Assignment on History of

Environment

TOPIC - forest policies - colonial and

postcolonial period

submitted by submitted to

Ajaimul Aktar Barbhuiya DR. N. Khan

Roll No. 18

Course number 205

Department of History

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my
teacher DR. N. Khan who gave me the golden opportunity to do
this wonderful project on the topic forest policies - colonial and
postcolonial period , which also helped me in doing a lot of
Research and i came to know about so many new things I am
really thankful to them.
Secondly i would also like to thank my friends who helped me a
lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame.

Contents
INTRODUCTION
FOREST POLICY DURING COLONIAL PERIOD

FOREST POLICY DURING POST-COLONIAL PERIOD

OVERVIEW OF FORESTRY IN INDIA

THE IMPACT OF COLONIAL FORESTRY

SUMMARY

References

INTRODUCTION

In the constitution of India, ‘forestry’ appears on the ‘concurrent list’

meaning that both federal as well as state governments have control over
forestry activities but the federal government, as a policy-making body, has
overriding authority. However, management authority is with the state
governments. The organizational structure and operating procedures of the
state Forest Departments as lineal descendants of the colonial system of
management, are almost similar in all the states of India.
Conservation of forests formed an integral part of the Vedic tradition of
India as early as 300 BC. The Maurya kingdom recognized the importance of
forests, and the first emperor of the dynasty, Chandragupta, appointed an
officer to look after the forests .The forest policy is a complex balance
between economic, social and political objectives in an environment where
the forests and the institutions continuously change .The forest policy in India
changed over a period of time. The arrival of British and their perception
about forest resources created enormous change in the forest cover, forest
resources and the rights of tribal people in India. The forest management and
conservation practices in India are dissimilar in different period and it is
primarily divided into two periods namely (i) colonial and (ii) post-colonial
period for analysing the changes generally in forest sector and particularly in
forest management for preventing atmospheric concentration of GHGs,
especially CO2.

FOREST POLICY DURING COLONIAL PERIOD

During colonial rule in India, the forest policy gave much importance to
exploitation of forest resources without concerning conservation. The
ownership was assumed by the colonial powers and this period records a
march towards centralization and the forests came under the control of the
state. Huge quantity of natural resources were exploited in the name of
development, however the reality behind this was commercial exploitation by
the state. The colonial British Administration realized the international
demand for timber and potential monetary benefits from the forests, strict
rules were enforced by compulsion to bring all these forests under the state
control. The over exploitation of forest resources during British
Administration marked a new phase in the use of forest produce in
India. Most of the policies during the colonial period have a custodial attitude
and they gave much importance to the forests than the dependent people.
Between 1800 and 1947 India witnessed rigorous policy interventions in
forest management and there was much debate within the colonial
bureaucracy on the subject of forest versus people. Since 1855, the
establishment of railway network required large quantities of wood for
sleepers and low cost engine fuel, and the expansion of railways and
deforestation positively related.
Machonchie provides the earliest record of commercial exploitation of forests
in 1796, for the extraction of teak in Malabar to meet the demands for
shipbuilding and military purposes. In the year 1799 alone 10,000 teak trees
were brought down from the Baypore river under further pressure from the
'home government' to ensure the maintenance of the future strength of the
King's navy. Ships were built from the teak imported from India and in the
dockyards in Goa and on the Malabar coast. In this situation the East India
Company looked to India as a potential of their supplies. Thus the arrival of
the British and the exploitation of India's forest resources marked a new
phase in the use of forest produce in India.

Forest Policy, 1855

In 1855, Lord Dalhousie framed the Forest Charter which leads regulation of
wasteland by changing its status into government property in India. This was
treated as a key intellectual transition of legal rights of wasteland which leads
to forest conservation in the later period. The Forest Charter of 1855 put the
Indian forestry on a solid scientific basis which introduced new
environmental interventions which were paternalistic, radical and previously
untried. These forest initiatives, born in India, spread to other British colonies
and the United States of America.
Lord Dalhousie’s new forest policies greatly expanded British authority over
the land and people of India. British India’s forest administrators feared the
potential long-term environmental, economic and climatic effects of
deforestation caused by indiscriminate logging which convinced Dalhousie to
support modern scientific forestry methods and conservation.
 Indian Forest Act, 1865

The organized forestry activity began in 1864, when the Imperial Forest
Department was established in India. The Imperial Forest Department
attempted to establish its control over forests, by various legislations with the
help of German Forester Dietrich Brandis, who was brought to look into the
process of forest resource management in India .The Indian Forest Act, 1865
was legislated with the objective of asserting state monopoly on forest
resources.
Brandis argued about the influence of forest on climate, rainfall, and
irrigation sources as a strong tool to the imposition of state control over
forests. The property rights regime changed with the first Forest Policy
Statement of Colonial British Government.
In India, British rulers transformed the indigenous decentralized forest
management systems into a centralized system, created a bureaucratic
agency,
Forest Department (FD) to meet their timber and revenue demands. The
bureaucratic structure of the FD with its hierarchical working practices,
though non-responsive to societal needs, was in line with the colonial
government’s requirements The Indian Forest Act, 1865 was declaredthe
British Administration’s monopoly over the forests of India.

The Forest Act, 1878

In India, by the Forest Act of 1878, the British Administration acquired the
sovereignty of all wastelands which by definition included forests. This Act
also enabled the administration to demarcate reserved and protected forests.
The local rights were refused in the case of protected forests while some
privileges which were given to the local people by the government which can
be taken away are anytime. This Act classified the forests into three –
reserved forests, protected
forests and village forests. It was attempted to regulate the collection of forest
produce by forest dwellers and some activities declared as offence and
imprisonment and fines were imposed in this policy to establish the state
control over forests.

National Forest Policy, 1894

The Forest Policy 1894, the first formal policy in India gave much
importance to commercial exploitation of forest products, state custodianship
and permanent cultivation. This policy is primarily based on Dr. Voelcker's
recommendations given in a report on 'Improvement of Indian Agriculture',
1893.
Through this policy the British Administration encouraged the Zamindars to
convert the open forests into agricultural land for enhancing the revenue
earning of the state. Forests are treated as a source of revenue to the state and
not to meet the needs of the people.
In this policy, the forests were divided into four classes. The first class
generally situated in hill slopes and essential to protect the cultivated plains
from landslides and they played a conservation role for the benefit of
cultivated plains and assured revenue to the state. The second class of forests
consisted of valuable timber trees like devadharu, sal and teak and due to
commercial interest natural regeneration of devadharu and sal are promoted
and artificial regeneration of teak was developed. The third class of forests as
per the classification under this policy meant for minor forests,
which yields low quality timber, fuelwood and fodder and for meeting the
demands of local people. Finally, the fourth class covered the pastures and
grazing lands, the local people were allowed to use them with restrictions.

Indian Forest Act, 1927

This Act impacted the life of forest dependent communities. The penalties
and procedures given in this Act aimed to extend the state’s control over
forests as well as diminishing the status of people’s rights to forest use. The
village communities were alienated from their age-old symbiotic association
with forests.
Further amendments were also made to restrain the local use of forests
mainly by forest dependent communities.
 FOREST POLICY DURING POST-COLONIAL PERIOD

The post-colonial period starts with the Independence of India and

continuing till date. Since 1974 the Independent India formulated policies for
forest conservation and management. These policies were formulated with
national interest and changes were brought about in the forest cover of the
country.

Indian Forest Policy, 1952

Forest degradation and deforestation sustained from colonial period to

postcolonial period and emergence of a comprehensive forest policy
arose to reduce the over exploitation of forests. There are three forest
policies after independence, Indian Forest Policy, 1952, National
Commission on Agriculture, 1976 and Indian Forest Policy, 1988. The
Indian Forest Policy, 1952 was a simple extension of colonial forest
policy. However it became conscious about the need to increase the
forest cover to one-third of the total land area. At that time maximum
annual revenue from forests is the vital national need. The two World
Wars, need for defence, developmental projects such as river valley
projects, industries like pulp, paper and plywood, and communication
heavily depended on forest produce national interest .When National
Forest Policy first came into existence in 1952, the use of forest by adjoining
village communities was relatively restricted at the cost of national interests.
Forests are classified as protected forests, national forests, village forests and
tree lands according to this policy with distinct uses. The protected forests are
preserved for maintaining physical and climatic conditions and the
commercial forests are to meet the demand from defence and communication
industry. The forest dependent community can extract the produce of village
forests for domestic uses.
Independent India inherited this bureaucratic organizational structure of the
FD. In 1952, new national forest policy did make some deviations from the
colonial forest policy of 1894; however, these changes could not percolate
down to the operational levels .In 1953, the Indian government nationalized
the forests which were earlier with zamindars.
 Forest Conservation Act, 1980

The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 serves to check the diversion of forest
land for non-forestry purposes has become the cornerstone for conservation
of forests. The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 stipulated that the central
permission is necessary to practice sustainable agro-forestry in forest areas.
Violation or lack of permit was treated as criminal offense. It targeted to limit
deforestation, conserve biodiversity and save wildlife. Though this Act
provides greater hope towards forest conservation it was not successful in its
target. It resulted in increased deforestation and loss of biodiversity and
wildlife because the
rural population ignored the regulations and continued to use the forests for
their survival.

Forest Draft Bill-1980

Based on the recommendations of the NCA a draft forest bill was circulated
in 1980. Provisions were made in the bill to reduce people's rights over
forestlands and produce. The Government was empowered to declare any
land what so ever to be forestland for the purpose of the Act. The Act
prohibited the state governments from declaring any reserve forest or any
portion as unreserved and also from allotting any
forestland for any purpose without prior permission of the central
government. And also made several provisions against the rights of the forest
people. The bill attained criticism from the state governments as well as
activist groups. The Central Board of Forestry convened a meeting of forest
ministers from all the states in 1982 to discuss the points of criticism raised
against the bill. It was decided to
withdraw the draft forest bill and to appoint a committee to reconsider the
then forest policy. It was resolved that instead of being planned in isolation,
the development of forests have to form an integral part of the comprehensive
plans of Integrated Tribal Development. And recommended to constitute
better organised labour co-operatives to
undertake all forest operations by replacing intermediaries the Forest within a
time bound programme of 2-3 years and recognised tribal's rights of
collection of Minor Forest Produce and remunerative price should be ensured
for its marketing. And also proposed
that the forest villages were to be abolished and be converted into revenue
villages and recommended to appoint a committee on forests and tribals.

Indian Forest Policy 1988

Indian Forest Policy, 1988 is the second forest policy after independence of
India and first forest policy which recognized the role of local people in
forest protection and management of forests for achieving improvements in
community livelihood .The ultimate objective of this forest policy is
maintaining environmental stability and ecological balance through
conservation of forests as a natural heritage. The National Forest Policy in
1988 made a very
significant and categorical shift from commercial concerns to focus on the
ecological role of the forests and participatory management.
Community based forest management can be an effective tool for improving
rural livelihood and ensuring sustainable management of forest resources.

Joint Forest Management in India

The Government of India formally adopted community based forest
management on July 1, 1990 which laid down broad guidelines for an
institutional arrangement involving the local people to jointly protect and
manage the forest resources in return for benefits from it . The village
committees in association with the FD will manage specific forest blocks.
Forest protection is the responsibility of the people. It brought positive effect
in forest protection and management directed to the participation of 17 states
in JFM by 1992 with 2 million hectares of forest land under protection.

OVERVIEW OF FORESTRY IN INDIA

1855 -- Lord Dalhousie’s Forest Charter - regulation of wasteland,

modern scientific forestry.

1864-- Establishment of Imperial Forest Department.

1865-- Indian Forest Act, 1865 – asserted state monopoly on forest resources
– scientific forest management.

1878 Forest Act-– classification of reserved, protected and village forests –

refusal of local rights – opposed by the forest dwellers.

1894 -National Forest Policy-- Encouraged conversion of

open forests into agricultural land.

1927 Indian Forest Act, 1927 – alienation of forest dependent

Communities.

1930-- Establishment of Forest Department at state level.

1952 --Indian Forest Policy, 1952 – classification of protection,

national, village forests and tree lands – aimed to bring 33% of geographical
area under forest cover.

1953 --Nationalization of forests.

1980-- Forest Conservation Act, 1980 – intended to limit deforestation,
conserve biodiversity and wildlife.

1988 Indian Forest Policy, 1988 – recognition of the role of

local people in forest protection.

1990 -Adoption of community based forest management.

THE IMPACT OF COLONIAL FORESTRY

Colonial forestry has had wide ranging consequences. Apart from enriching
the British and their collaborators, the impact was overwhelmingly negative.
It caused irreparable environmental damage, jeopardized the livelihood of
communities who subsisted on forests, and became the role model of India’s
post independence forest management, thus ensuring its insidious continuity.

The expansion of railways reduced teak and sal forests of peninsular India to
such an extent that deodar forests of north India were required to be tapped.
Cleghorn in "The Forests and Gardens of South India" wrote that the Melghat
and North Arcot Hills, formally crowned with timber was almost laid bare.
The deodar forests of the Sutlej valley was rapidly exhausted after 1864
leaving only some deodar forests in the Jumna valley. In the north west
Himalayas where the finest quality of deodar were found in the forest of
Tehri Garhwal and Punjab were rapidly exploited by the agents of the
colonial state and in the later stages directly by the raja. This introduced a
qualitative change in the relationships between the ruler and the ruled. As a
result there were sporadic ‘dhandaks’ or forest movements in Tehri Garhwal
since the early years of the nineteenth century. Even Verrier Elwin has talked
of the melancholic effect forest reservation had on the tribals of Central India
for whom nothing aroused more resentment against the government than the
taking away of the forests they regarded as their own property.

The history of forest conflict and struggle can be seen essentially as

emanating from alternate conceptions of property rights and obligations.
There did not exist a developed notion of private property in the tribal and
peasant communities of India where the relationship to the overlord was
expressed in terms of mutual obligations which had to be fulfilled. Colonial
rule on the other hand was based on a notion of private property that ran
contrary to the experience of these communities. The tribals were confronted
with the vagaries of the colonial market economy that continually eroded
their lifestyles. Moreover the assertion of state primacy over natural resources
deprived them of an important means of subsistence.

Environmental movements in the colonial period were responses to the

British policies which: (i) tightened state control over forests areas (ii)
banned or restricted shifting cultivation, (iii) curbed hunting, timber use and
grazing and (iv) instigated an influx of outsiders from the plains
(moneylenders, traders, land grabbers, and contractors) into the forests.

In the nineteenth century tribal movements remained an endemic feature in

many parts of India. At the lowest stratum of the peasantry tribals subsisted
as agricultural labourers, coolies in plantations, mines and factories and
through shifting cultivation. The colonial state tightened control over forest
zones for revenue and banned shifting cultivation in the reserved forests.

The Santhals of Chhotanagpur revolted in 1855. A more formidable rebellion

took place in 1879-80 of the Gudem-Rampa in Tamil Nadu. They rose
against their overlord’s efforts to enhance taxes on timber and grazing, police
exactions, excise regulations restricting domestic production of toddy,
exploitation by moneylenders and traders, and restrictions of shifting
cultivation.
The best known tribal rebellion of this period is the Ulgulan or the Great
Tumult of Birsa Munda south of Ranchi in 1899-1900. The Mundas had seen
their khunt katti land system (joint holdings by khunts or tribal lineages)
being eroded during the nineteenth century by moneylenders and traders.
Birsa Munda, their leader, urged the killing of moneylenders, merchants and
Christians. The revolt was suppressed but the Mundas got recognition of the
khuntkatti system, and forced labour was banned.

A powerful Forest Satyagraha was held in Cuddapah during the Non-

Cooperation Movement after the traditional rights to the forest produce of the
primitive food gathering Chenchu tribe were restricted by the government
from 1898.

The old ‘Rampa’ country of the Godavari hills also remained restive. There
was a revolt in 1916 serving as a prelude to a major rebellion under Aluru
Sitarama Raju in 1922-24.

In 1910 British troops suppressed a rising in the Jagdalpur region against the

Raja of Bastar because of the recent banning of shifting cultivation and the
free use of forest produce. The rebels disrupted communications, attacked
police stations and forest outposts, burnt schools (being built with forced
labour and compulsory levies on tribals) and even tried to besiege Jagdalpur
town.

In 1914, Jatra Bhagat started a Oraon movement calling for a return to

shifting cultivation, monotheism, and abstention from meat liquor and tribal
dances. The movement took on a more radical millenarian colour in 1915 and
was quickly repressed. A more pacific ‘Tana Bhagat’ movement survived
among the Oraons and developed important links with Gandhian nationalism
from the 1920s.
 SUMMARY

It is evident that the people’s interests were made subservient to the state’s
commercial interests with regard to forests in the colonial period. Colonial
forest management paid much attention to maximum output of quality timber
for export and sleepers for expanding railways. British Administration used
to project from the fear of deforestation on the climate and irrigation to extent
state control over the forest and they never gave due importance to the
climatic impact of deforestation. They performed effective destruction of
forests on one hand and
talking about preservation of forests on the other and continuously focused
the forest dwellers as destroyers. It is acknowledged fact that the British
initially destroyed forests and subsequently implemented policies for forest
conservation.
After Independence, the Indian Government travelled through the path
showed by colonial forest policies and strengthened the state power by
legislative measures. Then the drive switched over to industrial wood
production. Diversion of forest land for agricultural and industrial purposes
leads to degradation of forests. The JFM implies a historical shift towards
decentralization of forest management in India through the New Forest
Policy of 1988.
 References

Balaji S, ‘Forest Policy in India – in Retrospect and Prospect’,

IUFRO
Science/Policy Interface Task Force regional meeting, M.S.
Swaminathan
Research Foundation, Chennai, 16-19 July 2002.

Balooni K and Singh K, ‘Prospects and problems of afforestation of

wastelands in India: A synthesis of macro- and micro-perspectives’,
Geoforum, Vol. 38, No.6, 2007, pp.1276–1289.

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