Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e10

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Journal of Cleaner Production

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Reusing copper tailings in concrete: corrosion performance and

socioeconomic implications for the Lefke-Xeros area of Cyprus
€
Obinna Onuaguluchi a, *, Ozgur Eren b
a
Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science Lane, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Eastern Mediterranean University, Famagusta, North Cyprus, via Mersin 10, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Copper mining and processing activities at an abandoned mine in the Lefke-Xeros area of Cyprus have
Received 25 September 2014 created a huge environmental contamination problem in the locality. As an alternative mitigation and
Received in revised form management measure, we reported in previous studies that these tailings could be used as a concrete
28 January 2015
making material. In this paper, results of an experimental investigation of the reinforcement corrosion
Accepted 10 September 2015
Available online xxx
performance and cost efficiency of 0.57 and 0.50 w/b ratio concrete containing copper tailings either as a
cement replacement or an additive material are presented. The time to initiation of corrosion and half-
cell potential (HCP) of reinforcements were measured. Actual corrosion status of extracted reinforcement
Keywords:
Concrete
bars was also verified by visual inspection. Results showed that while early corrosion initiation occurred
Copper tailings in some samples containing tailings as a cement replacement material, delayed corrosion initiation was
Recycling observed in all samples containing copper tailings as an additive. Although HCP values became slightly
Corrosion more electronegative as tailings content of samples increased, no substantial reinforcement corrosion
Cost efficiency was observed. Based on corrosion performance and cost efficiency analyses, utilization of 5% pre-wetted
Socioeconomic benefits tailings either as a cement replacement or an additive material is the best tailings reuse approach.
Increased tourism-related businesses associated with reduced pollution of the Lefke-Xeros coastal area
would have a positive impact on the socioeconomic status of the community.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Copper is a highly conductive, durable and multifunctional
metal, which has been a very useful material since ancient times.
Presently, applications of copper and copper alloy products have
grown in building construction, industrial machinery, trans-
portation, general consumer products, telecommunication, elec-
trical and electronic products. The International Copper Study
Group (2013) estimated that between 1900 and 2012, annual use
of refined copper increased from less than 0.5 Mt to over 21 Mt.
Consequently, to satisfy the growing demand for copper, lower
grade ores with high waste volume output are being processed. It is
estimated that for every 1 ton of copper extracted, about 128 tons of
solid tailings are produced (Gordon, 2002). According to Boger
(2009), about 230,000 t of dry copper tailings are produced daily
at the Escondida Copper Mine in Chile. Huang et al. (2012) also
reported that presently, more than 2.4,000,000,000 t of copper
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: luchiobinna@yahoo.com (O. Onuaguluchi).
tailings exist in China. Therefore, given that the high demand for
copper is expected to continue in the coming years as high-tech and
innovative copper-based products are increasingly manufactured, it
is anticipated that in the major copper producing countries of the
world, billions of tons of copper tailings would be produced in the
coming years.
The exposure of sulfide bearing copper tailings to air, rainwater
and bacteria ensure the continuous generation of acids through
oxidation reactions. Hence, seepages and surface water runoff
through tailings storage facilities (TSF) has caused severe soil
contamination, surface and ground water pollution across the
world. Several studies have reported the severe impacts of copper
tailings and acid mine drainage (AMD) on the environment. High
metal and acid concentrations in water obtained close to aban-
doned copper mines and mine wastes in Southern Tuscany, Italy
was observed by Benvenuti et al. (1997). In a related study, Salonen
et al. (2006) observed that 50 years after the closure of the Orij
arvi
Mine, Southwest Finland, the contamination of the nearby Lake
Orijarvi through AMD was still ongoing. Similarly, studies by Brooks
et al. (2005) have reported complete eradication of macro/meso
fauna and flora in lakes and ponds adjacent to the Karabash Copper

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.036
0959-6526/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

€ Reusing copper tailings in concrete: corrosion performance and socioeconomic

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2 € Eren / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e10
O. Onuaguluchi, O.
Smelter, Southern Ural Mountains of Russia. The discharge of tons
of untreated tailings from the El Salvador mine, into the sea, made
the Chan ~ aral coastline in north of Santiago, Chile to be significantly
copper contaminated (Andrade et al., 2006). In Zambia, high con-
centrations of zinc and nickel in water and sediment soils in
streams located near the Chambishi Copper Mine were reported by
Ntengwe and Maseka (2006). Tailings and AMD induced toxic metal
contamination of soil within the vicinity of the Dabaoshan Mine,
Southern China, was also observed by Zhou et al. (2007). It is clear
from these aforementioned studies that environmental degrada-
tion associated with copper tailings disposal is a global problem.
More fatal is TSF breach which has led to significant loss of lives
and severe environmental degradation in some countries. Failures
of El Cobre Dam, Chile (1965), Pinto Valley Dam, Arizona, USA
(1997), Aitik Dam, Sweden (2000), Cerro Negro dam, Chile (2003)
and Nchanga, Chingola Dam, Zambia (2006) are examples of cata-
strophic copper tailings dam incidents (Diehl, 2014). Blight and
Fourie (2005) reported that 89 persons were killed when the
Mufulira copper tailings dam, Zambia, collapsed on 25th
September, 1970. Although, advances in technology have brought
about improved TSF design, the uncertainty about facility perfor-
mance over time and cost implication of continuous monitoring are
sources of concern.
Efforts to remediate environmental devastation associated with
mining activities usually involve huge financial outlay. Cherry
(2008) submitted that in the early 1990s, the Kennecott Utah
Copper company spent more than $350 million on tailings removal
and land remediation efforts at the hundred-year-old open-pit
copper mine in Salt Lake City. Similarly, Dold (2008) was of the
opinion that mine waste remediation costs in the United States and
Canada are estimated to be between 1 and 2 billion United States
dollars per year. Therefore, to minimize environmental contami-
nation and the associated remediation costs brought about by mine
tailings and industrial by-products disposal, it is imperative that
increased reuse, recycling and reprocessing of these materials as an
alternative management approach should be explored (Edraki
et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2014).
Some studies have investigated the reuse of electrolytic man-
ganese residue, aluminum production by-products, tungsten and
copper tailings in the manufacture of value-added products. Zhou
et al. (2014) reported that the properties of autoclaved non-fired
bricks containing electrolytic manganese residue satisfied the re-
quirements of the relevant Chinese government regulatory stan-
dard. Studies by Pern a and Hanzlíce ^k (2014) showed that using the
geopolymerization technique, aluminum production wastes could
be utilized in the manufacture of foamed thermal insulation walls
for buildings. Castro-Gomes et al. (2012) were of the opinion that
uncontaminated tungsten tailings could be used as a polymer-
based construction material for sculptural and architectural appli-
cations. Fang et al. (2011) reported that up to 50% sand content of
autoclaved sandelime brick could be replaced with low SiO2 copper
tailings. Using pressure forming and geopolymerization technique,
Ahmari and Zhang (2012) were able to produce copper tailings
bricks that conform to the American Society for Testing and Ma-
terials (ASTM) specifications. Compared to plain reference mixture,
Onuaguluchi and Eren (2012a) reported that comparable mechan-
ical strength, higher acid and chloride penetration resistance were
observed in copper tailings blended concrete. Thomas et al. (2013)
have also observed that copper tailings could be used as a fine
aggregate replacement material in concrete. Toxicity tests on cop-
per tailings blended concrete specimens subjected to mild and
aggressive leachants by Onuaguluchi and Eren (2012b) showed that
the release of toxic metals such as Pb, Cr and Cd from these spec-
imens were below the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (US EPA) regulatory limits.
€ Reusing copper tailings in concrete: corrosion performance and socioeconomic
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To further engender the interest of the construction industry on
the proposed reuse of tailings as a concrete making material,
additional information on the effect of these tailings on reinforce-
ment corrosion needs to be addressed. Hence, in this paper, the
effects of copper tailings obtained from an abandoned copper mine
and processing site in Lefke-Xeros area of Cyprus on the rein-
forcement corrosion initiation time and deterioration in copper
tailings blended concrete mixtures were investigated. The cost ef-
ficiency of using copper tailings either as a cement replacement
material or as a cement additive in concrete was also analyzed.
Moreover, discussion on the environmental and socioeconomic
benefits the reuse of these tailings would bring to the Lefke-Xeros
community was also presented.
2. Description of the study area
Fig. 1 shows the location of the study area, in the Northwest of
Cyprus. The area encompasses two villages, Lefke (Lefka) and Xeros
which are 3.8 km apart. The study area is abutted by the Mediter-
ranean Sea on the north, the United Nations buffer zone on the
south, and the seasonal Xeros and Lefke Rivers on the west and east,
respectively. An abandoned ore processing plant, tailings storage
facilities, a pit mine and an earth dam reservoir are also located in
the study area. According to Cohen (2002), the land area suspected
to have been contaminated by mining and processing activities
covers about 2000 ha, of which 156.6 ha of land was appropriated
by the abandoned copper processing facility and 84.1 ha by tailings
deposits. Fig. 2 shows copper and pyrite tailings ponds located
adjacent to the processing plant, northeast of the study area.
Between 1914 and 1974, Cyprus Mining Corporation (CMC)
operated three mines; Skouriotissa, Mavrovouni and Apliki mines
near the Lefke-Xeros area of the Island. Sulfide ores from these
mines were transported to the treatment plant situated near the
coast of Xeros for mineral processing. The main mineral produced
was copper while gold was the secondary product. Decades of
mineral exploration and processing produced huge deposits of
toxic waste materials disposed in ponds across the area. Yukselen
(2002) suggested that waste deposits at the abandoned process-
ing site contain about 2.5 Mt of copper tailings. These uncovered
and un-stabilized waste material ponds have not only appropriated
a large surface area of land, it has also distorted the landscape. The
prolonged weathering of these tailings and the associated acid
generation has caused severe soil contamination, surface and
ground water pollution in the area. Surface runoff from the study
area and the contamination of the Mediterranean Sea during wet
seasons are highlighted in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively.
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Materials
The binders used in preparing concrete mixtures were Portland
slag cement CEM III/A (Class 32.5N) and copper tailings obtained at
various locations from deposits at an abandoned processing facility
at Lefke, Cyprus. The tailing samples were air dried and sieved with
a 600 mm sieve before usage. For the pre-wetted condition, a
quantity of water corresponding to the absorption capacity of
tailings determined in accordance with ASTM C128 (2007) was
used to saturate the tailings. Thereafter, pre-wetted tailings were
placed in a sealed jar to equilibrate for 24 h. The fine and coarse
aggregates were sourced from locally crushed limestone rock. Fig. 5
shows the particle size distribution of fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate and copper tailings. While the fine aggregate gradation
was determined according to ASTM C128 (2007) guidelines, ASTM
C127 (2007) was used in determining the gradation of the coarse
 € Eren / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e10
O. Onuaguluchi, O. 3

Fig. 1. The location of the study area (Cohen, 2002).

aggregate. For the copper tailings, ASTM C128 (2007) and ASTM
D422 (2007) guidelines were used for the particle size analysis.
3.2. Physical and chemical properties of copper tailings
Some physical and chemical properties of cement and copper
tailings are shown in Table 1. While the specific gravity of the
tailings determined in accordance with ASTM C188 (2009)
specifications was 4.29, the specific surface area obtained using
ASTM C204 (2007) guidelines and Blaine's air permeability
apparatus was 537.0 cm2/g. The ASTM C128 (2007) water ab-
sorption of the tailings was 13.8%. It is suspected that prolonged
exposure to weathering might have contributed to the reduced
fineness and increased porosity of these tailings. Chemical
properties shown in Table 1 indicate that these tailings have very
high concentrations of Fe2O3, and heavy metals such as Cd, Cr,
Cu, and Pb. The high Cu content in the tailings is probably as a
result of unsophisticated copper extraction technology used in
the ore processing.
3.3. Mixture proportions
Using 0.57 and 0.50 water-to-binder (w/b) ratios, concrete
mixtures incorporating copper tailings at cement replacement

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Fig. 2. The location of tailing ponds northeast of the study area.

levels of 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% were prepared. These mixtures were
identified as C0 for reference and C5eC15. Another set of mixtures
containing copper tailings as an additive at 5% and 10% addition
level were also prepared, and denoted as C5A and C10A, respec-
tively. Moreover, at 5% cement replacement or copper tailings
addition level, C5-PW and C5A-PW denote mixtures prepared with
pre-wetted tailings. For each mixture, two 100 mm
200 mm
cylinders were cast for the accelerated corrosion test and half-cell
potential measurements. On completion of concrete casting oper-
ations, specimens were kept in the curing room for 24 h before they
were then de-moulded and left in the room at a temperature of
23.0 ± 2.0  C and humidity of 85 ± 5% until the 90th day for testing.
The mixture proportions and their 90th day compressive strength
are summarized in Table 2.
3.4. Accelerated corrosion test
Reinforced concrete corrosion resistance was measured at the
end of 90 days curing using an accelerated corrosion procedure. For
each mixture, two 100
200 mm cylindrical concrete specimens
containing a centrally embedded 14 mm diameter and 250 mm
long steel reinforcing bar were used. The steel bars were embedded
in such a way that a reinforcement cover of 5 cm at the bottom of
each specimen was ensured. Prior to embedment and casting, re-
inforcements were pickled with a 5% hydrochloric acid (HCl) so-
lution. During the test, specimens were immersed in a glass box
containing 5% sodium chloride (NaCl) solution. Reinforcement bars
acted as the anode while a copper plate electrode was used as the
cathode. Thereafter, each test setup was connected to a constant

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Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate Copper tailings

100
90
80

Percentage passing
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.1 10

Particle size (mm)

Fig. 3. Polluted surface runoff from the study area. Fig. 5. Particle size distribution of copper tailings and aggregates.

36 V DC power supply. Specimens were monitored daily and the was determined using Equation (1) (Agarwal and Gulati, 2006). The
currents transmitted through the system were recorded every cost estimates of cement, fine and coarse aggregate at the time of
1 min using a data logger for 7 days. study were based on the local prices of construction materials in
North Cyprus and are in United States dollars. The following prices
were used: $0.11 per kg of cement, $14.50 per m3 of fine aggregate
3.5. Half-cell potential (HCP) measurements
and $13.43 per m3 of coarse aggregate.
ASTM C876 (2009) specified test for the determination of the Fc
probability of corrosion occurrence in reinforcements was con- CEF ¼
100 (1)
C
ducted immediately after accelerated corrosion tests. However, due
to the unavailability of the Cu/CuSO4 (CSE) electrode specified in Where CEF is cost efficiency factor, FC is the average compressive
ASTM C876 (2009), a digital Ag/AgCl electrode which converts strength of mixtures at 90 days while C is the material cost per m3
readings to equivalent CSE potentials was used. For each specimen, of concrete.
readings were taken at four surface locations. HCP measurements
were repeated 4 weeks after sample air drying. 4. Results and discussion

3.6. Visual inspection 4.1. Accelerated corrosion test

To ascertain the actual physical corrosion state of
reinforcements, samples were split after the half-cell potential
measurements, and the presence of corrosion products and
deteriorations on the surface of extracted reinforcements were
evaluated.
3.7. Cost efficiency
Fig. 6 shows a typical current vs. time plot of the accelerated
corrosion test data, and from these plots, the corrosion initiation
times of samples were determined according to the approach
previously reported by Pal et al. (2002). During accelerated corro-
sion test of concrete by impressed voltage, three distinct stages can
be observed in Fig. 6. In stage 1, the current transmitted gradually
increased as sample resistivity decreased and more chloride

The cost efficiency factor (CEF) was calculated to show the ratio
Table 1
of compressive strength to material cost per m3 of each mixture. It Chemical and physical properties of cement and copper tailings.

Component Cement Copper tailings

Chemical composition (%)

SiO2 29.15 11.20
Al2O3 7.34 e
Fe2O3 2.42 85.30
CaO 50.04 e
MgO 3.99 e
SO3 1.97 e
Cl 0.01 e
Loss on ignition 1.65 e
Insoluble residue 0.27 e
Heavy metal content (mg/kg)
Cu e 2284
Zn e 402
Pb e 60
Cr e 12
Cd e 0.86
Physical properties
Specific gravity 2.96 4.29
Blaine specific surface area (cm2/g) 3440 537
Absorption (%) e 13.82
Fig. 4. Contamination of the Mediterranean Sea.

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Table 2
Mixture proportions.

Mixture type Mixture name Tailings (% by mass) W/B ratio Quantities (kg)

Water Cement Tailings Fine Coarse

Cement replacement
C0 0 0.50 225 450 0 818 887
C5 5 0.50 225 428 22 818 887
C5-PW 5 0.50 225 428 22 818 887
C10 10 0.50 225 405 45 818 887
C15 15 0.50 225 383 67 818 887

C0 0 0.57 225 395 0 810 950

C5 5 0.57 225 375 20 810 950
C5-PW 5 0.57 225 375 20 810 950
C10 10 0.57 225 355 40 810 950
C15 15 0.57 225 335 60 810 950
Cement additive
C5A 5 0.50 225 450 22 818 887
C5A-PW 5 0.50 225 450 22 818 887
C10A 10 0.50 225 450 45 818 887

C5A 5 0.57 225 395 20 810 950

C5A-PW 5 0.57 225 395 20 810 950
C10A 10 0.57 225 395 40 810 950

solution permeates. At chloride concentration higher than the
threshold value, reinforcement depassivation whereby the thin
passive protective layer on reinforcement surface is gradually
removed by chloride ions will occur. Before the stage 2, maximum
current induced by high chloride concentration leads to the for-
mation of corrosion products which temporarily insulates the
embedded reinforcement and increase its resistivity. Hence,
decreasing current is usually associated with this stage of the test.
At the 3rd stage, built-up corrosion products exert stresses on
surrounding concrete, and sample cracking is expected to occur
once these stresses exceed the tensile strength of concrete. The
cracking of concrete is generally accompanied with a sharp increase
in current since chloride ions will readily penetrate through cracks
on sample. Therefore, the time to corrosion initiation is the period
from start of test to the time when current decrease commenced.
Microstructure, chloride content, reinforcement cover and pore
conductivity are some of the factors which can influence rein-
forcement corrosion in concrete. At the end of the accelerated
corrosion test, cracks were not observed on all samples. This
occurrence is partly attributed to the slag cement and the 43 mm
circumferential cover to reinforcement used in the study. The dense
microstructure engendered by slag cement and thick cover to
reinforcement enhanced the resistance of samples to deterioration.
For the mixtures containing copper tailings as a cement
replacement material, Fig. 7a shows that the corrosion initiation
time for the 0.57 w/b ratio mixtures were 975 min for C0, 673 min
for C5, 935 min for C5-PW, 900 min for C10 and 985 min for C15. For
the 0.50 w/b ratio mixtures, Fig. 7b shows that the corrosion
initiation time were 1065 min for C0, 895 min for C5, 1195 min for
C5-PW, 1130 min for C10 and 1400 min for C15. Given the decreased
chloride penetration depth of samples as tailings content of mix-
tures became higher (Table 4) reported by Onuaguluchi and Eren
(2012a), it was anticipated that all the copper tailings blended
mixtures would have delayed corrosion initiation time in compar-
ison to the reference specimens. However, with the exception of the
C15 samples, it appears that chloride binding induced by tailings
were not sufficient to offset the influence of increased sample
conductivity on corrosion initiation time of the 0.57 w/b tailings
blended mixtures. Compared to the C5 samples from both 0.57 and
0.50 w/b ratio concrete batches, the better performance of the
samples containing 5% pre-wetted tailings (C5-PW) is as a result of
internal curing induced enhanced hydration and microstructure.
Similarly, higher improvement in microstructure as the w/b ratio of
mixtures reduced is partly responsible for the increased delay in
corrosion initiation time observed in the 0.50 w/b samples.
Conversely, Fig. 8a and b show that compared to the reference
samples, all the specimens containing copper tailings as an additive
had delayed corrosion initiation. From Fig. 8a, the delays in corro-
sion initiation time for the 0.57 w/b ratio mixtures were 40 min for
C5A, 58 min for C5A-PW and 215 min for C10A. For the 0.50 w/b
ratio mixtures, Fig. 8b equally shows that the delays in corrosion
initiation time were 335 min for C5A, 415 min for C5A-PW and
560 min for C10A. Compared to the mixtures containing copper
tailings as a cement replacement material, these results imply that
the use of copper tailings as an additive in mixtures has a more
significant beneficial impact on concrete durability. While chloride
binding contributed to the enhanced performance of the additive
mixtures, the filler effect of these tailings on matrix porosity which
ultimately led to improved microstructure of samples played a
significant role.

4.2. Half-cell potential (HCP) measurements

Table 3 shows the ASTM C876 (2009) HCP guidelines while

Table 4 shows the corrosion potentials of samples. HCP values
Fig. 6. A Typical Current vs. time plot of samples. immediately after the accelerated corrosion test for the 0.57 and

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a C15
HCP values determined after 1 month of air drying of samples
confirmed the aforementioned submissions on the effect of mois-
Cement replacement level (%)

ture on HCP readings. The second HCP values for 0.57 w/b ratio
concrete containing copper tailings as a cement replacement ma-
C10
terial varied from 251 to 296 mV. Similarly, the values for the
0.50 w/b ratio concrete were between 211 and 262 mV. The HCP
C5-PW values for the mixtures containing tailings as an additive were
261 to 265 mV for the 0.57 w/b ratio concrete, and 248 to
252 mV for the 0.50 w/b ratio concrete. In both set of measure-
C5
ments, HCP values became slightly more electronegative as tailings
content of samples increased. Although, the only inference which
C0 could be drawn from these second set of HCP values, according to
the ASTM C876 (2009) guidelines shown in Table 3, is that the
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 corrosion states of all these samples are uncertain, the performance
of the samples containing tailings as an additive was slightly better
Time (mins)
than those of the cement replacement samples.
b
C15 4.3. Visual inspection
Cement replacement level (%)

Given the shorter time to the initiation of corrosion in some of

C10 the tailings blended concretes, especially for the C5 mixtures,
higher corrosion was expected in these samples. However, visual
inspections revealed that no major deterioration and loss of section
C5-PW took place in all embedded reinforcements. In all samples, only thin
traces of red oxide on few locations around reinforcement surfaces
were observed. The absence of severe corrosion deformation in
C5 samples may be attributed to the following reasons. First, the use of
a concrete cover of 43 mm and sample curing time of 90 days
constitute a formidable resistance measure against corrosion. Sec-
C0 ondly, since these samples did not crack during accelerated corro-
sion tests, huge influx of chloride ions which would have initiated
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 large-scale degradation of reinforcements could not take place.

Time (mins) 4.4. Cost efficiency

Fig. 7. (a). Corrosion initiation time in 0.57 w/b ratio concrete (cement replacement
mixtures) (b). Corrosion initiation time in 0.50 w/b ratio concrete (cement replacement
mixtures).
0.50 w/b ratio concrete containing copper tailings were more
electronegative than those of the reference samples. For the 0.57 w/
b ratio samples containing tailings as a cement replacement ma-
terial, HCP varied from 1282 to 1308 mV while those of the 0.50
w/b ratio mixtures fluctuated between 1274 and 1312 mV.
Similarly, the HCP values for the mixtures containing tailings as an
additive were 1304 to 1328 mV for the 0.57 w/b ratio concrete,
and 1270 to 1292 mV for the 0.50 w/b ratio concrete. Ordinarily,
these very high negative values would indicate that severe rein-
forcement corrosion is ongoing in samples. However, these high
electronegative potential values were as a result of the saturation of
samples at the time these readings were taken. Soleymani and
Ismail (2004) were of the opinion that high moisture content can
raise HCP values of samples not undergoing corrosion significantly.
Similarly, Hussain (2011) submitted that HCP values of submerged
concrete samples are not correct indicators of corrosion rate.
Table 3
ASTM C 876 half-cell potential guidelines.
HCP readings vs. Cu/CuSO4 Corrosion activity
reference electrode
Less negative than 200 mV 90% probability of no steel corrosion
Between 200 mV and 350 mV Steel corrosion is uncertain
More negative than 350 mV 90% probability of steel corrosion
Table 5 shows that the cost efficiency of mixtures containing
copper tailings as a cement replacement material was marginally
better than those of the reference mixtures. However, comparing
the two w/b ratios evaluated, it appears that the cost efficiency of
replacing cement with copper tailings was better in 0.50 w/b ratio
concrete. Similar trend was highlighted in Table 6 for the mixtures
containing copper tailings as a cement additive. Overall, the CEF
indices in Tables 5 and 6 suggest that the use of 5% pre-wetted
copper tailings either as a cement replacement material or as a
cement additive in 0.50 w/b ratio concrete is the most cost efficient
reuse approach.
5. Environmental and socioeconomic impact
Air pollution due to wind dispersion of tailings particles and
sulfur gases occurs regularly in the study area. Studies by Yukselen
and Alpaslan (2001) on soil samples from the abandoned pro-
cessing facility site showed that the soil contained high concen-
trations of metals and was also of very low pH. The mean metal
contents of soil samples were 510.0 mg/kg for Cu, 153.0 mg/kg for
Pb and 15.3 mg/kg for Fe. Altinbaş et al. (2001) observed severe
heavy metal pollution of soil, crops and the Xeros (Gemikonag i)
irrigation dam. Similarly, Yukselen (2002) observed that both the
soil around the smelting facility and water from the adjoining
Mediterranean Sea contain high concentrations of heavy metals,
and this anomaly was clearly associated with the tailings disposed
€kçekuş et al. (2003) were also of the opinion that acid
at the site. Go
mine drainage contributed to the contamination of ground, surface
water and the sea within the Lefke-Xeros area. Therefore, given
these aforementioned environmental problems in the study area,

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implications for the Lefke-Xeros area of Cyprus, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.036
8 € Eren / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e10
O. Onuaguluchi, O.

Table 4
Chloride penetration depth and half-cell potential measurements.

Mixture type W/B ratio Mixture name Chloride penetration depth (mm) Initial HCP (mV) Final HCP (mV)

Cement replacement 0.57 C0 19.9 1246 233

C5 13.8 1282 251
C5-PW 11.8 1269 244
C10 9.1 1289 272
C15 4.1 1308 296
0.50 C0 16.1 1254 207
C5 8.3 1274 211
C5-PW 7.2 1253 226
C10 6.1 1295 233
C15 2.1 1312 262
Cement additive 0.57 C5A 7.6 1304 261
C5A-PW 7.2 1287 259
C10A 3.4 1328 265
0.50 C5A 3.2 1270 248
C5A-PW 3.1 1250 244
C10A 1.6 1292 252

copper tailings removal from the study area and reuse in concrete
being proposed in this study would serve as a mitigation measure,
curtailing the magnitude of ongoing air and soil contamination in
the area. It would also help in the long-term decontamination of
the study area. Moreover, in the absence of acid mine drainage
intrusion of the Mediterranean Sea, it is anticipated that coastal sea
a the Lefke-Xeros area is low. Polluted sea shore and insufficient in-
C10A
Copper tailings addition level (%)
current would help induce fast decontamination of the Lefke-Xeros
sea shore.
Tourism is an important industry, which according to Lee and
Chang (2008) has a strong influence on the economic develop-
ment of many countries across the world. In North Cyprus, Yasarata
et al. (2010) reported that more than 850 tourism and hospitality
businesses make significant contribution to the economy. However,
compared to other coastal communities in the region, tourism in
frastructures could be some of the reasons for the infrequent tourist

visits recorded in the area. According to the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), clean water and healthy
coastal habitats are some of the fundamental requirements for
C5A-PW coastal tourism to thrive (Hall, 2001). Therefore, the prevention of
beach and coastal water pollution in the study area, improved
infrastructure, the expansion and rehabilitation of the existing CMC
Golf Club and increased publicity of nearby historic sites could
C5A transform the Lefke-Xeros area into a sustainable tourist hub.
Tourism and recreation service providers such as hotels, beach re-
sorts, restaurants, gift shops, boating and tour operators would
create new job opportunities and economic growth for the locals.
C0 Furthermore, secondary sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing
and educational establishments would also develop to cater to the
needs of the growing population. Overall, increasing revenue from
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
12 1400
these aforementioned activities will enable the government to
Time (mins) provide additional support infrastructures and social services that
would enhance the social wellbeing of the Lefke-Xeros community.

b 6. Conclusions
C10A
Copper tailings addition level (%)

 Time to the initiation of corrosion, earlier than those of the

reference samples were obtained at 5 and 10% cement substi-
C5A-PW tution level for the 0.57 w/b ratio concrete, and 5% substitution
level for 0.50 w/b ratio concrete. However, corrosion initiation
time became delayed as w/b ratio decreased and tailings sub-
C5A stitution level increased.
 The use of copper tailings as an additive in concrete was more
effective in delaying corrosion initiation. Furthermore,
C0
compared to samples containing dry tailings at 5% replacement
or addition level, the better performance of samples containing
pre-wetted tailings was as a result of internal curing enhanced
0 500 1000 1500 2000 microstructure.
 HCP measurements taken immediately after accelerated corro-
Time (mins)
sion tests for all the mixtures were unusually high. However,
Fig. 8. (a). Corrosion initiation time in 0.57 w/b ratio concrete (additive mixtures) (b). subsequent measurements after moisture loss were reasonably
Corrosion initiation time in 0.50 w/b ratio concrete (additive mixtures). low, which suggests that data obtained from saturated samples

€ Reusing copper tailings in concrete: corrosion performance and socioeconomic

Please cite this article in press as: Onuaguluchi, O., Eren, O.,
implications for the Lefke-Xeros area of Cyprus, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.036
 € Eren / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e10
O. Onuaguluchi, O. 9

Table 5
Cost efficiency factor of concrete mixtures (cement replacement).

Mix Mix constituents Mix cost CEF

Cement (kg) Fine (m3) Coarse (m3) Cement ($) Fine ($) Coarse ($) Cost/m3 ($) 90 d (%)

0.57 C0 395 0.29 0.37 43.5 4.2 5.0 52.8 61.8

C5 375 0.29 0.37 41.3 4.2 5.0 50.6 63.7
C5-PW 375 0.29 0.37 41.3 4.2 5.0 50.6 64.7
C10 355 0.29 0.37 39.1 4.2 5.0 48.4 64.5
C15 335 0.29 0.37 36.9 4.2 5.0 46.2 65.2

0.50 C0 450 0.30 0.35 49.5 4.4 4.7 58.6 75.3

C5 428 0.30 0.35 47.1 4.4 4.7 56.1 76.3
C5-PW 428 0.30 0.35 47.1 4.4 4.7 56.1 78.2
C10 405 0.30 0.35 44.6 4.4 4.7 53.6 71.8
C15 383 0.30 0.35 42.1 4.4 4.7 51.2 74.6

Table 6
Cost efficiency factor of concrete mixtures (cement additive).

Mix Mix constituents Mix cost CEF

Cement (kg) Fine (m3) Coarse (m3) Cement ($) Fine ($) Coarse ($) Cost/m3 ($) 90 d (%)

0.57 C0 395 0.29 0.37 43.5 4.2 5.0 52.8 61.8

C5A 395 0.29 0.37 43.5 4.2 5.0 52.8 69.4
C5A-PW 395 0.29 0.37 43.5 4.2 5.0 52.8 70.5
C10 395 0.29 0.37 43.5 4.2 5.0 52.8 67.5

0.50 C0 450 0.30 0.35 49.5 4.4 4.7 58.6 75.3

C5A 450 0.30 0.35 49.5 4.4 4.7 58.6 75.3
C5A-PW 450 0.30 0.35 49.5 4.4 4.7 58.6 78.9
C10A 450 0.30 0.35 49.5 4.4 4.7 58.6 76.0

are inappropriate for predicting reinforcement corrosion in
these samples.
 Based on the ASTM C876 (2009) recommendations and the last
set of HCP values obtained in this study, corrosion states of re-
inforcements in samples were uncertain. However, visual in-
spection of extracted reinforcements showed that no major
deterioration and loss of reinforcement section occurred in all
samples.
 Considering corrosion performance and cost efficiency of mix-
tures, utilization as a cement additive is the best reuse option for
copper tailings in concrete. Utilization of these tailings as a
concrete making material will help mitigate air, soil, surface
water and groundwater pollution in the study area.
 Pollution free beach and coastal water have a strong potential of
facilitating the development of coastal tourism-related busi-
nesses in the community, thereby creating job opportunities in
the Lefke-Xeros area.
 Finally, the reuse of copper tailings in concrete could be repli-
cated globally either as an environmental pollution mitigation
strategy at abandoned mines or as an alternative tailings man-
agement approach for new mines. The environmental and so-
cioeconomic benefits that would accrue from this proposal are
immense.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Mr. Teoman Oktay and the
Environmental Society of Lefke for making available some of the
pictures.
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