Lecture Notes

Industrial Control

Reginald Gonye
JANUARY 2020
 Course Outline
General Information
LECTURER Reginald Gonye
ACADEMIC YEAR ………………..
LEVEL Part V

Aim
1. To introduce students to practical control and automation in use today.
2. To instill skills of developing PLC based solutions for control situations into students.

Objectives
By the end of the course, candidates should be able to:
1. Understand the arrangement of typical control and automation systems
2. Understand the operation of a PLC
3. Be able to develop PLC-based solutions for various control situations
4. Be able to design a SCADA or DCS solution.

Course Duration
The course will last for 48 hours (24 lecture periods) made up of formal teaching (32 hours), industrial visits
(6 hours), tutorials (6 hours) and tests (4 hours).

Course Deliverance
1. There will be explanations by the lecturer in class.
2. Tutorials will be conducted for relevant topics.
3. Exercises in class for relevant topics.
4. Compiled lecture notes are available.

Assessment
1. Assessment is made up of continuous assessment contributing 25% to the overall mark and final
assessment contributing 75% to the overall mark.
2. Continuous assessment will consist of tests and assignments (NB: Attendance may also contribute to
the coursework mark).
3. Final assessment will consist of an examination at the end of the semester. The examination shall
comprise of six questions each carrying 25 marks. You will be required to attempt four of the six
questions.

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Course Content
1. Introduction
1.1. Concepts of control and automation.
1.2. Examples of control and automation systems
2. Sensors and Transducers
2.1. Principles of sensor operation
2.2. Signal conditioning
2.3. Standard signals
2.4. Discrete sensors: plain switches, sourcing, sinking and TTL
2.5. Continuous sensors: characteristics, connection methods
3. Actuators and their Control
3.1. Actuator concepts (motion production, heat production, etc)
3.2. Use of electronic drives to control motors
3.3. Use of hydraulics in actuation equipment and control signals
3.4. Use of pneumatics in actuation equipment and control signals
4. Closed Loop Control
4.1. Characteristics and operation of loop controllers
4.2. Closed loop control configurations: Standalone operation, supervisory control, direct digital control,
distributed control
5. PLCs and control of sequencing systems
5.1. Architecture of a PLC
5.2. Interface modules: types and role of interface modules
5.3. Construction of PLCs: single unit, modular, remote I/O
5.4. Addressing in PLCs: I/O addressing and memory addressing
5.5. Programming methods: ladder, logic blocks, statement list
5.6. Latching, auxiliary relays and sequencing of event steps
6. Design of PLC Solutions
6.1. GRAFCET as a programming aid
6.2. Design of PLC-based solutions
7. SCADA and DCS
7.1. Introduction: what is SCADA, functions of a SCADA system, application areas.
7.2. Components of a SCADA system: field devices, RTUs, PLCs, Communication network, computers
(servers, SCADA database, operator terminals, MMI, SCADA software)
7.3. Distributed Control Systems:
7.4. Communication Protocols: MODBUS, PROFIBUS, DNP

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 Introduction to Industrial Automation and
Control
Introduction

Definitions
 Industry is a systematic economic activity that could be related to manufacture/service/trade.
 Automation is a set of technologies that results in operation of machines and systems without
significant human intervention and achieves performance superior to manual operation.
 Control is the act of making process variables and operational sequences behave in a particular way
or follow desired patterns of variations.
 The main function of control systems is to ensure that outputs follow the set points
 Automation systems may have much more functionality, such as computing set points for control
systems, monitoring system performance, plant start up or shut down, job and equipment
scheduling etc. Automation systems may include control systems (as constituent parts) but the
reverse is not true.

Benefits/Role of Automation in Industry

The major objective of an industry is to make profits. Profit can be maximised by producing good quality
products, which may sell at higher price, in larger volumes with less production cost and time.

As compared to manual methods, automated systems benefit the industry as follows:

 They have significantly lower production times.
 Their use reduces material handling time.
 They enable efficient utilisation of energy.
 They produce products of better quality. Moreover, the same quality of a particular product may be
achieved for thousands of units.

Types of Control Systems

 The two types are closed loop control systems and sequencing systems.
 In closed loop control, a process variable is required to be at a particular level.
o Examples are temperature control of a furnace, level control in a tank, frequency (speed)
control of a power generator.
o Basically consists of a sensor, a controller and an actuator in a negative feedback
configuration.
 In sequencing systems, a machine is required to follow a sequence of steps whilst production is
taking place.
o Consists of a number of sensors, a controller and a number of actuators.
o The actuator states depend on the sensor states as well as the sequence that the controller
is designed to follow
o A step may be a closed loop control process.

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  An example is mixing of raw materials for glass making, a process known as batching:
o Glass is produced from a mix of seven raw materials, sand being one of the major raw
materials. The raw materials are mixed according to certain weight ratios before they are
melted into molten glass.
o Raw materials are stored in respective silos each one of which has a spout arranged to
offload the raw material into a mixer.
o The mixer has ploughs that can be turned to mix the raw materials and rest on load cells to
monitor its weight. Raw materials are added into the mixer in turns whilst the mixer weight
is being monitored.
o Steps for adding a raw material are: note the initial weight, feed raw material into mixer at a
course speed; when close to required weight reduce feed rate to a finer rate; when within
tolerance range of the required weight, stop the feed. Meanwhile the ploughs will be
turning.
o When all raw materials have been added and mixed, the outlet of the mixer is opened to let
out the mix onto a conveyor belt. Weight is monitored throughout until the mixer is
recorded as empty.
o THE BATCHING MACHINE IS BUILT TO AUTOMATICALLY CARRY OUT THIS SEQUENCE OF
STEPS BY FOLLOWING A CERTAIN SEQUENCE OF STATES.
 A second example is filling of a bottle for example at Delta Beverages:
o clamp bottle in position:
o open supply valve until 300ml have been delivered
o close supply valve
o release bottle to proceed along the conveyor belt.
o THE FILLING MACHINE IS DESIGNED TO CARRY OUT THIS SEQUENCE OF STEPS BY
FOLLOWING A CERTAIN SEQUENCE OF STATES.
 A third example is stacking of crates for drinks:
o Six bottles are counted as they pass a counting point on a conveyor belt after which the six
are lifted and placed in a crate.
o The above step is repeated 4 times after which the crate is transferred out.
o The crate is lifted onto a conveyor belt after which the process repeats.
o THE PACKING MACHINE IS DESIGNED TO CARRY OUT THIS SEQUENCE OF STEPS BY
FOLLOWING A CERTAIN SEQUENCE OF STATES.

Examples of Industrial Automation and Control

Container glass formation

Glass is produced from a mix made from seven raw materials, one of the major ones being sand. The mix is
charged into a furnace where it is melted to produce molten glass from which container glasses can be
formed.

The glass forming machine

Glass containers are formed using blow processes on a machine called forming machine. The machine has a
number of sections typically six so that it can work on more than one container at a time. Each section has
the following:
 An initial blow mould where the container preform is formed from molten glass.

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  A final blow mould where the preform is blown into the final glass container product.
 Mechanisms to perform the blowing operations, transfer preforms from the initial blow mould into
the final blow mould as well as to transfer the final product from the final blow mould onto a
conveyor belt that takes the product away.

Furnace

Furnace spout

Mechanisms on the
forming machine

Final blow mould Initial blow mould

Conveyor belt Mould

Machine base

Figure 1.1 side view of arrangement

The container glass forming process

 A piece of molten glass is dropped into the initial blow mould.
 The mould is closed, a container inlet being punched in the process.
 Air is blown from the inlet to force the molten onto the internal surface of the mould thus producing
a preform container. The glass partially solidifies at this stage.
 The preform is taken out of the initial blow mould into the final blow mould.
 Air is blown into the preform so as to further blow it out into a final glass container product.
 The container is taken out onto a conveyor belt that carries it away from the machine.

Control of the machine

 The machine has a number of actuators that effect the various glass forming stages.
 It also has some sensors to sense completion of various stages in the process as well as control
switches to receive operator commands.
 The sensors and switches feed into a controller that in turn turns on and off the actuators in a
desired sequence and in accordance with requirements of sensed states and operator switches.
 There is closed loop speed control of the conveyor belt so that its speed is at the right level to take
away containers at a rate that corresponds to the rate at which they are being produced by the
machine.

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  There is also temperature control of the molten glass so that it is at the level suitable for the forming
stages of the containers.
 There might also be some temperature control of the moulds

Sensing devices

Inputs

Outputs
and operator
switches
PLC Actuating devices

Figure 1.2

Container glass conditioning

After container glasses have been formed, they are brittle. Heat treatment is required to infer favourable
mechanical properties on the containers. This is achieved by taking the container glasses through a certain
temperature curve. Container glass conditioning is carried out in a furnace called an annealing lehr.

Fans

Furnace with temperature zones

Conveyor belt Motor shaft /roller

Electric heater elements

Figure 1.3 Side view of the annealing lehr

The annealing furnace

It is made up of zones, each of which is maintained at a particular temperature. A metal gauze conveyor belt
covering the breadth of the furnace runs through it and is maintained at some particular speed. Glassware is
stacked onto the belt at the entry point and is taken through the temperature zones, and hence the required
temperature-time curve so that by the time it leaves it will be exhibiting the required mechanical properties.

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The zones on the entry side have heater elements so as to heat up the glassware. Zones in the middle have
both heater elements and fans so as to provide a precise temperature control in them. The next zones are in
the region when the glassware is now being cooled down and may have fans only. Zones towards the end
have natural cooling to take the glassware to room temperature.

Control of the conditioning process

 Each zone has a closed loop temperature control. The system consists of a thermocouple, a loop
controller and electric heater elements powered via thyristor firing cards. The cards vary the power
input to the heaters based on the control signal received from the controller.
 Zones with fans will incorporate a fan as another actuator. The loop controller is able to give control
signals to two contra-actuators.
 Zones with fans only will incorporate a fan as the actuator.
 The conveyor belt features a speed control loop to ensure that the desired cooling curve is created.
It consists of a tachometer, a controller, an electronic drive, a motor, a gearbox and the belt. The
electronic drive varies power input to the motor so as to drive it at the speed dictated by the
controller.

Fan

Set point via a

keypad
Controller Thyristor Actual
Heater Lehr
firing temp.
element
card

Thermocouple

ZONAL TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOOP

Set point via a

keypad or from Motor
main controller Controller Conveyor Actual
VSD and speed
belt
gearbox

Thermocouple

BELT SPEED CONTROL LOOP

Figure 1.4 Annealing control loops

Automation and IT
 Industrial automation makes extensive use of Information Technology
 Fig. 1.5 shows some of the major IT areas that are used in the context of Industrial Automation.

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Figure 1.5

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 Sensors and Signal Conditioning
Introduction
As applied to instrumentation and control, a sensor or transducer is a device that changes a physical quantity
into an electrical quantity.

Voltage
Physical quantity Current
Temperature Sensor Resistance
Light intensity Inductance
Displacement Capacitance
Frequency

Figure 2.1

Typical non-electrical quantities that are transduced into electrical signals are temperature, light intensity,
displacement, weight and speed.

Electrical quantities that are produced by sensors are variations in voltage, current, resistance, inductance,
capacitance or frequency.

A sensor is made from a material that exhibits a particular variation on some electrical property owing to a
change in the physical measurand. Principles that are generally used are:
 Change in resistance due to a change in the measurend, e.g., in RTD.
 Generation of a voltage or current that depends on the level of the measurand, e.g., in a
thermocouple and a tachogenerator.
 Change in capacitance owing to a change of the measurand.
 Change in inductance owing to a change of the measurand.
 Change of frequency owing to a change in the measurand.

Signal Conditioning
Signals from sensors are often in a form that cannot be directly input into a controller. Signal conditioning is
used transform sensor outputs into signals that can be used by other components in the system. Signal
conditioning involves one or the following as necessary:
 Signal type conversion, e.g., resistance to voltage
 Amplification
 Filtering
 Linearizing
 Rectification
 Attenuation

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Mainly, operational amplifier circuits are employed as the signal conditioning circuits. A large number of
industrial sensors are built into a unit that contains both the sensing element and the signal conditioning
circuitry.

Standard Control Signal levels

These are levels of instrumentation and control signals that have been agreed on as ranges that equipment
work with. Standardising signal levels enables equipment from different manufactures to be connected
together.

In general, the signal conditioning applied in sensor units produces output signals that conform to the
standard signal levels.

For discrete components, standard signal levels are 0/24VDC, 0/220VAC, 0/110VDC. For continuous
components, standard signal levels are 4-20mA, 3-15psi, 0-10V, 0-5V.

Characteristics of a sensor
1) Accuracy – the maximum difference between the output of the sensor and the actual value of the
measurand.
2) Resolution – the smallest change in the measurand that the sensor can detect.
3) Repeatability – standard deviation when more than one measurement is made on the same
magnitude of the measurand.
4) Precision – accuracy, resolution and repeatability of a sensor relative to others.
5) Linearity – a linear sensor is one which exhibits a linear relationship between the output and the
input.
6) Range – the limits of the measurand value in which the sensor works.
7) Dynamic response – frequency range of the sensor.
8) Environmental limits – limits of the environmental conditions in which the sensor operates, e.g.,
humidity, temperature.
9) Calibration – an act to determine or set the relationship between the input and the output of a
sensor. Calibration needs to be done at intervals to ensure the sensor is giving correct results.
10) Cost – rises with increasing precision.

Types of sensors
The two types of sensors are discrete sensors and continuous sensors. Discrete sensors give an output that
can assume only two possible levels, e.g., 0/24VDC as output. They are mainly used to detect state of a
process for example:
 A production item has reached a desired point
 Conveyor belt is moving
 A machine arm has reached the extreme end

Examples are simple mechanical switches, limit switches, optical sensors and proximity switches. The
physical phenomena that is generally used includes:
 Mechanical – detects objects by physical contact
 Inductive proximity – detects magnetic objects
 Capacitive proximity – detects dielectric objects

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  Optical presence – detects if a light beam has been broken or has been reflected.

Continuous sensors produce a signal whose magnitude varies with the magnitude of the measurand.
Examples are thermocouple, RTD, tachogenerator and a load cell. Examples of situations where they are
used are in measurement of:
 Angular or linear position
 Acceleration
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Flow rate
 Stress, strain, force
 Light intensity
 Sound

Connection of Discrete Sensors

Discrete sensors work by switching their outputs on or off. Typical nature of outputs are:
 Plain switch – switches a voltage eon or off.
 Sinking or sourcing – switches a current on or off
 TTL
 Solid state relay

Plain switch
The sensor unit closes or opens a mechanical contact. In a NO switch, the contacts close when an object is
sensed. In a NC switch, the contacts open when an object is sensed. Connection of a plain switch is shown in
figure 2.2

Figure 2.2

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For a simple mechanical switch, the switch is connected directly to the power supply so that when it closes it
applies a voltage input to or allows a current to flow into the controller.

Where a mechanical switch forms the output stage, the output contacts are connected in a supply circuit so
as to apply a voltage or current to the controller. The sensing part of the sensor requires a supply connection
as well.

Sourcing/sinking
The sensor unit output stage switches on or off a current signal based on having sensed presence or absence
of the object being sensed. Sinking and sourcing are terms describing the output stage.

A sinking output allows a current to flow into the sensor from a positive terminal. Normally, an NPN
transistor switch is used as the output stage. A sourcing output allows a current flow out of the sensor to a
negative terminal. Normally a PNP transistor switch is used as the output stage. Figure 2.3 illustrates
sourcing and sinking.

In sourcing and sinking, emphasis is on current flow. Use of current flow reduces effects of electrical noise.

Figure 2.3 (a)

Figure 2.3 (b)

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Both the sensing element and the output stage need a power supply.

3-wire connection to a controller

Figure 2.4 illustrates a 3-wire connection.

The current loop is shown by the dashed line. Opto-couplers inside the controller change the sensor output
into TTL levels for use by the internal circuitry.

Figure 2.4 (a)

Figure 2.4 (b)

2-wire connection to a controller

The method reduces the number of wires used for connecting to the sensor. Figure 2.5 illustrates 2-wire
connection.

The common line acts as both the sensor output and the common line. The sensor requires a small current
to operate. When the sensor is active, more current will flow. The input of the controller allows a small

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current to flow when the sensor is inactive but is able to detect when the current exceeds a certain
threshold (that indicates the sensor is active).

Figure 2.5

TTL
 Sensor gives a 0/5DC output.
 Sensors that give TTL outputs need the controller to have a TTL input interface module.

Solid state relay

 Is used to switch AC signals

Personal Investigations
Look at the various discrete sensors found in industry. Find out how they operate and are connected to the
controllers or to control circuits. Some sensors to look at are:
 Contact switches
 Reed switches
 Optical (photoelectric) sensors
 Capacitive sensors
 Inductive sensors
 Ultrasonic sensors
 Hall effect sensors
 Fluid flow sensors

Connection of continuous sensors to controllers

The two types of connections used to connect to sensors are:
 Single ended – one common line
 Double ended – separate common lines

Analog signals are prone to electrical noise. Techniques used to reduce electrical noise are:
 Twisted pairs to reduce noise induced by magnetic fields
 Shielding to reduce effects of electromagnetic interference

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Figure 2.6 illustrates connections

Figure 2.6

Personal Investigations
Look at the various continuous sensors found in industry. Find out how they operate and are connected to the
controllers or to control circuits. Some sensors to look at are:
 Potentiometers
 Encoders
 Tachogenerator
 Linear variable displacement transformer (LVDT)
 Differential transformer
 Accelerometer
 Strain gauge
 Piezoelectric
 Liquid and fluid pressure sensors
 Venture valves
 RTDs
 Thermocouples
 Thermistors
 LDRs

Assignment following a visit to a plant

1. Describe a discrete sensor you recognised. How does it work? What are the signal levels at the sensor
output? For what purpose is it used?
2. Describe a continuous sensor you recognised. How does it work? What are the signal levels at the
sensor output? For what purpose is it used?

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 Actuators and Actuator Control
Actuators
 Actuators are used to bring about changes in the process variable, to effect a process state or to
effect a mechanism in a process. For example, heaters to change temperature of a furnace, hydraulic
cylinder to bring about movement of an arm in a machine.
 The following are actuators widely used to effect the final actuation in industry:

Motors
 Motors are primarily used to generate rotational motion from which other various types of
mechanical motion can be obtained. They are coupled to a variety of mechanical actuators to bring
about these other required kinds of mechanical actuation.
 For rotational motion, e.g. to run conveyor belts, pumps, compressors and mixers, the motor is
generally coupled to a gearbox that changes speed and torque to levels suitable for the final
mechanical actuator. The gearbox is in turn coupled to the final mechanical actuator.
 For linear motion, e.g. in machine table motion, the motor is coupled to a ball screw that converts
rotational motion to the linear motion.
 For vibratory motion, e.g., in vibro feeders that offload solid materials from silos, the motor shaft is
coupled to an eccentric load (i.e., is offset) so that when it rotates it rocks forth and back bringing
about the vibratory motion.
 For cooling applications, the motor is coupled to a cooling fan. A gearbox may be used between the
motor and the fan if necessary.

Heater Elements
 They are used to generate heat energy from an electric current.
 They are used to heat up materials.

Heat exchangers
 Heat exchanges are used to transfer heat energy from one material to the other thereby bring about
heating or cooling of materials.
 They are thus used for heating and cooling materials or environments.
 A heat exchanger is basically made up of coiled tubes placed in a material or an environment which
it has to exchange heat with.
 A fluid is made to flow the tube and this fluid acts as the medium for heat exchange.
 As the fluid flows, the heat exchanger allows it to gain heat from or lose heat to the material or
environment in which it is placed.

Fuel Burners
 These are used to burn chemical fuels so as to generate heat energy from them.
 Gas burners, liquid fuel burners and solid fuel burners are in this category.
 Coal is frequently used to generate steam, i.e., transfer heat energy from coal to steam. This is done
in a boiler. In this case, the heat generated from the coal is used to boil water in a boiler so as to
generate steam, which can then be used in further processes that require heating.

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Hydraulic actuators
 They use an incompressible liquid to generate forces so as to bring about mechanical forces required
in actuation of equipment. They are mainly used where large forces are required.
 Examples of applications are to clamp items and to change positions of machine parts.

Pneumatic actuators
 They use compressed air to actuate equipment.
 Examples are in blowing processes and operations.
 Pneumatic actuators may also be used to actuate other actuators for example hydraulic valves.

Actuator Operation Modes and Control

 In control systems, actuators are preceded with a control interface. This control interface receives a
control signal from a controller and uses it to regulate the operation of the actuator.
 This brings up operation modes of the actuator as either discrete or continuous.

Actuator input,
generally power
input

Controller
output / Actuator
Control output to
actuator Actuator
interface process
command
input

(mA)

Figure 3.1

Discrete operation
 The actuator is either on or off.
 For electrical powered devices (heaters and motors), relays and/or contactors are used to switch on
or off electrical power input into the actuator.
 Standard control signal levels are generally used as input control signals to the relays and contactors.
 For gas/liquid burners, hydraulic actuators and pneumatic actuators, solenoid valves are used to
allow or block flow of the gas or fluid into the actuator.
 Solenoid valves consist of a coil in which current can be passed to move a ferrous core attached to
the valve.

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 Figure 3.2

Continuous operation
 The actuator is operated to give a variable output that depends on the input command to the
control interface.
 For motors and heater elements, electronic power devices are used to vary electrical power input to
the actuator depending on the input control signal. Motors use devices know as drives (dc drives,
variable speed drives, variable frequency drives). Heaters use devices called thyristor firing cards.
 Gas/liquid fuel burners, hydraulics and pneumatics use solenoid valves operated in continuous
mode. A variable input current to the solenoid valve opens the valve to a proportional level. They
thus vary gas flow rate, liquid flow rate or pneumatic pressure into the actuator.
 Generally, the input command signal to these control interfaces is a 4-20mA current signal.

Actuator control in stages

 It is common to have more than one actuator control stage.
 For example, in the control of a governor in a hydroelectric power station: a current signal is applied
as input to a current-to-pneumatics converter; the pressure signal is used to control a hydraulic
valve; the resulting hydraulic oil flow controls a governor; the resulting water flow controls the
speed of rotation of a turbine-generator set; the resulting speed determines the frequency of the
output voltage which is the controlled variable.

Air pressure Water flow

Oil flow rate rate
(psi)

current Turbine- Frequency

I/P Hydraulic
Governor
converter valve enervator set
(mA) (Hz)

Figure 3.3

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  A second example for discrete systems is system to turn on motors in a railway locomotive: a 24V
signal energises a relay; the relay energises a 110V contactor; the 110V relay energises an air
contactor; the air contactor makes or breaks the power circuit to the traction motors.
 The last actuator in the set is called the final actuator.

Electronic Drives
 An electronic drive is used to modulate the electrical input into electric motors so as to make the
resulting mechanical motion meet particular requirements. Motors are typically required to run at
certain speeds and develop certain torque values so as to meet the requirements of the mechanical
load.
 Two common drives used in industry are the variable frequency drive (VFD) and the variable speed
drive (VSD).
 VFDs vary the speed of an ac motor by varying the frequency of the power supply to the motor. All
VFDs are used to vary speed of ac motors only.
 VSDs vary the speed of motor by varying the voltage of the power supply to the motor. VSDs can be
used to vary speed of both ac and dc motors.

Principle of operation of ac drives

 These are drives used to control ac motors.
 Can be of VFD or VSD type.
 Block diagram in figure 3.4. illustrates operation.

Figure 3.4

 The power supply is generally ac. Low power drives may get the ac input as single phase 220V. The
rest of drives use 3-phase ac power supply: medium to low drives get power at 380V; higher ratings
may get power at 3.3kV, 6.6kV or 11kV.
 The diode bridge rectifier converts the input ac power input into a dc voltage.
 The inverter converts the dc voltage back to 3-phase ac output but at a required voltage, frequency
and current.
 The voltage and frequency control receives the reference commands as well as feedback signals
(speed, frequency, voltage, current) and generates the necessary firing signals to the indicator so as
to give ac output to drive the motor at the desired frequency and voltage.

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Principle of operation of a dc drive
 These are drives used to power dc motors.
 Are of VSD type only.
 Figure 3.5 illustrates operation.

Figure 3.5

 The power supply is generally ac.

 The controlled rectifier converts the input ac power into dc power at a voltage level desired to meet
the requirements.
 The control and firing unit receives the reference command as well as feedback signals and
generates the necessary firing signals to the controlled rectifier so as to give dc output to drive the
motor at the desired voltage.
 The drive also contains a converter to change ac to dc for the field circuit.

Microprocessor Control of the electronic drive

 The control unit in VSDs and VFDs is generally a microprocessor or microcontroller based circuit.
 The microprocessor/microcontroller performs the following:
o reads reference signals from user panel or other controllers, feedback signals from the
various sensors and user commands from user input via panel switches
o calculates firing commands required and sends them to firing circuits that will in turn fire the
electronic switching devices that make up the power circuit.
o Handles interfacing of signals between the drive and other control equipment.

Typical interfaces on a drive

 Power supply terminal
 Power output to the motor
 Control inputs interface:
o 0-10V input
o 4-20mA or 0-20mA input
o Switches for discrete inputs (start, stop, forward, reverse, e.t.c.)
 Keypad for user interface
 Display for user interface

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  Programming interface
 Communication interface

Figure 3.6 Wiring terminals

Hydraulics
 Hydraulics is used as one of the prime movers in industry.
 A hydraulic system is an enclosed incompressible high density liquid. The liquid is known as the
transmission media. The liquid can be used to generate mechanical forces.
 Hydraulics is used where large constant forces are required.

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Applications of hydraulic systems
The hydraulic systems are mainly used for precise control of larger forces. The main applications of hydraulic
system can be classified in five categories:

Industrial
Plastic processing machineries, steel making and primary metal extraction applications, automated
production lines, machine tool industries, paper industries, loaders, crushes, textile machineries, R & D
equipment and robotic systems etc.

Mobile hydraulics
Tractors, irrigation system, earthmoving equipment, material handling equipment, commercial vehicles,
tunnel boring equipment, rail equipment, building and construction machineries and drilling rigs etc.

Automobiles
It is used in the systems like brakes, shock absorbers, steering system, wind shield, lift and cleaning etc.

Marine applications
It mostly covers ocean going vessels, fishing boats and navel equipment.

Aerospace equipment
There are equipment and systems used for rudder control, landing gear, brakes, flight control and
transmission etc. which are used in airplanes, rockets and spaceships.

Hydraulic system components

 Figure 3.7 shows the components that make up a hydraulic system.

Figure 3.7

 The fluid tank is used as a reservoir for the liquid.

 The hydraulic pump is used to pump the liquid from the fluid tank so that it can circulate in the
system. In the process, it builds up pressure in the liquid. Pressure is required for the liquid to be
able to effect actuation of connected devices. Many types of pumps are available. The primary
motion of the pump is usually provided by an electric motor.

20
  The filter removes unwanted particles from the liquid, e.g. dust particles.
 The pressure regulator is used to regulate pressure of the liquid in the system. The pump to build up
pressure indefinitely. However, pressure is required to be below a certain limit to ensure safety of
both equipment and workmen. The pressure regulator achieves this goal. It essentially is a valve that
opens when pressure goes beyond a certain level and then allows oil to return to the tank and ease
the pressure.
 The cylinder, piston and output shaft from the hydraulic actuator.
 The cylinder allows the liquid pressure to exert a force on the piston so as to produce a motion in
the piston. The cylinder has two ports:
o When liquid flows into port A, the piston moves down. Port B allows the liquid pushed out
from below the piston to return to the tank.
o When liquid flows into port B, the piston moves up. Port B allows the liquid pushed out from
above the piston to return to the tank.
 The output shaft is used to transfer the piston motion to the part requiring the motion, e.g., a mould
in plastic injection processes.
 The control valve is used to direct the flow of the liquid. In this case:
o Position 1: valve makes the liquid to flow from the pump into port A and the liquid from the
cylinder to flow out from port B to the tank.
o Position 2: valve makes the liquid to flow from the pump into port B and the liquid from the
cylinder to flow out from port A to the tank.
o into the cylinder via port A and the liquid leaving the cylinder to

Accessories
The following accessories may be used to control the operation of the hydraulic system.
 Flow control system for the liquid.
 Travel limit control for the actuator.
 Electric motor starter, control and overload protection.
 Cooling of the oil (temperature control). When the liquid circulates in pipes without passing through
the actuator, the high pressure of the liquid causes heat generation. Cooling will be required to
extract this heat away.

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
 The hydraulic system uses incompressible fluid which results in higher efficiency.
 It delivers consistent power output which is difficult in pneumatic or mechanical drive systems.
 Hydraulic systems employ high density incompressible fluid. Possibility of leakage is less in hydraulic
system as compared to that in pneumatic system. The maintenance cost is less.
 These systems perform well in hot environment conditions.

Disadvantages
 The material of storage tank, piping, cylinder and piston can be corroded with the hydraulic fluid.
Therefore, one must be careful while selecting materials and hydraulic fluid.
 The structural weight and size of the system is more which makes it unsuitable for the smaller
instruments.
 The small impurities in the hydraulic fluid can permanently damage the complete system, therefore
one should be careful and suitable filter must be installed.

21
  The leakage of hydraulic fluid is also a critical issue and suitable prevention method and seals must
be adopted.
 The hydraulic fluids, if not disposed properly, can be harmful to the environment.

Control Valves
 Control valves are used to control hydraulic outputs (resulting mechanical motions) and ensure safe
operation.
 There are basically three types of valves employed in hydraulic systems:
o Directional control valves
o Flow control valves
o Pressure control valves

Directional control valves

 Directional control valves provide a direction to the flow of the fluid. These valves are used to
control the start, stop and change in direction of the fluid flow. They thus make the hydraulics
produce motion in the desired direction.
 The valve basically has a chamber and openings into the chamber to allow the fluid to flow in or
out. The openings are called ports. A valve with 2 ports is called a 2-way valve; a valve with 3
ways is called a 4-way valve, e.t.c.

Figure 3.8. A 3-way valve.

 The port that is connected through to the pump are called pressure (P) port. The port that is
connected to the tank (fluid return) is called the tank (T) port. The ports that are connected to
the actuator are called the actuator or working ports. They are named port A and port B.
 The valve would have two or more switching positions. Each position gives a particular direction of
flow of the fluid. A valve with two switching positions is called a 2-position valve; a valve with three
switching positions is called da 3-position valve, e.t.c.
 Valve positions are derived from the spool. The spool can be moved to change the ports that are
connected in the valve. The spring allows the spindle to move back when force on the spindle is
eased.
 The convention for describing valves is to use a number of the format “SWITCHING
POSITIONS/NUMBER OF PORTS” for example:
o A 3/4 valve has three switching positions and 4 ports
o A 2/4 valve has two switching positions and four ports

22
  There are also directional flow valves that are used to allow fluid flow in one direction only. These
ones are not operated from external but are operated by the pressure in the system. They are called
check valves.
Illustration using a 3/4 valve
 5 openings but 4 ports because the two tanks ports are common.
 A 3/4 valve is used to pressurise and exhaust two working ports alternately.

Neutral Position
 Both valve spools not activated. All ports are open to each other.
 Fluid can flow from port P to port T. Fluid cannot move actuator to a particular position. Actuator
position floats depending on its loading level.

Figure 3.9

Port B pressurised position

 Port P connected to port B; port T connected to port A.
 Port B is pressurised and port A is exhausted.

Figure 3.10

Port A pressurised position

 Port P connected to port A; port T connected to port B
 Port A is pressurised and port B is exhausted.

23
 Figure 3.11

Neutral position with working ports locked

Figure 3.12

 Used when there is need to hold the hydraulic actuator in a particular position after shutting off the
P port.
 Working ports are closed and the actuator maintains its previous position.
 Build up of pressure in the port P chamber, results in the regulator valve causing fluid flow to flow
back into the tank.

Actuation mechanisms of valves

 Manual actuation – the spool is operated manually using a hand lever, push button or pedals etc.
 Mechanical actuation – the spool is operated by mechanical elements such as roller and cam, roller
and plunger or rack and pinion etc.
 Solenoid actuation – the spool is operated by a solenoid. Ideal when used in electronic control
systems.
 Hydraulic actuation – the spool is operated by a pilot hydraulic pressure.
 Pneumatic actuation – the spool is operated by applying compressed air against a piston at either
end of the valve spool.
 Indirect actuation of directional control valve – larger valves are often indirectly actuated in
sequence. A smaller valve is actuated directly. The flow from the smaller valve is directed to either
side of the larger valve.

24
Flow control valves
 Flow control valves are used to regulate the fluid flow rate so as to in turn regulate the speed of the
resulting mechanical motion of the actuator.
 The fluid flow is controlled by varying area of the valve opening through which fluid passes.

Figure 3.13

Pressure control valves

 Pressure control valves protect the system by maintaining the system pressure within the desired
range.
 Secondly they ensure the desired force output at the actuator. The output force is directly
proportional to the pressure. Force determines speed of actuators. Hence need for pressure control.
 A spring loaded spool arranged in such a way to open a port when pressure exceeds a certain limit.

Figure 3.14

25
Pneumatics
 Pneumatics use compressed air to bring about mechanical motion.
 After use, the air is exhausted into the atmosphere.
 Figure 3.15 shows the components of a pneumatic system.

Figure 3.15

 Compressor – used to compress air so as to generate pressure. Air compressors may use diesel
engines or electrical motors for primary motion.
 Air filters – used to filter out the contaminants from the air.
 Air cooler – used to cool the air. During compression operation, air temperature increases, hence the
need to cool it.
 Dryer – used to separate vapour and moisture from the air.
 Receiver tank – used to store the compressed air. It also smoothens the pressure. Compressors
produce pulsating pressure. It has a pressure relief in case of pressure building beyond safe limits.
 Control valves – used to regulate, control and monitor direction flow, pressure etc.
 Air Actuator – air cylinders and motors used to obtain the required mechanical movements.

Pneumatic Actuators
The construction of hydraulic and pneumatic linear actuators is similar. However, they differ at their
operating pressure ranges. Typical pressure of hydraulic cylinders is about 100 bar and of pneumatic system
is around 10 bar.

The actuators can be classified into three types.

 Linear actuators – convert hydraulic/pneumatic energy into linear motion.
 Rotary actuators – convert hydraulic/pneumatic energy into rotary motion.
 Actuators to operate flow control valves – used to control the flow and pressure of fluids such as
gases, steam or liquid.

26
Single acting cylinders
 They produce work in one direction of motion.
 Figure 3.16 illustrates.

Figure 3.16

 The compressed air pushes the piston located in the cylindrical barrel causing the desired motion.
 The return stroke takes place by the action of a spring.

Double acting cylinders

 They produce work in two directions of motion.
 Figure 3.17 illustrates.

Figure 3.17

27
  The piston divides the cylinder into two chambers namely the rod end side and piston end side.
 When the fluid is forced into the piston end, the rod extends. In the process, the rod chamber is
exhausted.
 When the fluid is forced into the rod end, the rod extends. In the process, the piston chamber is
exhausted.
 End cushioning is also provided to prevent the impact with end caps.

Motors
 Air pressure may be used to produce rotation using a pneumatic motor.

Actuators
 Pneumatics and hydraulics may be used to actuate other equipment. The pressure is used to provide
motions for actuator control.

Assignment following a visit to a plant

1. Describe a discrete actuator you recognised. How is it controlled? For what purpose is it used?
2. Describe a continuous actuator you recognised. How is it controlled? For what purpose is it used?
3. State an area where you recognised each of the following in use:
a) Electronic drive
b) Hydraulics
c) Pneumatics

28
 Industrial Controllers
Introduction
 Controllers are devices that are used to provide the control function in process control and in
automation.
 A controller basically receives signals from sensors (for process feedback or process state) and
processes these signals into control signals that will be supplied to the actuators.
 In addition, a typical controller may also provide the following functions:
o Display of process variables and controller parameters
o Configuration of operation mode (PID terms, SP, alarms etc)
o Communication with other devices or other control equipment
o User interface

Panel keys
(configurations, Display
user commands)

Computer

Communication
Controller link

Sensors
(feedback, Control signals
process states)

PLANT

Figure 4.1

 In modern day control environment, controllers are microprocessor-based or microcontroller-based

devices. Some controllers are specialised computers meant for control functions. Conventional
computers also form part of the control system, mainly used at higher control levels.

29
  Controllers can be closed loop controllers or logic controllers
 Closed loop controllers are used to implement the control law in closed loop control systems
 Logic controllers are used to sequence steps in an event-sequencing system.

Loop Controllers
 A loop controller is basically used to implement the control in closed loop control systems. The
control law could be:
o 2-step control – actuator is either on or off depending on the process value as compared to
the set point.
o PID control
 The SP is input via any input device like a keypad or an input potentiometer. It may also be obtained
from a remote device.
 The controller also displays the control variable and generates alarms when the process variable
goes outside certain limits. The alarms can be in form of displays or output signals to input into
external devices.
 It can receive external digital inputs and provide control functions that depend on their states.
 It allows configuration of the operation mode of the controller.
 In modern day, the loop controller is a microprocessor or microcontroller based device. It thus
basically, reads in the analog process variable input, converts it into digital, compare it to the set
point to generate an error, apply the control algorithm to generate the control action which is then
written out to the actuator(s). Figure 4.2 gives a block diagram of a loop controller.

Sensor Keypad
interface and user
and ADC switches

DAC and Display

actuator Processor devices
interface (μp OR μc
Digital
based Communic
input system) ation
interface interface

Digital
Remote SP
output
interface
interface

Figure 4.2

30
  The processor is made up of a microprocessor, memory and ports interconnected by a system bus as
found in microprocessor-based systems.
 All the interface circuits, the display and the keypad are connected to the I/O ports and are
controlled and operated under control of the microprocessor program.
 If a microcontroller is used, some of the interface circuits may be implemented using the peripheral
circuits found within the microcontroller, for example ADC and communication may be handled by
peripherals within the microcontroller.
 Connections to other external components are available via terminals usually located at the backside
of the controller. These are the control outputs, the communication link, external analog and digital
inputs, alarms, power supply, etc. Figure 4.3 illustrates.

Figure 4.3 Loop controller connections

Process variable input

 A typical controller can take in any of the following types of inputs
o 0 – 20mA or 4 – 20mA current input
o Voltage input (mV or V range)
o Thermocouple output
o RTD output
 Typically, 3 or 4 input terminals are provided and connections to the pins are made according the
type of sensor output to be used. Figure 4.4 illustrates.
 A thermocouple output or a voltage PV signal is connected directly to the signal input lines.
 An RTD is connected across the input terminals and the VI terminal provides a current to generate a
voltage input into the controller.
 For current PV signals, a current sensing resistor is connected across the input terminals to change
the current to a voltage signal for inputting into the controller.

31
 Figure 4.4

Control outputs
 Control outputs are generated from output modules. Depending on relationship between SP and PV,
a module generates an output to suit 2-step control, PID control or alarm generation.
 A typical controller allows more than one output module to be used. These modules are generally
available as plug in cards. For any given application, the necessary modules are implemented.
 Types of modules are:
o Relay output – the module opens or closes relay contacts depending on comparisons made
on the PV and the SP. It can be used in 2-step control, program event and alarms. The relay
can switch ac or dc circuits.
o Logic output – the module provides a logic voltage output depending on comparisons made
on the PV and SP. It can be used in 2-step control and in program event. E.g. 0/18V at 20mA.
o Triac output – the module turns on or off a triac depending on comparisons made on the PV
and SP. It can be used in 2-step control and in program event. The triac is used to switch ac
circuits.
o dc output – the module gives a variable dc output usually control action generated by the
PID control algorithm. The dc output is used to drive continuous actuators.
o Relay changeover – the module changes over the relay contacts depending on comparisons
made on the PV and SP. It can be used in 2-step control, alarms and in program event.
 Each output module can be configured for “heating” or “cooling”. They will work in contra-
situations: heating when PV is below SP; cooling when PV is above the SP.
 Two or three connection points are used for each output module.

Communication interface
 A communication is available to enable communication with other control equipment, for example
linking to a computer.

Logical input
 Takes in logical inputs, for example alarm acknowledge signal.

Current transformer input

 Takes in outputs of current transformers.

32
Set point input or retransmit
 The device may have a module to receive the set point as an analog signal from a remote device.
 It may also retransmit the SP to further controllers.

Voltage supply
 The controller may be provided a supply point for 24VDC control equipment.

Figure 4.5 Basic connections

 Terminals starting with V are for connection to the PV source.

 Connections starting with H are for connection to the communication link.
 Connections starting with 1 and 2 are for connections to the output modules.
 Connections starting with A are for alarm connections (crossover relay).
 L and N are the power supply connections.

33
 Figure 4.6 A controller with several module options

 Modules requiring two connections use points A and B.

 Those needing more, will then also use C and D as necessary.

Display and key panel

 The controller has a display to enable display of the process variable as well as information that a
user may need to see. The display is generally in the form of an LCD.
 It also has a keypad for entering commands into the device.
 Keys normally implemented are up/down scroll keys, function keys, enter key and return key.

Figure 4.7

34
Configuration of the loop controller for operation
 The controller with the needed modules is acquired or the necessary modules needed are installed
on available plug in slots of the device.
 The device is configured in software via the control panel and the display (operation modes for each
module, SPs, e.t.c.). Alternatively, the device can be configured from a conventional computer via a
communication link.

Closed loop configurations

Closed loop systems may be configured for:
 Standalone operation – the controller operates as a standalone device.
 Supervisory control – each controller has its own control loop. A supervisory computer is provided to
monitor and control the loop controllers.

Assignment following a visit to a plant

1. On which process did you recognise a closed loop controller? What was the control mode?
2. On what process did you recognise supervisory control? What functions could be carried out from the
supervisory computer?

35
 Programmable Logic Controllers
Introduction
Programmable logic controllers (PLC) are logic industrial controllers that were developed mainly to control
event sequencing systems. Each step in an event sequencing system occurs only when certain conditions are
met and certain steps have occurred. This is equivalent to each output signal being active only when certain
input sensor states exist and/or certain event steps are in progress or have occurred.

A PLC receives signals from sensors, performs logic operations that define the outputs and then writes the
output signals to the actuators. Figure 5.1 illustrates the idea.
Inputs

Outputs
Sensing devices
PLC Actuating devices

Figure 5.1 A block diagram of a PLC-controlled system

Architecture of a PLC
Figure 5.2 shows the general architecture of a PLC.

The CPU
The CPU is in form of a microcontroller or a microprocessor. Its role is to control all operations in the PLC by
executing a program (or set of programs) stored in the memory.

PLC software
PLC programs consist of an operating system (OS) and a user program. The OS is a program that manages all
functions and all other programs in the PLC. The user program is a program that performs the logic
operations to switch outputs based on states of inputs.

Memory
Memory can be a mixture of ROM, RAM, EPROM, EEPROM flash RAM and battery backed RAM. Memory is
divided into the following groups that are used as follows:
1. Executive memory which is used to store the OS. Since the OS rarely needs changes after
development, this memory section is usually implemented as ROM.
2. System memory which is used to store system data. Mainly, system data is used by the OS. System
memory is implemented in RAM.
3. I/O status memory which is used to store input and output images. An image can be defined as a
copy of the states of the inputs or outputs on the PLC. I/O status memory is implemented in RAM.

36
 4. Data memory which is used to store data associated with the user program. Functionalities like
timers, counters, numerical calculations, data storage and auxiliary relays require memory. This
memory is implemented in RAM.
5. User program which is used to store the user program. It can be implemented in EPROM, EEPROM,
flash RAM or battery backed RAM. The memory is required to be involatile because the program is
required as is until there is probably need to change the process being controlled. However, the
flexibility of changing the program is still required.

Figure 5.2

The address, data and control buses

The CPU, memory and I/O unit are linked by an address bus, a data bus and a control bus. The three buses
form the main system bus.

The address bus enables addressing of the memory and the I/O unit by the CPU. The data bus allows
exchange of data between the CPU and memory and I/O unit. The control bus is used to carry the necessary
control signals.

The I/O unit, the system I/0 bus and I/O devices
The I/O unit is used to interface the system I/O bus to the main system bus. The system I/O bus in turn
provides a link for communication between the I/O unit and the input devices and output devices.

Input devices are used to interface to input sensors. Output devices are used to interface to actuators. Once
connected, the sensors and actuators are mapped to some addresses by the I/O unit.

The input and output devices provide signal conditioning and isolation functions between the delicate
internal circuitry and the harsh industrial environment. They are also known as interface modules.

37
Interface Modules
The interface modules are constructed into standard devices that allow them to be directly connected to a
wide range of sensors and actuators. Different types of interface modules are available. Each module type is
suited for a particular function.

Digital input modules

Digital input modules are used to interface to discrete sensors. The following are typical digital module
types:
1. 0/24V DC
2. 0/110V DC
3. 0/220V AC
4. 0/5V TTL

A digital input module has a number of input points - typically 8, 16 or 32 input points.

Input isolation
The main function of the digital input modules is to provide input isolation. Optical isolation is exploited.
Figure 5.3 illustrates optical isolation on a PLC input point.

38
 (a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 5.3 Optical isolation of inputs: (a) opto isolator (b) DC input (c) AC input

The plant sensor (plain switch, sourcing or sinking type) applies a current signal to the input point. The
photodiode part of the opto isolator transfers this signal as light to the phototransistor part. The transistor in
turn switches internal PLC circuitry and hence transfers in the signal without a physical electrical connection.

The reasons for use of optical isolator are:

 The PLC operates at TTL levels while the plant operates at higher voltages. Input isolation is used to
protect the delicate internal PLC circuitry from the harsh plant voltages.
 Separating the plant supplies from plant supplies ensures that the PLC is not adversely affected by noise
signals in the plant. Electrical noise may result from voltage spikes on signal lines, or from load currents
flowing in AC neutral or DC return lines. The differences in earth potential between the PLC cubicle and
outside plant can also cause problems.

39
Digital output modules
Digital output modules are used to interface to discrete actuators. The following are typical types of digital
modules:
1. 0/24V, 100mA DC
2. 0/110V, 1A DC
3. 0/220V, 1A AC (triac)
4. 0/220V, 1A AC (relay)

A digital output module has a number of input points - typically 8, 16 or 32 input points.

Inputs are also isolated using opto isolators. Figure 5.4 shows output isolation.

(a)

(b)

Figure 5.4 DC output circuits: (a) DC output circuit, current sourcing; (b) effect of current suppression diode

The opto isolator transfers signals from the PLC internal circuitry to the switch on the output point with no
physical electrical contact. Diode D1 is used to clip spikes due to noise. Noise interference can be more of a
problem on outputs because of the higher currents that are being controlled by the cards and the loads
themselves that are often inductive (e.g. solenoid and relay coils).

Figures 5.5 and 5.6 show the two basic types of output card, one with common supply and the other with
separate supply for each output.

40
 (a)

(b)

Figure 5.5 Types of output cards: (a) output card with common supply; (b) output card with separate supplies

41
 Figure 5.6 AC output circuit: (a) AC output stage; (b) effect of triac output

Analog input modules

Analog input modules receive analog signals from sensors and convert them into digital signals. After
conversion to digital, the input signal is represented, at least, as an integer number for use by the PLC
program. Each module has a number of input points – typically 4, 8 or 16 inputs.

Resolution
Resolution is the smallest change in the analog input that causes a change in the digital output. It is the
amount of analog input corresponding to unity or binary one.

As an example, an 8-bit ADC can represent an integer in the range 0 – 255. If this was used to represent an
analogue signal measuring a flow with a span (range) from 0 to 1800 l/min, the resolution would be
approximately 7 l/min (given by 1800/255).

Resolution may be viewed in terms of an error.

A 12-bit ADC gives a better resolution (0.5 l/min)

Conversion to engineering units

The digital output value from the ADC needs to be converted to engineering units. The conversion is
performed as follows. If N is the raw digital value, HR the high-range measurand, LR is the low range
measurand and n is the number of bits in the output, the measured value MV is given by:
𝑁(𝐻𝑅−𝐿𝑅)
𝑀𝑉 = + 𝐿𝑅
2𝑛 −1

42
Analog output modules
Analog output modules perform analog to digital conversion of outputs so that they can be sent as analog
signals to actuators needing such signals. Each module has a number of output points – typically 4, 8 or 16
outputs.

The conversion from engineering units to the DAC input is as follows:

(𝑁−𝐿𝑅)(𝐻𝑅−𝐿𝑅)
𝑉𝐴𝐷𝐶 = × 𝑉𝑠
2𝑛 −1

where VADC is the value passed to the DAC, N is the output number in engineering units, HR/LR are
the high- and low-range values, n is the number of bits in the input value and Vs is the supply voltage
to the DAC (maximum possible output).

Other Types of Modules

There are other modules that may be included for specific special functions. Generally, one or two may be
required in an application. Some typical special function modules are:
1. Communication modules used to interface the PLC to other controllers or computers.
2. RTD modules to provide interface to RTDs and provide functions specific to RTDS.
3. Thermocouple modules to provide interface to thermocouples and provide functions specific to
thermocouples.
4. Encoders cards to interface to encoders.
5. PID modules to provide PID control functionalities.

PLC construction

Single unit
Small PLCs are implemented in the form of a single unit. All the PLC components and modules are built into
one unit. Connection points are provided for connecting to the sensors and actuators. Limited expansion can
be achieved by adding a few more I/O modules. Figure 5.7 shows a typical single unit PLC.

Figure 5.7

Modular PLCs
Medium and large PLCs are implemented in modular form. A number of units each for a specific function are
built separately and then connected together to give the PLC. The units are mounted on a rack. Figures
5.8(a) and (b) show typical modular PLC constructions.

43
 Figure 5.8 (a)

Typical units found in a modular PLC are:

1. Power supply module which is responsible for producing various power supply levels to the various
modules in the PLC.
2. CPU module which houses the CPU and memory parts of the PLC.
3. I/O modules, each module built into a unit called an I/O card. Each I/O card is built to connect to a
number of inputs or outputs of the same type typically 8 digital inputs, 8 digital outputs, 4 analog
inputs, 4 analog outputs, etc. per unit.
4. System bus which is a card at the backside of the PLC which provides connections between the
different cards that make up the PLC.

There can also be other types of cards mounted onto the rack.

Figure 5.8 (b) shows construction format with labels of modules.

Figure 5.8 (b)

44
Remote I/O
This is when I/O cards are mounted on racks that are a distance from the main PLC but local to the sensors
and actuators. The remote I/0 cards are connected to the main PLC using a communication channel, for
example an optic fibre or LAN cable. Sensors and actuators are wired to the remote cards using the usual
conducting wires.

The remote I/O card thus receives signals from sensors and multiplex them for transmission to the main PLC
via the communication channel. The cards also receive signals via the communication channel from the main
PLC, de-multiplex them and send them to the actuators.

Benefits of remote I/O are:

 Reduced cabling. Expensive multicore cables are only for short distances between sensors/actuators
and the I/O cards. Cheaper and fewer communication cables run between the I/O cards and the
main PLC.
 It makes commissioning and fault finding easier.

Generally, a terminal is provided local to ach remote rack so that plant operation can be monitored local to
the plant devices.

Addressing
PLCs identify I/O devices and memory using some form of addressing. Different PLCs generally use different
ways of addressing. Allen Bradley addressing and Siemens addressing will be briefly explored.

Allen Bradley addressing

Allen Bradley addressing uses address of format: IDENTIFIER:RACK SLOT/BIT.
IDENTIFIER is a letter to identify the type of module being accessed (input, output), RACK is the
number of the rack containing the module, SLOT is the number of the slot that contains the card and
BIT is the input or output point on the card. Input cards use the identifier I while outputs use the
identifier Q. Racks are numbered from 1; slots are numbered from 0; bits are numbered from 0.
Examples are:
 O:26/05 means bit 5 on output card in rack 2, slot 6
 I:35/02 means bit 2 on input card in rack 3, slot 5

Memory bits
In Allen Bradley PLCS, memory can be addressed as bits or words of certain bit width. Bits are addressed
using a similar approach as for I/O points. The identifier for memory bits is B. The format for a memory bit
address is BM/n where n denotes the bit and M denotes the file containing the bit. For example, B3/25
means bit 25 on file 3.

45
 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

PLC
processor

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
O:26/05

I:35/02

Figure 5.9 Identification of plant signals

Siemens addressing
Digital I/O in Siemens PLCs is arranged in groups of 8 bits, called a byte. An I/O signal is identified by its bit
number (0 – 7) and its byte number (0 – 127). Inputs are denoted in the form I<byte>.<bit> and outputs in
the form Q<byte>.<bit>. For example:
 I9.4 means input with bit address 4 in byte 9
 Q63.6 means output with bit address 6 in byte 63.

Like Allen Bradley, Siemens use card slots in one or more racks. The cards are available in 16-bit (2-byte) or
32-bit (4-byte) form.

Figure 5.10 shows the Siemens card layout and addressing. Figure 5.10 (a) shows fixed slot addressing. In
most systems, however, the user has the ability to assign the byte addresses. This is known as variable slot
addressing and is shown in figure 5.10 (b). The first byte address and the range (2-byte or 4-byte) can be set
independently for each slot by switches in the adaptor module in each rack.

46
 Figure 5.10 Siemens card layout: (a) Fixed slot addressing; (b) Variable slot addressing

Memory addressing
 Memory can be addressed as bits, bytes, words or double words.
 Words are 16 bits wide while double bytes are 32 bits wide.
 Memory bits use the identifier MB for example MB5.6 is bit 5 in memory at address 5.
 Memory bytes use the identifier M for example M13 is byte at memory address 13.
 Memory words use the identifier MW for example MW8 is word at memory address 6. The word
occupies two consecutive addresses, in this case addresses 6 and 7. Addresses of memory words are
therefore multiples of 2.
 Memory double words use the identifier MD for example MD12 is word at memory address 12. The
word occupies four consecutive addresses, in this case addresses 12, 13, 14 and15. Addresses of
memory double words are therefore multiples of 4.
 I/O can be accessed as bytes, words or double words in a similar manner to accessing bytes, words
and double words in memory. For example, Q7 is a byte output to output byte 7.

Operation of a PLC
The operation of a PLC can be explained using ladder logic.

47
Ladder logic
Ladder logic is a way of writing PLC programs that mimics relay switching circuits. Two vertical lines mimic
the power supply rails (24V and 0V). A switching circuit is connected between the two rails. The circuit has
inputs called contacts and at least one output called coil(s). A coil on a circuit is energised only when there
exists a path through the input contacts from the positive supply rail through the coil to the negative supply
rail.

Consider a hydraulic system that has an indicator lamp to indicate that the system is healthy. A hydraulic
system is said to be healthy when:
1. The pump is running (sensed by an auxiliary contact on a pump starter).
2. There is oil in the tank (sensed by a level switch which makes when the switch is covered).
3. There is oil pressure (sensed by a pressure switch which makes for adequate pressure).

The relay circuit that may be used is shown in figure 5.11 (a).

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 5.11
In a PLC application of the system, the sensors are all connected to input points on the PLC and the lamp to
an output point as shown in figure 5.11 (b). The circuit between the sensors and the actuator is
implemented by a software program running on the PLC. The program can be represented in the form of a
ladder rung as shown in figure 5.11 (c).

Generally, in event sequencing systems, each rung is associated with a process step. The ladder program
thus gives the sequence which should be followed and the conditions that should be met for each step to
occur.

48
A typical PLC program will contain a number of rungs as shown in figure 5.12. The term ladder is used
because the lines of a completed diagram resemble the rungs of a ladder. The two vertical lines are called
bus lines. Each horizontal line represents a program line.

Input contact connections other than series only may be made in the ladder. A ladder rung may consist of
series, parallel or series-parallel connected contacts that supply power to a relay coil.

Figure 5.12 A typical ladder diagram

The PLC Scan

The steps that are followed when the PLC is running are:
1. The PLC reads all the inputs and stores their states in the input image.
2. The PLC evaluates each rung on the ladder and writes the resulting output states to the output
image.
3. The PLC writes the output image to the output devices.

The above set of steps is known as a PLC scan. The PLC will continuously go through scans and in the process
control a process. Figure 5.13 (a) illustrates a PLC scan.

(a) (b)

Figure 5.13 PLC program scan and memory organisation: (a) program sequence; (c) PLC memory organisation

49
Scan rate
Scan rate is the speed at which a PLC scans the memory. It is expressed in terms of the number of seconds
(or milliseconds) it takes to scan a given amount of memory, usually 1kB. The actual time to scan a program
depends on the scan rate, the length of the program and the types of functions used in the program. The
faster the scan rate the more often the inputs and outputs are checked.

Phasing errors
The CPU under the control of the operating system, scans the input image rather than the inputs
themselves. The input memory is not changed while the CPU is scanning it. Thus it is possible for an input
port to change its state from, say, off to on and back to off before the input image is updated. A phasing
error is said to have occurred when the CPU scan misses a change in the state of an input port.

Effect of scan time in remote I/O

The effect of scan times can become even more complex when remote serially scanned I/O racks are
present. These are generally read by an I/O scanner as shown in Figure 5.14, but the I/O scanner is not
usually synchronised to the program scan. In this case with, say, a program scan of 30ms and a remote I/O
scan of 50ms, the fastest response could be 30ms, but the slowest response (with an input just missing the
I/O scan and the I/O scan just missing the program scan) could be 130ms.

PLC manufacturers offer many facilities to reduce the effect of scan times. Typical are high-speed
independent I/O cards and the ability to sectionalise the program into areas with different scan rates.

Figure 5.14 The effect of program scan and I/O scan cycles

PLC programming
There are three main methods that can be used for PLC programming. These are ladder logic, statement list
and logic symbols.

After the program has been written, it is converted into machine language that can run on a PLC. Programs
are loaded into the PLC’s memory using a program loader. These vary from hand held systems incorporating
a small keyboard and LCD to conventional computers.

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Ladder programming
Ladder programming uses ladder logic to write PLC programs. A program is entered in a form that mimics
switching circuits.

Nature of Ladder Programs

Each rung in a ladder program has inputs and at least one output. Inputs are generally of the normally open
and the normally closed types. Symbols used for the normally open contact, the normally closed contact and
the output are shown in figure 5.15. X1 is a normally open contact, X3 is a normally closed contact and Y5 is
an output. X1, X2 and Y5 are names or addresses of the inputs or outputs.

Figure 5.15

Inputs can input points on PLC input cards (connected to the sensors), internal memory bits or the states of
output points on the PLC output cards (from the output image). Outputs can be output points on the PLC
output cards (connected to the actuators) or internal memory bits.

The inputs in a rung are connected together in such a way to give a logic condition that in turn turns on or
off the output(s) connected in the rung. The logic conditions may be series, parallel or series-parallel
connections of the contacts. Figure 5.16 gives examples of ladder rungs.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 5.16 Ladder rungs

1. In (a) the output Y goes high (active) when input signals to X1 and X2 go high and input signal to X3
goes low. In Boolean logic, 𝑌5 = 𝑋1 ∙ 𝑋2 ∙ 𝑋3

51
 2. In (b) the output Y goes high when any of the inputs X1, X2 and X3 go high. In Boolean logic, 𝑌 =
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3
3. In (c) the output Y goes high when {C and Z are low, X is high} and either A and B are high or D is
high. In Boolean logic, 𝑌1 = ((𝐴 ∙ 𝐵) + 𝐴) ∙ 𝐶 ∙ 𝑋 ∙ 𝑍
The PLC rungs, thus basically perform Boolean logic operations.

Latching
A latch is used to maintain an output state even if the input contact which energised it is turned off. Figure
5.17 shows latching in a ladder rung.

Figure 5.17 (a)

Figure 5.17 (b)

Figure 5.17 (a) A latching rung (b) motor starter PLC wiring and PLC ladder diagram

When the Start contact makes, Step-1 is energised thereby making the Step-1 input contact. If Start later
opens, the output Step-1 is kept energised. The closed input Step-1 thus, keeps the output Step-1 energised
even if the input Start opens. In other words, the output latches itself.

Figure 5.17 (b) shows the application of latching in the start/stop control of an electric motor.

Auxiliary relays
These are memory bits that can be used to store single bit information about a process. They may represent
a step or a state in an event sequencing system, for example ‘standby pump running’, ‘system healthy’ and
‘lubrication fault’.

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Sequencing of steps
To achieve sequencing states of rung outputs are made to depend on states of other rungs in such a way as
to generate the required sequence. Consider the ladder program for a two-step process shown in figure
5.18. Only one of the two steps is required at any given time. Step-1 and Step-2 are auxiliary relays that are
used to represent (and show the states) of the two steps. Start and stop are NO push to make switches
connected to a PLC input. When Start is momentarily pressed while the process state is 1, process goes into
step 2. If Stop is momentarily pressed while in step 2, the process goes into step 1.

Figure 5.18

Suppose the process starts in step 1:

 In step 1, Step-1 NO and Step-2 NC contacts are closed while Step-1 NC and Step-2 NO are open.
 The path that feeds the relay bit Step-1 is closed by the Step-1, Step-2 line. This keeps this relay
energised until there is a change in states of either Step-1 NO contacts or Step-2 NC contacts.
 No complete path exists to Step-2 relay bit, unless and until Start NO contacts close.
 If Start is pressed, the Step1, Start line on the input to Step-2 relay bit closes thus energising Step-2
bit. Step-2 NO contacts close and Step-2 NC contacts open.
 The resulting opening of the Step-2 NC contacts break the Step-1, Step-2 line on the input to the
Step-1 relay bit and hence Step-1 bit is de-energised. Step-1 NO contacts open and Step-1 NC
contacts close. Step 2 of the process is entered.
 The Step-2, Step-1 line on the input to the Step-2 relay bit keeps the Step-2 relay it energised
(latches it) thus process stays in step 2 unless and until Stop is pressed.
 If Stop is pressed, the Step2, Stop line on the input to Step-1 relay bit closes thus energising Step-1
bit. Step-1 NO contacts close and Step-1 NC contacts open.
 The resulting opening of the Step-1 NC contacts break the Step-2, Step-1 line on the input to the
Step-2 relay bit and hence Step-2 bit is de-energised. Step-2 NO contacts open and Step-2 NC
contacts close. Step 1 of the process is entered.

53
  The Step-1, Step-2 line on the input to the Step-1 relay bit keeps the Step-1 relay it energised
(latches it) thus process stays in step 1 unless and until Start is pressed.

It can be observed that each subsequent step kills the previous step. Whenever step 2 is switched on, step 2
is automatically switched out. Secondly entering a subsequent step only occurs when the process is in the
preceding step and conditions of entering the new step are satisfied. Step 2 is entered only when the
process is in step 1 and start is pressed. Step 1 is only entered when the process is in step 2 and stop is
pressed.
In general, each step on a ladder designed for sequencing consists of:
1. A path with conditions to go into a step.
2. A path to latch the current step as well as to kill the previous step.

First Cycle bit

It is a bit that goes high only in the first scan cycle of a PLC following power up. It can be used to dictate the
first step that a process assumes following power on. In figure 5.18, the process will go into step 1 when the
PLC powers up. Step-1 NC contacts will ensure step 2 is not entered and then Step-1 NO contacts and Step-2
NC contacts will latch the system in step 1 when the first cycle bit clears.

Logic symbols (notation) or Function block diagrams

It has already been observed that PLC program lines are basically Boolean logic in nature. Hence, logic
symbols may also be used to write PLC programs. Figure 5.19 typical logic symbols that are used in
programming of PLCs as well as an example program line.

Figure 5.19 PLC programming using logic symbols (Siemens notation): (a) an AND gate; (b) truth table for
AND gate: (c) hydraulic healthy lamp of figure 5.11 in logic notation; (d) an inverted input

A test to check if a signal is not true is denoted by a small circle ‘◦’ (this is equivalent to testing a normally
closed contact in ladder diagram notation). Hence the output Z of the AND gate in figure 5.19 (d) is true if
(and only if) A and C are true and B is not true.

Statement lists
A ladder diagram can be translated into a program consisting of instruction lines. Table 5.1 shows typical
instructions for a PLC.

54
 Table 5.1 Typical instruction list
Instruction Description
LOAD Load contact

AND Logical AND operation

OR Logical OR operation

NOT Inversion

LOAD NOT Load inverse

AND NOT Logical AND NOT operation

OR NOT Logical OR NOT operation

AND BLOCK Logical AND two sub-circuits

OR BLOCK Logical OR two sub-circuits

CONSTANT Insert constant for timer or

counter

RESET Reset counter

OUT Output

END End ladder

Different manufacturers may use different instructions but the logic is similar.

Figure 5.20 shows a simple operation in both ladder and logic formats for a Siemens PLC. The equivalent
statement list is given in Table 5.2.

Figure 5.20 Equivalent ladder and logic statements in Siemens notation

Table 5.2 Statement list

Instruction Operation Address Comment
number
00 :A I3.7 Forward pushbutton

01 :A I3.2 Front limit OK

02 :AN Q4.2 Reverse solenoid

03 := Q4.11 Forward solenoid

55
Figure 5.21 and Table 5.3 show a more complex program in the three notations

Figure 5.21 More complex program in both notations

Table 5.2 Statement list

Instruction Operation Address Comment
number
00 :A( First set of brackets

01 :O F3.3 Manual forward

02 :O F3.4 Automatic forward

03 :) Result of first set of brackets

04 :A( AND result with second set of brackets

05 :O I2.0 Motor 1 selected

06 :O I2.1 Motor 2 selected

07 :) Now at point X

08 :A I4.1 Front limit switch healthy

09 :AN Q5.5 Reverse starter

10 := Q5.6 Forward starter

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Timers
Timers count pulses generated from the CPU’s internal clock. They count these pulses until they get to the
preset value, a point when some delay period would have been realised. Counters enable delay operations
to be implemented in control. The preset value of the timer is the delay period.

Typical types of counters are:

1. Delay-on and delay-off timers. These turn on or off after a specified delay.
2. Pulse timers. These give a positive going or negative going pulse of a specified duration.
3. Repeating timers. These repeatedly turn on and off at a regular specified interval. They are also known
as cyclic timers.

The timer operations are shown in figure 5.22.

Figure 5.22 Different forms of timer: (a) on delay; (b) off delay; (c) fixed width pulse

Timer signals
The following are signals available on a timer:
 Enable, EN – is a mimic of the timer input
 Timer timing, TT – is energised whilst the timer is running (i.e. preset value hasn’t expired)
 Time done, DN – indicates timer has finished (preset value has expired)

Figure 5.23 shows the signals as used on an Allen Bradley delay on timer (TON) and a delay off timer (TOF).

57
Using timers in programs
PLC manufacturers differ on how a timer is programmed. Most use the timer as a terminator for a rung, with
the timer signals being available as contacts for use elsewhere. Others use the timer as a delay block with
the preset being stored in a value block.

Most timers used are non-retentive (accumulated time goes back to zero when the input goes to zero); but
retentive timers (these require reset signal) are also available.

Figure 5.23 Allen Bradley timer notations: (a) TON timer; (b) TOF timer

Figure 5.24 illustrates two ways of programming a timer.

Figure 5.24 Two types of time in the same application: (a) Allen Bradley notation; (b) Siemens logic notation

58
Counters
Counters are used to count externally generated pulses. A counter is, like a timer, associated with a preset
value. If the count value reaches the preset value, a count complete or count done signal is given. The count
value itself is also available for use in the program. A counter can be reset.

There are two types of counters: up-counters and the down-counters. Up-counters count up to the preset
value while a down-counters count down from the preset value to zero.

Most PLCs allow a counter to count up to 32767. Where larger counts are needed, counters can be cascaded
with the complete (or done) signal from the first counter being used to step the second counter and reset
the first. In a similar way, timers can also be cascaded with counters to get longer timer periods. Figure 5.25
is a variation of the same idea used to give a very long timer.

Figure 5.25 Cascaded counters

Numerical applications
Numeric representations
So far we have been primarily discussing single-bit operations. Numbers are also often part of a control
scheme; a PLC might need to calculate a production rate in units per hour averaged over a day, or give the
amount of liquid in a storage tank. Such operations require the ability to handle numeric data.

59
Functions are available to handle numeric data in the form of integers (16-bit words), long integer (two 16-
bit words) or floating point numbers that consist of two 16-bit words, which contain the mantissa (the
numerical portion) and the exponent.

Data movement
Numbers are often required to be moved from one location to another; a timer preset may be required to
be changed according to plant conditions, a counter value may need to be sent to an output card for
indication on a digital display or the result of some calculation may be used in another part of a program.

Functions (or instructions) are available for such data movements (Figure 5.26).

Figure 5.26 Data movement: (a) Allen Bradley; (b) Siemens

Data comparison
Numerical values often need to be compared in PLC programs: typical examples are a batch counter saying
the required number of items have been delivered, or alarm circuits indicating, say, a temperature has gone
above some safety level.

These comparisons are performed by elements which have the generalised form of Figure C.24, with two
numerical inputs corresponding to the values to be compared, and a binary (on/off) output which is true if
the specified condition is met.

Value 1
Compare Result
Value 2

Figure 5.27 Basics of data comparison

60
Arithmetic operations
PLCs provide the ability to do mathematical operations such as add, subtract, multiply and divide (Figure
5.28).

Figure 5.28 Arithmetic operations in Allen Bradley PLC

GRAFCET
GRAFCET is a tool for describing a sequencing system. It, thus can be used in development of PLC programs
for these sequencing systems.

A GRAFCET consists of:

· Steps to which are associated certain actions.
· Transitions which are conditions to be fulfilled before moving from step to the next.
· Directed links which link the steps and the transitions.

In the PLC application, a step represents a process state, actions represent the outputs to be turned on in a
particular step and a transition points represent the closing (or opening of) an input contact.

A separate handout gives details of GRAFCET.

PLC Design Process

1. Design and built the circuit for the sensors and actuators.
2. Allocate inputs and outputs on the PLC.
3. Develop the PLC program.
4. Download the program to the PLC and test run.
5. Loop back through steps as necessary to ensure specifications are met.

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 SCADA & DCS
Introduction

Definition
SCADA is an acronym that stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. It is a collection of equipment
that allows an operator at a remote location to monitor and perform supervisory control on a particular
piece of equipment or an entire system.

How SCADA works

A SCADA system basically enables monitoring and control of a remote site, a process or a distribution spread
out over some geographical area. It achieves this function by collecting measurements and status data from
the field and transmitting them to a central computer. This is called data acquisition. The central computer
then manipulates the data for storage and/or processes it for presentation suitable for use by different types
of users. This is called data management. The computer also allows remote intervention by operators; the
operator actions are in turn transmitted to the actuator devices or local controllers in the field. This is called
supervision.

Functions of a SCADA system

A SCADA system provides the following functions:
1. Monitoring – displaying of plant or process parameters in real-time.
2. Alarming – recognition of exceptional events and immediate reporting of such events.
3. Supervisory (plant) control – start-up, shut-down of the plants; change of set points; selection of
batch processes, etc.
4. Control – application of algorithms and adjustment of process values so as to maintain those values
within the set limits with minimum human intervention.
5. Data recording – data logging, real-time trending, historical trending, report generation.

Figure 7.1 A representation of the SCADA functions

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Application Areas
Examples of areas where SCADA is applied are:
1. Electric power generation, transmission and distribution: Electrical power utilities use SCADA
systems to monitor and control the generating plant as well as the distribution system. In
distribution systems, for example, SCADA enables remote operation of circuit breakers so as to take
sections of the power grid online or offline.
2. Water and sewage: State and municipal water utilities use SCADA to monitor and regulate water
flow, reservoir levels, pipe pressure and other factors.
3. Buildings, facilities and environments: Facility managers use SCADA to control, for example, HVAC,
refrigeration units, lighting and entry systems.
4. Manufacturing: SCADA systems manage parts inventories for just-in-time manufacturing, regulate
industrial automation and robots, and monitor process and quality control.
5. Mass transit: Transit authorities use SCADA to regulate electricity to subways, trams and trolley
buses; to automate traffic signals for rail systems; to track and locate trains and buses; and to
control railroad crossing gates.
6. Traffic signals: SCADA regulates traffic lights, controls traffic flow and detects out-of-order signals.
7. Gas and oil pipelines: SCADA is used to monitor and control the pipelines.

Components of a SCADA System

A typical SCADA system comprises of field devices, RTUs/controllers, communication networks and
equipment, servers, terminals and software. Figure 7.2 shows a block diagram illustrating how these
components relate.

Figure 7.2

Field Devices
They comprise of sensing and actuating devices. Sensing devices acquire data from the field so as to get the
status of the processes in the field. Examples are reservoir level meters, water flow meters, valve position
transmitters, temperature transmitters, power consumption meters, and pressure meters.

Actuating devices effect actions in the field according to the requirements of the process. Examples are
electric valve actuators, motor control switchboards, and electronic chemical dosing facilities.

RTUs and PLCs

Remote Telemetry Units (RTUs) are electronic interfaces that are primarily responsible for converting signals
from field devices into a form that is compatible with the rest of the SCADA system. They also convert data
from the SCADA system into a form compatible with field devices.

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PLCs are used to control the operation of actuators in the field. They connect directly to field data interface
devices and incorporate programs mainly in the form of logic operations. The programs enable certain
actuators to run when certain process sate conditions are met. Examples of control operations carried out by
PLCs are pump control, conveyor belt control, mixing of raw materials.

RTUs basically provide interfacing while PLCs provide interfacing as well as control functions.

Communications Network
The communications network is the equipment responsible for the transfer of data between the RTUs / PLCs
and the central host servers as well as between the servers and the rest of the sites in the SCADA system.

The medium of communication can either be cable, telephone, fiber, power line carrier or radio. The media
used depends on comparative advantages and disadvantages of the methods in different situations:
 Cable is usually implemented in a factory and where the geographical area is small.
 Telephone lines are used when geographical area is large
o Proprietary and leased lines are used for systems requiring on-line connection with the
remote stations.
o Dial-up lines can be used on systems requiring updates at regular intervals (e.g., hourly
updates).
 Radio is used when accessing remote areas where there are, for example, no telephone lines. An on-
line operation can also be implemented on the radio system.
 Fiber and power line carrier can be used in same areas as where Telephone lines can be used. They
can be proprietary, leased or dial-up.

Central Host Computer

The central host computer or master station is responsible for processing the data received from and to be
sent to the RTU/PLC sites and present it to human operators in a form that the operators can work with. A
single computer or a network of computer servers may be used as the host computer.

Operator Workstations
Operator workstations enable operators to interact with the system. They provide a platform for viewing the
process as well as to apply inputs into the process. Operator workstations are client computer terminals that
request and send information to the central host computer based on the request and action of the
operators. They are connected to the host computer using LAN/WAN.

Database
The database is used to store data pertaining to the process or plant. It is hosted on the host computer. The
constituent data elements are known as tags or points. Each tag is a data item representing a single input or
output value monitored or controlled by the system. The database is thus commonly referred to as a tag
database.

Tags can be either "hard" or "soft". A hard point is representative of an actual input or output connected to
the system. A soft point represents the result of a logic and mathematical operations applied to other hard
and soft points, for example total weight from 5 load cells, distance moved from speed. Most
implementations conceptually remove this distinction by making every tag a soft point that at its simplest
can be equal to a single hard point.

Tag values are normally stored as value-timestamp combination, that is the value of the tag and the
timestamp when the value was recorded or calculated. A series of value-timestamp combinations is the
history of that point. It is also common to store additional metadata such as path to field device and PLC
register, design time comments, and even alarming information with the tags.

64
The rest of the system obtains values/states of the plant from the tags in the database.

Man-machine Interface
The user interface or the man-machine interface (MMI) provides communication interface between an
operator and the machines making up the system. This allows the status of the plant to be presented to
operators in a form that can be easily understood. It also allows the system to accept commands from
operators. MMI can be summarized by figure 7.3.

A MMI consists of input devices such as a mouse, keypad and touch screen and output devices such as a
screen, audio, print-outs and mimic boards. Modern SCADA systems are able to offer high resolution
computer graphics to display a graphical user interface or mimic screen of the site or system in question.

Figure 7.3 The operator as part of the control loop

SCADA Software
SCADA software is responsible for running the system. Software products typically used within a SCADA
system are as follows.

Central host computer operating system

This is the software that is used to control the central host computer hardware. The software can be based
on UNIX or other popular operating systems.

Operator terminal operating system

This is software used to control the operator terminal computer hardware. The software is usually the same
as the central host computer operating system. This software, along with that for the central host computer,
usually contributes to the networking of the central host and the operator terminals.

Central host computer application software

This is software that handles the transmittal and reception of data to and from the RTUs and the central
host. The software also provides the graphical user interface which offers site mimic screens, alarm pages,
trend pages, and control functions.

Operator terminal application software

This is the application that enables users to access information available on the central host computer
application. It is usually a subset of the software used on the central host computers.

Communications protocol drivers

This is software that is usually based within the central host and the RTUs, and is required to control the
translation and interpretation of the data between ends of the communications links in the system. The
protocol drivers prepare the data for use either at the field devices or the central host end of the system.

65
Communications network management software
This is software required to control the communications network and to allow the communications networks
themselves to be monitored for performance and failures.

RTU automation software:

This is software that allows engineering staff to configure and maintain the application housed within the
RTUs (or PLCs). Most often this includes the local automation application and any data processing tasks that
are performed within the RTU.

Comments on SCADA Software

Many SCADA systems employ commercial proprietary software upon which the SCADA system is developed.
The proprietary software often is configured for a specific hardware platform and may not interface with the
software or hardware produced by competing vendors. A wide range of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS)
software products also are available, some of which may suit the required application. COTS software usually
is more flexible, and will interface with different types of hardware and software. Generally, the focus of
proprietary software is on processes and control functionality, while COTS software emphasizes
compatibility with a variety of equipment and instrumentation. It is therefore important to ensure that
adequate planning is undertaken to select the software systems appropriate to any new SCADA system.

Distributed Control Systems (DCS)

Distributed control system (DCS), is a variant of SCADA. In DCS, the field data gathering or control units are
usually located within a more confined area. A closely integrated set of operator interfaces (MMIs) is
provided to allow for easy system configurations and operator control. Communications may be via a LAN
and will normally be a reliable and high speed link. A DCS system usually employs significant amounts of
closed loop control. SCADA systems on the other hand generally cover larger geographic areas, and rely on a
variety of communications systems that are normally less reliable than a LAN. Closed loop control in this
situation is less desirable.

As an example, in a power utility, DCS may be used for generation of power, while SCADA is used for the
distribution and transmission of power.

Stratification of control tasks

The task of managing a process is broken down into several sets of hierarchical tasks. Each task is delegated
to a machine or computer operating at the corresponding level of the task in the system. These tasks include
regulation, supervision, measurement, protection, and on/off control. Figure 7.4 shows a hierarchy split into
four control levels.

The computers that are at different control levels are connected via communication for:
 receiving input data from transducers,
 issuing control signals, and
 interacting with an operator.

Control tasks
Seven independent computer tasks can be identified:
 process instrumentation
 process regulation
 acquisition of measurement data
 process supervision
 protection and process safety
 on/off process control

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  set-point process control (governing/tracking)

LEVEL 3
LANs such as Mainframes
Ethernet Gateway
LEVEL 2
Proprietary Supervisory minicomputers
networks
LEVEL 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 PLCs

LEVEL 0
Plant devices

(a)

Ethernet

PLC VAX

PLC PLC PLC

(b)

Figure 7.4 Control hierarchy: (a) a company-wide network; (b) a real system

In figure 7.4, the pulpit PLC issues broad commands to the lower level PLCs, and concerns itself mainly with
data gathering for the VAX system. The lower level machines concern themselves with running the plant and
monitoring for alarm conditions, passing any information the operator should be aware of back to the pulpit
PLC for display on VDU screens.

Control levels
Five independent levels of control are recognized in process control of figure 7.4:
 Level 0 – actual plant level (process hardware, transducers, drives, etc.)
 Level 1 – process controller level (PLCs and other controllers directly controlling the plant)
 Level 2 – data acquisition, remote terminal unit, direct digital control
 Level 3 – supervisory control or process control center (minicomputers)
 Level 4 – management control or dispatching center (mainframes)

Figure 7.5 is a representation of the control levels.

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 Data
presentation Management
and control Control
LEVEL 4

Supervisory
Supervisory
LEVEL 3 process data
Control
access
and control

Data acquisition
LEVEL 2 DDC; RTU

Process controller
LEVEL 1 Process
instrumentation

LEVEL 0 Signal transducers and drives

Process hardware

Connection of control levels through coded or bus digital

signals.
Connection of control levels through digital or analogue signals
transmitted in series (hardwired or simple communication links).

Figure 7.5 Distributed control levels

Level 1
Functions are:
 Logic and protection functions
 Control of basic process units
 Coordination of a few basic process units
 Calculation of complex process variables from given process signals

I/O hardware requirements are:

 Analogue and digital I/O circuits
 Serial bus connection

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  Standard serial interface to RTU

Level 2
Functions are:
 Control of process variables
 Communication with controller, complex process instruments, other RTUs and superimposed digital
computer

I/O hardware requirements are:

 Analogue/digital I/O circuits
 Standard interface to controller
 Communication interface

Level 3
Functions are:
 Optimizing functions
 Process data issuing
 Data logging
 Engineering calculations
 Account issuance
 Program compilation
 Data supervision
 Front-end processing towards level 4 system

I/O requirements are:

 Communication interface
 Operators console interface
 Standard data bus

Level 4
Functions are:
 Optimize overall system performance
 Account issuance
 Off-line programs (simulation and modelling)
 Program compilation

I/O requirements are:

 Standard communication interface
 Operator’s console interface
 Peripheral devices interface

Advantages of DCS
1. modularity – resulting tree is conceptually simple, and as such is easy to design, commission,
maintain and modify/expand.
2. system integrity – a correctly designed system will be, for short periods, fault tolerant and can cope
in a limited mode with the failure of individual stations.
3. increased performance – lower level machines take the work off higher level machines allowing
machines to be specialized for operations at their operating levels and thus perform them more
superbly.

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Communication Protocols
A communication protocol is the “electronic” language used to transmit data over a communication channel.
Communication protocols are needed to enable PLCs and RTUs to exchange data, either with other PLCs and
RTUs or SCADA Host platforms. Over the years, communication protocols have evolved from being
proprietary towards a single industry standard. Many manufacturers gravitated to MODBUS, but added on
proprietary elements to meet specific functionality requirements. In recent years, protocols have appeared
that are truly non-proprietary, such as DNP (Distributed Network Protocol).

Assignment following a visit to a plant

1. Describe any SCADA or DCS that you recognised in the plant.
2. What was the communication media used?
3. What tasks could be done on an operator interface?
4. Describe the operator interface devices used?

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SCADA PICTURES

Figure 7.6 SCADA ARCHITECTURE

Figure 7.7 SCADA NETWORK

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 Figure 7.8 SCADA Network

Figure 7.9 INTERCONECTION OF SCADA NETWORKS (COORDINATION BETWEEN ACTORS IN A SYSTEM)

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 Figure 7.10 TYPICAL CONTROL ROOM

Figure 7.11 TYPICAL DISPLAY OF A POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

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Figure 7.12 ENGINEERING AND RUNTIME ENVIRONMENTS

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