF is primarily developed as a
membrane softening process which offers an alternative to chemical softening.

Likewise, nano-filtration can be used as a pre-treatment before directed

reverse osmosis.

26
5.6.2 MATERIAL USED FOR MEMBRANES IN RO
Membranes are prepared from almost every available material. In large-
scale production commercial thermoplastic and cellulosic’s are primarily used.
1. Cellulose acetate.
2. Aromatic polyamide
3. Polyamide
4. Polyphyenylene oxides

Fig 5.7 Catalytic Ceramic Membranes

5.6.3 MODULES TYPES FOR REVERSE OSMOSIS SYSTEM

The several forms of Reverse Osmosis membranes are sold packaged in
devices to contain the steam pressure and to separate the feed and reject stream
from the permeate streams. The device; usually called a module, is designed to
control the feed stream-velocity and turbulence in order to reduce concentration
polarization.
There are four types of modules related to the types of membrane
a) Spiral wound

27
 b) Tubular
c) Plate and frame
d)hollow module membrane
5.6.3.1 SPIRAL WOUND MODULE
A variation of the basic plate-and-frame concept is the spiral-wound
module, which is widely used today in reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration, and gas
separation. Its basic design is illustrated.

Fig 5.8Schematic drawing of a spiral-wound membrane module

The feed flow channel spacer, the membrane, and the porous membrane
support form an envelope which is rolled around a perforated central collection
tube and inserted into an outer tubular pressure shell. The feed solution passes
in axial direction through the feed channel across the membrane surface. The
filtrate is moves along the permeate channel and is collected in a perforated tube
in the center of the roll. Small spiral wound units consist of just one envelope
which limits the total membrane area that can be installed in one unit to about 1

28
to 2 m2. The main reason for the limitation of the surface area which can be
installed in a module containing one single envelope is the pressure drop
encountered by the permeate moving down the permeate channel to the central
collection tube. Because the channel in a practical unit is very narrow its length
is limited to 2 to 5 m. A significantly longer path would resultr in an
unacceptable pressure drop in the permeate channel.
Commercial spiral wound modules are about 1 meter long and have a
diameter of 10 to 60 cm. The membrane area in a spiral-wound element is 3 and
60 m2. Generally, 2 to 6 elements are placed in series in a pressure vessel.

The spiral-wound module provides a relatively large membrane area per

unit volume. The large scale production is quite cost effective and module costs
per membrane area quite low. The major application of the spiral-wound
module is in reverse osmosis sea and brackish water desalination. But it is also
extensively used in ultra-filtration and gas separation. However, the spiral-
wound module is quite sensitive to fouling, and the feed channels can easily be
blocked and particles or fibers should be removed from the feed solution by a
proper pretreatment procedure.

5.7PEDALING SYSTEM

The pedalling system is creating the rotational motion. The human being
is rotating the pedal too forcedly. While humans are rather inefficient engines
converting food into work, this is not the problem we want to address here;
people have to move in order to stay healthy, so we might as well use that
energy to operate machinery. The trouble is that the present approach to pedal
power results in highly inefficient machines.

5.7.2 Pedalling wheel with chain drive

There are various renewable energy sources such solar, wind,

hydropower etc. In addition, people use fossil fuels, which are non-renewable.
29
These resources are very expensive. Therefore, there is a need for cheap,
renewable energy source. As long as we are pedalling and the system is working
fine, we can get the power whenever needed. Power generation using bicycle is
very cheap and eco-friendly. Even though people have been using pedal power
for various day-to-day chores, generating electricity from pedalling was not in
vogue until few decades back. Today dynamo equipped bicycles are common
which power the incandescent headlights during night.

The rotational energy that is generated when the tire rotates because of
the application of force on the pedals can be used in two ways. This energy can
also be used in dynamo/alternator, which is then converted to electrical energy.
Rotational energy of the tire can be used to pump water out from the well, to
drive a washing machine, to operate blender/grinder etc. These applications can
be of very great use in un-electrified places. Refrigerators can also be powered
by pedaling, which are used to preserve the food during a bicycle trip. Pedal
powered pump can pump water from wells and bore wells, which are very deep
and can be used for irrigation and drinking water purposes. In pedal powered
washing machine, the plastic barrel rotates as we pedal. Thus, water
consumption can be also reduced. Using exercise bikes also power can be
generated. Particularly for people living in cities, it is an added advantage that
no separate time is needed and along with exercise, our effort will not go waste.

The bicycle pedal is the part of a bicycle that the rider pushes with their
foot to propel the bicycle. It provides the connection between the cyclist's foot
or shoe and the crank allowing the leg to turn the bottom bracket spindle and
propel the bicycle’s wheels. Pedals usually consist of a spindle that threads into
the end of the crank and a body, on which the foot rests or is attached, that is
free to rotate on bearings with respect to the spindle.

30
 Fig 5.9 Simple platform bicycle pedal

Pedals were initially attached to cranks connecting directly to the driven

(usually front) wheel. The safety bicycle, as it is known today, came into being
when the pedals were attached to a crank driving a sprocket that transmitted
power to the driven wheel by means of a roller chain.

5.8 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Centrifugal Pump: A mechanical device used to transport fluids by the
conversion of rotational kinetic energy to the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid
flow. Centrifugal pumps are the most popular pump used and are the chief
pump type in the class of kinetic pumps. Used in various sectors such as:
agriculture, power generation plants, municipal, industries, domestic purposes,
etc.Common uses include: air, water, sewage, and petroleum, petrochemical
pumping.

Consist of two major parts:

1. Impeller (a wheel with vanes)

2. Circular pump

31
 Fig 5.10 centrifugal pump

5.8.1 Types of Centrifugal Pumps

a. Mechanically actuated

A motor uses a gear set or other mechanical mechanism to convert

rotation into a reciprocating motion that moves the pump diaphragm

b. Hydraulically Actuated

An intermediate fluid is pressurized, and this pressure flexes the

diaphragm

c. Solenoid

An electric motor energizes and de-energizes a solenoid that flexes a

diaphragm

d. Air Operated Double Diaphragm Pumps (AODD)

Air is delivered to two sides of a diaphragm, and the alternating cycles

flex the diaphragm

5.8.2 WORKING OF PUMP

32
  Converts mechanical energy from a motor to energy of a moving
fluid.

 Centrifugal pumps include a shaft driven impeller that rotates inside

a casing.

 Energy conversion is due to the outward force that curved impeller

blades impart on the fluid.

 When the impeller rotates, the fluid surrounding it also rotates. This
imparts centrifugal force to the water particles, and water moves out.

 Pressure and kinetic energy of the fluid rises due to rotational

mechanical energy transferred to the fluid.

 A negative pressure is induced at the eye because water is displaced

at the suction side.

5.8.3 ADVANTAGES

 Simple principle (don’t require valves or moving parts).

 Small in size compared to other pumps with same output.

 Can move at high speeds with minimal maintenance.

 Steady and consistent output

 Can handle large volumes of fluid

 Good for medium to low head

 Good for medium to low viscous fluids

5.8.4 DISADVANTAGES

 Use rotation instead of suction to move water (very little suction

power)

33
  Close fitting parts can cause maintenance issues as parts wear out

 Pump must be primed before use

 Can develop cavitation

 Not good for high head

 Not good with high viscous fluids

5.9 STORAGE TANK

Storage tank may be made of durable materials such as wood or metal, or

of corrugated fibreboard, paperboard, or other non-durable materials. The size
may vary from very small to the size of a large appliance. A corrugated box is a
very common shipping container. When no specific shape is described, a box of
rectangular cross-section with all sides flat may be expected, but a box may
have a horizontal cross section that is square, elongated, round or oval; sloped
or domed top surfaces, or vertical edges. They are not always made up of
squares. But we are using storage tank like circular type.
5.10 FRAME STRUCTURE

Frame structures are the structures having the combination of beam,

column and slab to resist the lateral and gravity loads. These structures are
usually used to overcome the large moments developing due to the applied
loading. Framing, in construction, is the fitting together of pieces to give a
structure support and shape. Framing materials are usually wood, engineered
wood, or structural steel.
This frame structure is a base of our prototype model and it give shape
our desire machines. We use material for this frame structure is mild steel
because its material properties are suitable for our construction.
The frame structure has been fabricating with some manufacturing
process which we discussed next chapter.

34
 CHAPTER 6
WORKING PRINCIPLE
6.1 CONSTRUCTION DIAGRAM

Fig 6.1 pedal powered RO system

6.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE

The raw water storage tank is connected to the filter.Filter is connected to

the carbon filter.Carbon filter is connected to the water softener.Water softener
is connected to the micron filter and it’s connected to the pedal operating
pump.Pedal operating pumping system is connected to the reverse osmosis
unit.Reverse osmosis unit is connected to the RO water storage tank.

The raw water storage tank is store the unclean water. Then this water
passes through to filter. Filter is clean up the large dusts. Carbon filtering is

35
commonly used for water purification, in air purifiers and industrial gas
processing. Water softener removing water hardness relies on ion-exchange
polymers or reverses osmosis. Micron filter is function to filtering the very
miner dust particles of the water. Anti-scaling is measure the water level.

Pedal operating system is function to pump the water and sent to the
reverse osmosis unit.Reverse osmosis can remove many types of molecules and
ions from solutions, the result is that the solute is retained on the pressurized
side of the membrane and the pure solvent is allowed to pass to the other side.

Then purified water is stored to the RO water storage tank.

36
 CHAPTER 7
MACHINING PROCESS
The prototype model is fabricating with some manufacturing process and
those few operations are described below:
 Cutting
 Welding
 Drilling
 Assembly
 Painting
7.1CUTTING PROCESS
Cutting is a collection of processes wherein material is brought to a
specified geometry by removing excess material using various kinds of tooling
to leave a finished part that meets specifications. We have make materials to
require shape from raw materials by using cutting process. A few cutting
methods of materials are described below as an images. L-angle and sheet metal
has been cutted by this machine for our requirements.

Fig 7.1 Cutting Machine

37
7.2DRILLING OPERATION
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of
circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting
tool, often multi-point. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at
rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the
cutting edge against the work-piece, cutting off chips from the hole as it is
drilled. Wooden plates drilled by its drilling machine for fixing circuits with
structural frame.

Fig 7.2 Drilling Machine

7.3WELDING PROCESS
Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually
metals or thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which is distinct from lower
temperature metal-joining techniques such as brazing and soldering, which do
not melt the base metal.

38
 Here we use welding process mostly for fabrication of steel structures. So
we select arc welding method of welding process in manufacturing.
Arc welding is a process that is used to join metal to metal by using
electricity to create enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals when cool
result in a binding of the metals. It is a type of welding that uses a welding
power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode and the base
material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC)
or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The
welding region is usually protected by some type of shielding gas, vapour, or
slag. Arc welding processes may be manual, semi-automatic, or fully
automated. First developed in the late part of the 19th century, arc welding
became commercially important in shipbuilding during the Second World War.
Today it remains an important process for the fabrication of steel structures and
vehicles.

Fig 7.3 Arc Welding Working Process

7.4ASSEMBLY PROCESS
An assembly line is a manufacturing process (often called a
progressive assembly) in which parts (usually interchangeable parts) are added
as the semi-finished assembly moves from workstation to workstation where the
parts are added in sequence until the final assembly is produced.

39
 After fabricating the frame structures we will assemble the components
like wheel, solenoid valve, pneumatic cylinder, motor, battery by using of PU
tube, connectors and wires. I have enclosed the few images of components
assembling process.

Fig 7.4 Assembly Work

7.5PAINTING
Paint is one major segment of the surface coatings, which also includes
varnishes, enamels, printing inks and polishes. The paint industry produces a
huge variety of products that protect, preserve, and also beautify the objects to
which they are applied. Typical products include architectural coatings (e.g.
house paints), industrial coatings (e.g. automotive finishes, wood furniture and
fixture finishes), and special purpose coatings (e.g. traffic paints, roof coatings).
The objective of painting is to form a coating film on the surface of an
object in order to protect the object and give a fine appearance. Painting may
also have other special functions. There are various types of painting methods,
and spray painting is currently used in many types of industrial painting.
“Spray painting” consists of the painting operation itself followed by
coated film drying. The paint used in the painting process is diluted with
thinner, and solid portions in the paint form the coating film after the spraying
operation.

40
 CHAPTER 8
MERITS AND APPLICATIONS

8.1 MERITS

 The water that you get from RO system hydrates your body at a faster
pace.
 The best part about RO system is that all the pollutants are not collected
but directly flushed down the drain.
 Thermal damage of product is eliminated
 Retention of original aroma and taste is retained
 Reduction is energy consumption
 Easy in operation
 Compact size
 Low maintenance.

8.2 APPLICATIONS

 Less energy-intensive, since they do not require major phase changes.

 Do not demand adsorbents or solvents, which may be expensive or
difficult to handle.
 Equipment simplicity and modularity, which facilitates the incorporation
of more efficient membrane.
 It is mainly used for water purifier industries.
 It is used for housing unit.
 It is used for industries, hospitals, educational places, and economic
places.

41
 CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION
Today's day water is basic need and the availability of pure water is little
quantity on earth. So desalination is necessary for today's world and selecting
Reverse Osmosis process we can solved water problem to some extend to use of
membrane technology by using pedalling system.
 Reverse osmosis is most efficient and convenient hyper filtration
processof water purification.
 Reverse osmosis process gives more promising result.
 Reverse osmosis is simple and effective method than any
otherpurification method.
 Organic matter removal and particle colloidal reduction are
effectivelycontrolled by RO.

42
 CHAPTER 10
FUTURE SCOPE
If we boost the research on pedal powered technology trying to make up for
seven decades of lost opportunities and steer it in the right direction, pedals and
cranks could make an important contribution to running a post-carbon society
that maintains many of the comforts of a modern life. The possibilities of pedal
power largely exceed the use of the bicycle. Continue Posted in Agriculture,
DIY, Energy production, Factories, Flywheels, Foot powered machines,
Gardening, Human energy, Human powered machines, Kinetic energy, Low-
tech solutions, Treadles, Wireless technology, Zero emissions. In future we
implement this process as below,
 Pedal powered hacksaw machine
 Pedal powered system for machining operations like as drilling,
grinding and tapping, etc.,

43
 REFERENCES

[1] Adin, Avner and Takashi Asano, “The Role of Physical Chemical

Treatment inWastewater Reclamation and Reuse,” Water Science and

Technology, 37, 79-80(1998).

[2] American Water Works Association, Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration,

[3] American Water Works Association, Denver, CO, 1998.

[4] Ash, Michael and Irene Ash, Handbook of Water Treatment Chemicals,

Gower,Aldershot, England, 1996.

[5] Balaban, Miriam, Ed., Desalination and Water Re-use, Hemisphere, New

York,1991.

[6] Bitton, Gabriel, Wastewater Microbiology, Wiley-Liss, New York, 1999.

[7] Casey, T. J. and J. T. Casey, Unit Treatment Processes in Water and

WastewaterEngineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997

[8] Connell, Gerald F., The Chlorination/Chloramination Handbook,

American WaterWorks Association, Denver, CO, 1996.

[9] Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants-MOP 8, 4th ed., Water

[10] Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA, 1998.

[11] Droste, Ronald, Theory and Practice of Water and Wastewater Treatment,

JohnWiley & Sons, New York, 1996.

44