Construction Panning, Equipment, and Metrods Four Trucks: Using four trucks, the time required to load wit 10.64 min, the lost time per truck cycle will be 10.64 — 8.66 = 8.66 will produce an operating factor of 5%. x 100 = 81.49% for In Example 10.1, note that the production ofthe shovel is hour. This policy should be followed when balancing a servicing with the units being served (hauling) because at times both ty operate at_ maximum capacity if the number of units is However, the average production of a unit, excavator or truck, period of time, should be based on applying an appropriate effi the maximum productive capacity. Attention must be called to this example we have chosen truck sizes that exactly match the load a 12-cy truck with @ 3-cy shovel results in an integer mu swings. In practice, tis is not always the case, but physically number of swings can be used in loading the truck CALCULATING TRUCK PRODUCTION The following is a format that can be used to calculate truck Step 1. Number of Bucket Loads The first step in analyzing ruck production is to determine the vator bucket loads it takes to load the truck. Balanced number of bucket loads = Step 2. Load Time ‘The actual number of bucket loads placed on the truck should be an) ber. Iris possible to light load a bucket to match the bucket vol ‘volume, but that practice is usually inefficient as it results in was If one less bucket load is placed on the truck, the loading & reduced; but the truckload is also reduced, Sometimes job condi that a fewer number of bucket loads be placed on the truck, ie, adjusted if haul roads are in poor condition or if the trucks must igrades, The truckload in such cases will equal the bucket volume: the number of bucket swings. For the case where the number of bucket loads is rounded down’ ower than the balance number of swings or reduced because of job) Load time = Number of bucket swings X bucket cyele load (Volumetric) = Number of bucket swings * volume ofehapter 10 Trucks and Hauling Equioment of truck body volume by the bucket volume is rounded to the Mand that higher number of bucket swings is used to load the ‘ll spill off the truck. In such a case, the loading dur ket cycle time multiplied by the number of bucket swings. Toad on the truck equals the truck capacity, not the num= ‘multiplied by the bucket volume. Toads rounded up to next higher integer above the balance = Number of bucket swings X bucket cyele time {10.21 (volumetric) = Volumetric capacity of the truck [104] ‘oad weight against the gravimetric capacity of the truck. etric) ~ Volumetric (Iey) X unit weight (loose vo. Ib/ley) twos] kload gravimetric < Rated gravimetric payload? [10.6] atthe highest safe speed and in the proper gear. To increase sway traffic patterns. Haul distance (ft) min) = - 02 ime (min) = 5 form/mph Haul speed (mph) 107! ‘weight of the tuck with the load, and considering the rolling ce from the loading area to the dump point, haul speeds can be the truck manufacturer's performance chart (see Figure 10.9) Bfor the truck are as folows: P (lywhoe! horsepower) cuyd 118.3 cu yd = 96,860 tb = 44,000 to {weight ~ 80,860 tb maximum speed for the truck when itis hauling a load of 22 tons a haul road having a roling reestance of 60 Ib per ton, equiva (rade. Because the chart is based on zero rolling resistance, EXAMPLE 10.2vehicle weight FIGURE 10. Construction Plansing, Equipment, and Methods Pestrmance Chr. Engine: GM 6—71N at239 hp Transmission llr SGT 12 Ade nto: 160721 Tie size 16.025 RoR 286i, Rated GVW Rated NVW 300 200150 10080 605040 30 20S 10 IS 20 25 30 35 40 48 Vehicle weit Ib 01000) mph | Performance chart for a 22.ton rear-dump truck itis necessary to combine the grade and roling resistance, which gives an equiva: lent total resistance equal to 6 + 3 = 9% of the vehicle weight. The procedure for using Fig. 10.9 is 1. Find the vehicle weight on the lower left horizontal scale. 2. Read up the vehicle weight line to the intersection with the slanted total resistance line. 3. From this intersection, read horizontally to the right to the intersection with the performance curv. 4. From this intersection, read dawn to find the vehicle speed, Following these four steps itis found that the truck wil operate in the second, {gear range, and that its maximum speed will be 6.5 mph, ‘The chart should be used to determine the maximum speed for each section of @ haul road having a significant difference in grade or rolling resistance. ‘While a performance chart indicates the maximum speed at which a vehicle can travel, the vehicle will not necessarily travel at this speed. A performance cchart makes no allowance for acceleration or deceleration. Additionally, other roadway conditions and safety (see Fig. 10.10) can control travel speed. Before using a performance chart speed in an analysis, always consider Such Factors as congestion, narrow roads, or traffic signals, when hauling on public roads, because these can limit the speed to less than the value given in the chart. The anticipated effective speed is what should be used in calculating travel time.41.0 Trucks and Having Equipmen FIGURE 10.10! The criver of an oft highway wuck | has a limited fed of viewen, Step 4. Return Time Based on the empty vehicle weight, and the rolling and grade resistance from the dump point to the loading area, retum speeds can be determined using the truck ‘manufacturer's performance chart Return distance ({t) Retum ime (min) = mph X Return speed Goph) (10.8), Step 5. Dump Time Dump time will depend on the type of hauling unit and congestion in the dump area. Consider that the dumping area is usually crowded with support equip- ‘ment. Dozers are spreading the dumped material and multiple pieces of com= paction equipment may be working in the area. Rear-dumps must be spotted before dumping. This usually means that the truck must come to a complete stop and then back up some distance. Total dumping time in such cases can exceed 2 min. Bottom-dumps will customarily dump while moving. Afier dumping, the truck normally turns and returns to the loading area, Under favorable conditions 4 rear-dump can dump and tum in 0.7 min but an average unfavorable time is, about 1,5 min, Bottom-lumps can dump in 0.3 min under favorable conditions but they (00 may average 1.5 min when conditions are unfavorable. Always try to visualize the conditions in the dump area when estimating dump time. Step 6. Truck Cycle Time ‘The eycle time of a truck is the sum of the load time, the haul time, the dump time, and the return time: Truck cycle time = Loading + Hathigg + Dumping + Rewrnin. (10.9)Construction Planning, Equipment, and Methods Step 7. Number of Trucks Required The number of trucks required to keep the loading equipment working at capacity ‘Truck cycle time (min) tumber of trucks = ree 2S ie . iS uae Loader cycle time (min) Ho Step 8. Production ‘The number of trucks must be an integer number, so if an integer number of trucks /ower than the result of Eq. [10.10] is chosen then the trucks will control Production, Production (Iey/r) = Truck load (ley) * Number trucks 60 min Truck cycle time (min) {10.11 When an integer number of trucks greater than the result of Eq. [10.10] is selected, production is controlled by the loading equipment. 60 min Production (1 = Truck load (ley) x = —— {10.12} dion (ley) eral Wes (KS) re asereeioineGaay | Cee AAs a rule iis better to never keep the loading equipment waiting. If there is not 4 sufficient number of haul trucks there will be a loss in production. Truck bunching or queuing will reduce production 10 1020, even when there is a per- fect match between loader capability and the number of trucks, Ithere are ex haul units, this queuing effect is reduced. Therefore, itis usually best to have ‘more trucks; i¢., wth Eq. [10.10] round up to the next integer. Step 9. Efficiency ‘The production calculated with either Eq. (10.11 oF [10.12] is based on a 60 min working hour. That production should be adjusted by an efficiency factor Longer hauling distances usually result in beter driver efficiency. Driver effi= cieney increases as haul distances increase out to bout 8,000 ft, after which effi- ciency remains constant. Other eritical elements effecting efficiency are bunch ing, discussed above, and equipment condition, Adjusted production (Iey/hr) = Production (ley) 4. Nothing time (min/he) 60 min [10.13] CONTROL OF HAULING COST Economical hauling is the result of good job planning and good field management. Mt involves selection of material sources only after a careful investigation of the hauling cost.10 Trucks and Hauing Equioment It requires management attention to haul-route grades and condition, It requires a complete analysis of production options. terial Source Selection constructing a fill it is frequently possible to obtain the necessary material sm a borrow pit located either above or below the fill. If the borrow pit is ve the fill, the effect of the favorable grade on the loaded truck is to reduce required rimpull by 20 Ib per gross ton for each 1% of grade. If the borrow jt is below the fill, the effect of the adverse grade on the loaded truck is to jperease the required rimpull by 20 Ib per gross ton for each 1% grade. Obviously the grade of the haul road will affect the hauling capacity of a truck, jts performance, and the cost of hauling material. It may be more economical to obtain material from a borrow pit above, instead of below, the fill, even though the haul distance from the higher pit is greater than from the lower pit. This is fn item that should be given consideration in locating borrow pits. If material is hauled dowabill, it may be possible to add sideboards to the ‘vehicle to increase the hauling capacity, up to the maximum load, which the ‘ruck frame, dumping system, and the tires can carry. In some instances, it will be desirable to use larger tires to permit the trucks to haul even greater loads. If ‘the material is hauled uphill, it may be necessary to reduce the size of the load forthe travel speed of the truck, either of which will increase the cost of hauling Haul Route ‘An important factor that affects the production capacity of a truck or a tractor: pulled wagon is the rolling resistance of the haul road. Rolling resistance is deter~ ‘mined primarily by two factors, the physical condition of the road and the tires used on the hauling unit, Rolling resistance can be greatly reduced by properly ‘maintaining the road and by properly selecting tie sizes and keeping them inflated to the correct pressure. Money spent for these purposes will return dividends, through reduced hauling costs, far in excess of the expenditures. This is one field ‘where the application of engineering knowledge will yield excellent returns. ‘A haul road that is given little or no maintenance will soon become rough, loose, and soft, and may develop a rolling resistance of 150 Ib per ton or more, fon the type of material and weather conditions. If a road is properly a grader, sprinkled with water, and compacted as required, be possible to reduce the rolling resistance to 50 Ib per ton or les. Sprinkling the road will reduce the damage to hauling equipment by eliminating dust. It will reduce the danger of vehicular collision by improving visibility and it will prolong. the life of tires because of the cooling effect that the moisture has on the ties. Production Options To lower the cost per unit of material moved, high production must be obtained from the hauling flet. Idle time, such as occurs while loading. should be kept to ‘minimum, When possible, loading with overhead hoppers should be considered ‘because ofthe faster loading time obtained when this arrangement is practical,Construction Planning, Equipment, and Methoos Generally, three to six passes of an excavator bucket to fill a haul unit resents a good balance, TIRES ‘Tires for trucks and all other haul units should be suitably matched to the je requirements, The selection of proper tite sizes and the practice of maintains correct air pressure in the tires will reduce that portion of the rolling resistan due to the tires. A tire supports its load by deforming where it contacts the surface until the area in contact with the road will produce a total force on road equal (o the load on the tire. Neglecting any supporting resistance furnished. by the side walls of the tire, ifthe load on a tie is 5,000 Ib and the air pressure is 50 psi, the area of contact will be 100 sq in. If, for the same tre, the air prese sure is permitted to drop to 40 psi, the contact area will be increased to 125 sq in, The additional area of contact will be produced by additional deformation of. the tire. This will increase the rolling resistance because the tite will be contine ually climbing a steeper grade as it rotates, The tire size selected and the inflated pressure should be based on the resise tance, which the surface of the road offers to penetration, by the tire. For rigid road surfaces, such as conerete, small-diameter high-pressure tires will give ower rolling resistance, while, for soft road surfaces, large-diameter low-pressure. tires will give lower rolling resistance because the larger areas of contact will reduce the tire penetration depth. Many tire failures can be traced to constant overload, excessive speed, incorrect tire selection, and poorly maintained haul roads. Underinflating tires can cause radial sidewall cracking and ply separation, Overinflation subjects the tire to excessive wear in the center of the tread. Mismatched duals will cause unequal weight distribution, overloading the larger tre. Tires generate heat as they roll and flex. As a tire's operating temperature increases, the rubber and textiles within significantly lose strength. Earthmover tire manufacturers will provide a ton-miles-per-hour (TMPH) limit for their tires. Its good practice to calculate a job TMPH rate. ‘TMPH job rate = Average tire load x Average speed during a day's operation (10.14) Average tire load (cons Empty” tre load (tons) + “Loaded” tre load (ton peor oot (ns) Beaded ae ed (om) 2 Round trip distance (miles) number of trips Average speed (mph) = Rownd wip distance (miles) * numberof trips Total hours worked (10.16) When calculating the job ‘TMPH rate always select the tire that carries the high- cst average load.Chapter 10 Trucks and Hauling Equipment 299 ‘ffhighway truck weighs 70,000 tb empty and 150,000 Ib when loaded. The 3 distribution empty is 50% front and 60% rear. The weight distribution loaded front and 67% rear. The truck has two ffont tres and four rear tires. The truck ‘an &-hr shift hauling blast rock to a crusher. The one-way haul distance is rriles. The truck can make 14 trips per day. E Front, two tires Rear, four tires Empty weight 70.000 50% rom and 50% rear 25,0002 5000 fo Loaded weight 180,000 to 38.3% font and 666% rea 50,000 100,000 a E Weight pertire Weight per tire Ene 1750015 37506 Loaded 25,000 fo 25,000 10 ‘Average te oa 106%00 Baton e ront tire carries the highest average load (2x 55mi) x 14 tips Bt Average speed = 19.25 mph TMPH job rate = 10.6 tons x 19.25 mph TMPH job rate = 204 Average speed = ‘This means that a tire with a TMPH rating of 204 or higher must be used under these job conditions, It the tes actualy used have a TMPH rating of less than 204, either the speed or the load, or both, must be reduced TRUCK PERFORMANCE CALCULATION ‘The following example analy2es the performance ofa Meet of 2 trucks being loaded by hydraulic hoe having a 3-cy bucket See cence euemeesecmeeummee Rear-dump trucks with specifications as follows are used to haul sandy clay. The performance chart shown in Fig. 10.9 is valid for these trucks, Capacity Struck, 14.7 oy Heaped, 2:1, 183 cy Net weight empty = 36,860 Ib Payload 44,000 tb Gross vehicle weight = 80,860 15Construction Panning, Equipment, and Methods ‘The trucks willbe loaded by a hydraulic hoe having a 3-cy bucket. The haul {rom the borrow site to the fil is a 3-mile downhill grado of 1%, Its earth, ‘maintained, Dump time will average 2 min because of expected congestion on. fil The hoe should be able to cycle in 20 sec. The sandy clay has a loose unit of 2,150 Ibfoy. A realistic efficiency estimate for this work is a SO-min hour Step 1. Number of bucket loads. The bucket fil factor forthe hoe handling sat clay has been determined to be 110%. The hoe bucket volume will therefore be 33 ley (3 X 1.1). The heaped capacity of the truck is 18.3 18.3ley 3ley ‘The actual number of buckets should be an integer number; therefore, two cases, placing either five or six bucket loads on the truck, should investigated Step 2. Load lime. Check production based on bath possible situations, § or 6 bucket loads to fil he tuck Balanced number of bucket loads 20sec Load time (tive buckets) 5 x 8° _ 4 66 min See 60 sec per min Load volume (five buckets) 5 x 3.3 ley/boucket load = 16.5 ley 5,045 Ib Okay 35,045 Ib < 44,000 Ib rated payload Check load woight 16.5 ley X 2,150 Ib per oy 20sec Load time (six buckets) 6 x a> ETP = 2.00 min Load volume (six buckets) equalls truck capacity 183 ley, excess spils oft ‘Check load weight 183 ley x 2,160 Ib per ley = 39,945 lb Okay 99,345 tb < 44,000 Ib rated payload Stop 3. Haul tine RRoling resistance Table 5.1; earth, poorly maintained, 100 0 140 Ib peer ton Using an average value 120 Ib per ton or 6.0% Grade resistance ~1% Total resistance 5.0% [6.0% + (-1%)) Five buckets Six buckets Errly Wack nel weigh 35860 35.8601 Load woight 35.085 59.345 tb Gross weight 71.905 76.205 Speed Fig, 10) te reh 13mph In this particular case, the effect of total resistance and the difference in gross eight for the two load scenarios resulls in a speed difference for the conditions. ItChapter 10 Trucks and Hauling Equiorent 301 resistance had been onty 4% the achievable speed would have been 22 pth load conditions. aul ne (ve buckets) 2 THES * 5.280 fle aul me ve buckets) Sk TER Smiles x 5,280 fi/rile aul ime (six buckets) Ses * SO be ‘ —) 88 tpm/mph x 13 mph. J. Return time. Rolling resistance Table 5.1; earth, poorly maintained, 100 0 140 ib per ton Using an average value 120 Ib per ton or 6.0% Grade resistance 1% Total resistance 7.0% [0% + (+1%) Empty truck weight 36,860 tb Speed (Fig. 10.9) 22 mph Smiles 5,280 thmile Return time aay Reena COL Dump time. Congestion on the fil, dump time expected to be 2 min. Truck cycle time Five bucket loads Six bucket loads. fon the truck (min) on the truck (min) load ie 188 200 Haul tire 1125 ra8s. ‘Bump te 200 200 Return ome Bis are Truck eye ime 2308 25.08 . Number of trucks required. Five bucket loads Six bucket loads ‘on the truck ‘on the truck Truck vole tre 23.08 min 2605 Loader eye tine 1.68 me 200m Number of tucks 139 130 3. Production. The number of trucks must be an integer number. For the case of five buckets to load the truck, consider using 13 or 14 trucks. If 18 trucks are used, the loader wil have to wait for trucks; therefore, the truck cycle will control production. Production (tive buckets and 13 trucks) 16:5 loy x 13 trucks. 0 min 23.09 min 1114 trucks are used, loader will contro! production and the trucks will ‘sometimes wait to be loaded 387 Key per hrConstruction Panning, Equipment, and Methods Step 9. Production (five buckets and 14 trucks) 16.5 ley 60 min 7.66 min = 596 ley por Considering the case of six bucket loads and using 13 trucks Production (six buckets and 13 trucks) 18.3 ley 13 trucks y, 60min Beam ~ 548 ey per be In this particular case, considering only production, itis best to load light, {and use 14 tucks for an hourly production of 596 ley. I the effort were made to better maintain the haul road, the roling resistance would decrease, and the travel speed advantage tothe lighter load would disappear. For the case of an earth, compacted, and maintained haul road the rolling resistance would be between 40 and 70 Ib per ton considering rubber high-pressure tires. Using an average condition, the total resistance for the haul would be just over 4% and the haul speed for both loading conditions (five or six buckets) would be 22 mph, This would reduce the number of trucks required because of the faster cycle time. Note in Table 10.1 that ifthe haul road is improved the same 596 Icy per hy production can be achieved with one less truck. The same production with fewer trucks wil cause production cost to be reduced. The analysis, also illustrates the fact that there is a mismatch between the size of the hoe bucket and the size ofthe truck. It is very inefficient to be loading so light orto be wasting so much spillage with the last bucket. ‘TABLE 10.1 | Production comparison with various numbers of bucket loads to fil he truck and ditforont numbers of trucks Five bucket loads Six bucket loads Talat seston on “onan ‘one tack rr 7008 23 in tae ‘eran come nan ot ne ‘eon ‘ove Poacion nae stipe sonojte Potton 1 rte sacle Seon Pans 2h moon Seon Pest hee oye Sy Eticieney Acted production 598 cy port x £2 497oy per Finally, this production can be converted as necessary into bank cubic yards or tons by using material property information specific to the job or average values as found in Table 4.3. 2.150 lo per ley 2,000 1b perton Adjusted production 497 Icy per hr x 0.74 = 367 bey per hr ‘Adjusted production 497 ley per hr x = 534 ton per hr10 Trucks and Hauing Equipment Because the cost of the excavation equipment is usually greater than the cost haul truck itis common practice to use a greater number of trucks than the lance number derived from the ratio ofthe loader and truck cycle times. When sidering this decision the mechanical condition of the trucks should be con- dered. Another consideration is the availability of standby trucks. These are hot necessarily idle units but could be trucks assigned to lower priority tasks from which they can easily be diverted ‘After the jab has started, the number of trucks required may vary because of changes in haul-road conditions, reductions or increases in the length of hauls, for changes in conditions at either the loading or dumping areas. Management should always continue to monitor hauling operations for changes in assumed conditions. SUMMARY ‘The use of trucks asthe primary hauling unit provides a high degree of flexibility, asthe ‘number in service can usually be increased or decreased easily to permit modifications in the total hauling capacity, When estimating what @ truck will carry both the rated ‘gravimetric load and the rated-heaped volume must be examined. The heaped capacity is the volume of material that the ruck will haul when the load is heaped above the sides. ‘The actual heaped capacity will vary with the material that is being hauled. Critical learn- ing objectives include: An understanding of the necessity to achieve balance between excavator bucket volume and truck load volume. An ability to use performance charts to calculate truck speed, An understanding of the job site constraints that affect dump times. An ability © calculate the number of trucks required to keep the exeavating ‘equipment working at capacity. | These objectives are the basis forthe problems that follow. | PROBLEMS 10.1 A truck for which the information in Fig, 10:9 applies operates over & haul road With a +3% slope and a rolling resistance of 140 Ib per ton. Ifthe gross vehicle ‘weight is 90,000 Ib, determine the maximum speed ofthe truck, (rimpull 9,000 Ib, speed 6.5 mph) 10.2 A tuck for which the information in Fig. 10.9 applies operates over a haul road ‘with a +4% slope and a rolling resistance of 90 Ib per ton. Ifthe gross vehicle ‘weight is 70,000 Ib, determine the maximum speed of the truck, 10.3 A tuck for which the information in Fig. 10.9 applies operates over a haul road ‘with a —4% slope and a rolling resistance of 200 Ib per ton. If the gross vehicle ‘weight is 80,000 Ib, determine the maximum speed ofthe tuck, (rimpall 4,800 Ib, speed 12 mph) 10.4 The truck of Problem 10.2 operates on a haul road having a ~4% slope: deter~ 1 the maximum speed. 10.8 An articulate truck weighs 46,300 Ib empty and 96,300 Ib when loaded. This truck has one front axle and two rear axles, The weight distribution empty is