~ [ ~ journalof

magnetism
and
magnetic
ELSEVIER Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 133 (1994) 525-532
,i~ materials

Application of amorphous materials to sensors

T. Meydan
Wolfson Centrefor Magnetics Technology, School of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, University of Wales Cardiff
PO Box 917, Newport Rd, Cardiff CF2 1XH, UK

Abstract

Sensors are devices that convert one form of energy into another. Magnetics sensors are a sub-group of the above
which make use of one of the magnetic principles for conversion, namely: the galvanomagnetic effect, the
electromagnetic effect, the magnetoelastic effect, movement of domain boundaries, and the superconductive effect.
Amorphous materials have been commercially available in ribbon (1973), in wire (1981) or in powder form (1983).
The combination of good magnetic properties in the absence of magnetocrystalline anisotropy, and the mechanical
strength of these alloys make them suitable for sensor applications. Amorphous materials are broadly classified into
two categories, highly magnetostrictive and near-zero magnetostrictive types, both of which are extensively used in
sensor applications. In this paper the uses of amorphous materials as a sensor material in the detection of force,
displacement (angular or linear), vibration, acceleration, pressure, rotational speed, torque and temperature are
reviewed, showing operating characteristics with typical results.

1. Introduction (e) movement of domain boundaries: reversing

Sensors - the sensing elements of transducer sys-
tems - are devices that convert one form of energy into
another. There are many ways of classifying sensors:
according to input energy, output energy, actual con-
version principle, their functions, etc. For the purpose
of this article, we are interested in magnetic sensors,
which can be categorised according to five different
operating principles:
(a) galvanomagnetic effect: the influence of mag-
netic field on the properties of the material, examples
of which are the Hall effect and the magnetoresistive
effect;
(b) superconductive effect: using the Josephson ef-
fect, a SQUID (superconducting quantum interference
device) measures magnetic fields;
(c) electromagnetic effect: this is based on Faraday's
law of induction and related effects;
(d) magnetoelastic effect: this makes use of the
interrelationship between external stresses on the
properties of the magnetic materials; and
magnetisation in some saturated magnetic materials
does not occur until a critical field is reached. At that
instant a sudden magnetisation reversal takes place.
Amongst the above five operating principles, amor-
phous materials are used in the last three. The most
important advantages of amorphous materials over
others in sensor applications may be summarised as
follows: due to the lack of crystalline anisotropy they
possess unique magnetic, mechanical, electrical and
corrosion resistive properties.
2. Need for sensors
From large machines in industrial use to those in
everyday use demand better accuracy, more reliability,
ease of use and more sophisticated functions. These
requirements inevitably call for more rugged, reliable,
and cost-effective sensors. In a highly automated world
the use of sensors will naturally increase. Some of the
specific industries include transport, medical electron-

0304-8853/94/$07.00 © 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

SSDI 0304-8853(94)00199-2
526 Z Meydan /Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 133 (1994) 525-532

Pemk Voltqe(mV) M(T)

70 1.2 A.~RP~ Pmg= 6 : LINE C~MP-Hy
F",.
8O
..... ~/" • fIGOOHZ t 168~e
/
80 E
" ° / . '~ ,.8,,,. ~08 . / (' \
40 /,'
\ 0.6 "
80 4, l -4e
!
/
.4 -~J

10'
0 0
1 2 8 4
TWISTED TURNS
MAT.PEAK - - - - 8.C,PEAK - ~ -M(T)
Fig. 1. Variation of magnetisation, M and Matteucci voltages
with torsional stresses represented as twisted turns in highly
magnetostrictive 125 i~m amorphous wire.
ics, home electronics, security systems, and mechatron-
ics.
In the case of the transport industry [1], the prime
sensor opportunities are: gyroscopes, battery charge
level, anti-trapping edges (electric windows/sunroofs),
non-contact position (throttle angle and throttle pedal
position), position (position of control surfaces, engine
control flaps), aero engine opportunities (rotational
speed, pressure, temperature), object detection on rail-
way tracks, barometers, zero motion detection, pneu-
matic brake circuit pressure, accelerometers for adop-
tive suspension, break temperature and wear, non-con-
tact torque sensing, axle load, and air mass flow. It is
estimated [1] that the requirements for these sensors
could amount to £200 m per annum in the UK alone.
0.2
UF/PE:D.~
8 Fig. 3. F E M model result showing the magnitude of the field
just above the surface of the bone along the length of the
bone.
to many basic sensor designs due to their circular cross
sections. They also exhibit large Barkhausen jumps and
the Matteucci effect. They may be twisted, bundled,
torsioned and arrayed. These properties find uses in
the detection of acceleration, torque, rotary encoders,
non-contact switches, and security tags. A typical ex-
ample of twisting 300 mm long AF-10 wire (Unitika
Ltd) at 500 Hz under a constant ac field of 52 A / m is
shown in Fig. 1. Search coil peak voltages and the
associated magnetisation, M, having kept an almost
constant magnetisation level, jump to a near-zero level
(Barkhausen jump), whereas the Matteucci voltages
(measured across 200 mm lengths of wire) constantly
increase with applied torsion. Hence it is important to
study the properties of the material before its use in
sensors.
4. Field sensing devices

3. Amorphous materials and sensors Fluxgate-type sensors in ac mode (modulator-de-

modulator type) [2], Royer oscillator type with de source
In designing a sensor, the properties of the amor-
phous material either in ribbon or in wire form must ! ROTATION
be studied in detail. The B - H characteristics and the
stress sensitivity of ribbons have been widely reported. i z
Wires, relative late comers, have given a fresh impetus PERMANENT MAGNET ~ TRANSDUCER

H01e Hole
I I I I

4mr~ ~ a~ )~ I<
110mm

SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
6 ram Amorphous cored coils 6
Fig. 4. S c h e m a t i c representation o f non-contact p o s i t i o n sen-
Two amorphous cored coils positioned directly under each hole
sor. Transducer primary element on amorphous toroidal core
Fig. 2. Position of amorphous ribbon cores within the metal with two sets of windings (not shown) to energise and to
pin inserted into a femur. detect the output voltage.
 T. Meydan /Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 133 (1994) 525-532 527

TRANSDUCER CHARACTERISTICS
ELECTRICAL OUTPUT (mV)
125f\ , IToroid n
-/7
Clip /
1,s~'\
o
105 c.n,
Y ,p,n
95 ~ - i ..... i°i
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 MI.)8 Application Point/~
MECHANICAL INPUT (DEG)
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the vibration sensor.
Fig. 5. Typical response of non-contact position sensor.

[3] and two-core multivibrator type with dc source [4] as the phase shift in the secondary windings through a
have been reported to measure field values from phase-locked loop (PLL) circuit. It was also confirmed
recording fields to skeletal muscle and cardiac fields. that physical dimensions of the overall system could be
To detect the holes in a metal pin inserted into the reduced by 50%.
femur, a magnetic field sensor using Metglas 2605 CO A combination of an amorphous toroidal core, a
ribbon has been designed (Fig. 2). By modelling the ferrite permanent magnet and triangular-shaped M1H
system using FEM the exact positions of the holes may material has been proposed [8] as a position sensor
be found (Fig. 3). The current practice is to continually (Fig. 4). The toroidal core is energised by an ac mag-
X-ray the patient. Not only does this practice have netic field through its primary winding. The presence
obvious drawbacks but also it prevents its use in opera- of a permanent magnet nearby demagnetises the core.
tions in the Third World where expensive X-ray units This demagnetisation effect may be controlled by a
may not be available. strategically shaped shield (M1H). The output charac-
Toroidal amorphous ribbon cores to detect rota-
tional speed in unmagnetised [5] and ac or dc biased [6]
rotating wheels have been reported. Sensitivities are
70.0 mV
better than 0.34 m V / r p m and linearity is 0.78% FS.
These sensors operate in either analogue or digital
format.
Using of the squarer B - H characteristics of the
amorphous ribbons, an improved LVDT has been de-
signed and constructed [7]. The prototype measured ~ 1.0 s
displacements in the range of +25 mm with an accu-
racy of 0.9% FRO. The unit was capable of measuring
displacement using differential output voltages as well

Table 1
Typical operational specifications
Measurement parameter Performance
Sensitivity 0.08 mV/deg
(without amplification)
Nonlinearity 0.23% FSO
Non-repeatability 0.59% FSO
Hysteresis 0.03% FSO
Accuracy 0.85% FSO
Thermal sensitivity error 0.09% FSO/°C
(range 20-200°C)
Fig. 7. A typical vibration sensor response.
528 T. Meydan /Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 133 (1994) 525-532

(a)
SIDE VIEW: TOP VIEW:

[ 16.5 mm I Mass
I 11.5m m ~

12 mm
] jj ........ 'I "-]U-zi 1' ~~~m~T65 mm

MagnetisingCoil
ccore PickupCoil

Accelerometer Desi2n Usine Amorphous Alloy

(b)
Side View: Top View:

I 13 mm I I 13 mm I

Beam
I/7
..........

(Amorphous)
Mass
1
. ~ ] ................ ' I

C12
(Amorphous)
6.5 mm

Centred Mass~ Clamped-Clamped Beam

Fig. 8. (a) Accelerometer design using amorphous ribbon and a C-core; (b) Schematic representation of the beam and the mass.

teristics are obtained from the secondary winding on

the toroidal amorphous ribbon core. Typical operating
characteristics and the specifications are shown in Fig. mass (9)
12,
5 and Table 1, respectively. The thermal sensitivity
error was found to be 0.09% F S / ° C in the temperature
101
range 2 0 - 2 0 0 ° C . A typical non-contact position sensor I
i
operates upto 90 mechanical degrees, w h e r e a s the 8~
range of this sensor is upto 315 mechanical degrees. i

This position sensor can also operate in the linear 6p

range. T h e linearity of the sensor is not a particular i

problem as the shield could be strategically shaped to 'k

give any response. I

0 i ± J 1 _ , ~ _
5. Temperature sensors 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
frequency (kHz)

The Curie temperatures of amorphous alloys are Fig. 9. Variation of natural frequency of oscillation of the
dependent on their chemical compositions. This prop- mechanical system with mass. Calculations based on Metglas
erty has been utilised to construct temperature sensors. 2605CO: 30 ixm thick, 13 mm long and 6.5 mm wide.
 T, Meydan /Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 133 (1994) 525-532 529

]]me shift (uS)

40
Pulee-Generltot 2605 S3A (annealed 10 mm wide) /~J
Oscillator )
b = 0.4 Arnps ~ . j
,30 Freq = 200 Hz ~ ~ / ~

1o
I I
Delay Medium
I o
50 100 150 200
I Cursor position along Rx coil (rnm)

P.P.T.S __L_ N.P.T,S

J
Fig. 11. Variation of cursor position with delay time in amor-
phous ribbons.

any signal since there is no domain motion [10]. This

Amplifier Oeullloaoope
Filter
Fig. 10. Schematic representation of a delay line system using
amorphous material as a delay medium.
These devices are o n / o f f sensors as each composition
has its own Curie temperature point at which it loses
its ferromagnetic characteristics [4,9].
mechanism may be used as a vibration sensor (Fig. 6).
A typical output signal for a single shock is shown in
Fig. 7. In the automobile industry there is demand for
low-cost accelerometers; Fig. 8 shows a C-core ar-
rangement with an amorphous alloy centre beam. The
mass dependence of the natural frequency of the me-
chanical system is shown in Fig. 9.
7. Delay line principle

An acoustic pulse generated by a magnetic field

6. Acceleration sensors
A m o r p h o u s ribbon materials may be operated in
the unmagnetised m o d e by dynamic forces. The appli-
cation or removal of an applied force induces a voltage
in the search coil winding (unmagnetised) of a toroidal
core. Continual application of force does not produce
pulse in a transmitting coil around a magnetostrictive
medium (amorphous ribbon) propagates with the veloc-
ity of the sound. A n electromagnetic induction phe-
n o m e n o n causes a pulsed output signal to be detected
by a search coil [11]. The use of delay lines as a
displacement sensor was investigated. Fig. 10 shows a
typical block diagram of the construction. The arrival

APPLIED FORCE

EXCITATION/DETECTION

SYIT;~uLTAN~ // /l[--,-,~-#(~
\ \ AIIPs~IST~IB~
ON

//////////////////
Fig. 12. Schematic representation of a load cell, making use of a toroidal ring and amorphous ribbon attached to the central beam.
 530 T. Meydan /Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 133 (1994) 525-532

TRANSDUCER OUTPUT (mVolts) B ^ PEAK FLUX DENSITY (T) Shaft Wires Clam
335 r 13.35

2?
METGLAS 2605 S3A
AS-CAST

295i
(a) Z~ - -
-- Weight

~ .26
0 9 18 27
TENSILE FORCE (N)
C1 Cz C1 Co C2
Fig. 13. Characteristics of the amorphous load cell also show-
ing the hysteresis effect.

(b)
time of the pulse from the output waveform is directly
proportional to the position of the external cursor (a
small permanent magnet); see Fig. 11. By arraying this
system in two dimensions, a digitiser to put graphics
and characters into the computer is obtained [12].
Amorphous wires, due to their small cross sectional
areas improve the resolution of the system [13]. Grooves

Fig. 14. (a) Method of winding of amorphous wires over a

torqued shaft; (b) helical pattern; (c) chevron pattern (the
8, Load cells wires are clamped at the end of shaft).

The stress sensitivity of amorphous ribbons may be

used in the design of a load cell. In this design a
sive use of amorphous ribbons and wires as attach-
central beam is positioned at the centre of a ring
ments to the shaft material. Chevron pattern, grooved
structure (Fig. 12). The amorphous ribbon is attached
pattern and depositing amorphous material directly
to the central beam so that it experiences tensile stress
onto the shaft have been reported. Fig. 14 shows
only. A solenoidal winding around the centre beam
clamping of amorphous ribbons directly onto the shaft,
energises the ribbon. The search coil output voltage is
and typical output characteristics are presented in Fig.
proportionally reduced by the application of forces to
15. The most important problem of the non-contact
the ring structure. A typical result is shown in Fig. 13
for an as-cast Metglas 2605 S3A ribbon.
Output Volt (V)
056 ~ i
9. Torque sensors
0.54

Measurement of torque has always been a problem

for engineers. Apart from the contact types which have
obvious disadvantages, two basic techniques have been
proposed: the angle of twist and the stress sensitivity of
the shaft itself or the attached material. The twist
angle technique is not reliable as the angle is small and 0°o F ,
requires sophisticated electronics and accurate sensors. 0.44 - - ----
0 2 4 6 8 10
Hall effect, MR sensors and amorphous ribbons have Torque (N.m)
been used for this purpose over the years. The use of
the magnetic characteristics of the shaft material is not loading --4-" unloading

reliable, due to ageing effects, and because no two Fig. 15. Variation of output voltage against torque in a heli-
shafts may be identical. Researchers have made exten- cally wound AC-20 wire energised at 12.5 kHz.
 T. Meydan /Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 133 (1994) 525-532 531

Signal
Generator

Amplifier I

EC
J
/-~OOtQO@O 00@00000
SC1/@@@©O0 0 0 0 0 1
\J/
~+~++ signal
Tibia conditioning
~ ~ An~hou
Internal Fixation Plat~ @®@@ ©0 O00Cr

00000000 00000000
EC A/D
EC : ExcitingCoil

SC : SearchCoils

Micro
processor
Fig. 16. Application of amorphous wires for monitoring the bone fracture healing without contact.

torque measurement system is the variation of the a conductive target may be determined by positioning
output signal with variations in temperature. The re- two sets of secondary windings on either end of the
search is still ongoing on this problem. 50 mm long amorphous wire core. The target material
is strategically shaped so that it can detect the linear
position of the target due to changes in the eddy
10. Bone stress m e a s u r e m e n t
20 Sensor output (mV).
Bone healing processes are understood by measure-
ment of stress levels on fixation plates. There are two
types of fixation, internal and external. Conventionally,
19.5 f-800 Hz
strain gauges are attached to the fixation plate which is
a contact technique. Fig 16 shows the proposed amor-
phous wire sensor attached to the fixation plates on the
tibia. Typical characteristics of the system are shown in
Fig. 17. As the body temperature is constant, output 18.6
signal variation due to temperature is not expected in
this design.
11

II. Eddy current position sensors 17.1 i i i i Tprque (Nml

2 4 • • 10 12
In the design of eddy current sensors, the metal Fig. 17. Output characteristics of chevron type wires posi-
detector principle is used. The presence or absence of tioned on the internal fixation plate in bones.
532 T. Meydan /Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 133 (1994) 525-532

(b)~ c , target displacement ~ • .....

(a)
~- - probe
target -~-: eddy current
', - %- 3ram
\ " - - ,:W i
<=~L ( )

probe
Fig. 18. (a) Location of amorphous wire probe and conductive target. (b) Linear target displacement and the eddy current path in a
strategically shaped target.

Table 2
Specifications of linear and angular displacement transducers ( 0 = diameter, L = length, W = width)
Linear displacement transducer Angular displacement transducer
Probe size O10 mm × 50 mmL O10 mm × 15 mmL
Target size 170 mmL × maximum 17 mmW Q54 mm (maximum 10 mmW)
Displacement range 100 mm 320 °
Full scale output 3430 mV 297 mV Gain = 12.1
Sensitivity 34.3 m V / m m 0.93 m V / d e g
Output linearity error _<2.3% FSO < 2.0% FSO
Output repeatability error < 0.52% FSO _< 0.32% FSO In terms of standard deviation
Output hysteresis error _<0.22% FSO < 0.16% FSO
Thermal coefficient of output - 0.1%°C
voltage
Input current 20 mA 20 mA

c u r r e n t p a t t e r n s (Fig. 18). By positioning the target References

material around the core a n o n - c o n t a c t angular posi-
tion sensor is obtained. The specifications of b o t h
angular and linear eddy current position sensors are
p r e s e n t e d in Table 2.
12. Conclusions
The p r o p e r t i e s of a m o r p h o u s materials are well
suited for sensor applications. T h e r e have already b e e n
many commercial applications in industrial and medi-
cal fields. It is e x p e c t e d that more commercial p r o d u c t s
will be available in the future.
T h e basic studies carried out m a d e these applica-
tions possible. T h e basic r e s e a r c h into the p r o p e r t i e s of
t h e s e materials is continuing, and will in turn provide
the impetus for the d e v e l o p m e n t of m o r e integrated
a m o r p h o u s alloy sensors.
Acknowledgements. The results p r e s e n t e d in this
paper, unless r e f e r e n c e d otherwise, have b e e n ob-
tained by past and p r e s e n t research students at the
Wolfson Centre. I am grateful to t h e m all.
[1] Requirements and market opportunities for advanced
sensors in the transport industry, Department of Trade
and Industry, Quo-Tec Ltd, Amersham, Bucks HP6 5AE,
UK.
[2] Y. Kashiwagi et al., IEEE Trans. Magn. 26 (1990) 1566.
[3] K. Harada et al., IEEE Trans. Magn. 20 (1984) 1726.
[4] K. Mohri, IEEE Trans. Magn. 20 (1984) 942.
[5] B.M.F. Bushofa and T. Meydan, IEEE Trans. Magn. 23
(1987) 2197.
[6] T. Meydan and B.M.F. Bushofa, Sensors and Actuators
A 37-38 (1993) 458.
[7] T. Meydan and G.W. Healey, Sensors and Actuators A
32 (1992) 582.
[8] T. Meydan and G.W. Healey, Position transducer, UK
Patent Application, No. 9226480.3 (1992).
[9] T. Tarnoczi et al., Mater. Sci. Eng. 97 (1988) 509.
[10] T. Meydan and K.J. Overshott, IEEE Trans. Magn. 20
(1984) 948.
[11] T. Meydan and M.S.M. Elshebani, J. Magn. Magn. Mater.
112 (1992) 344.
[12] T. Meydan and M.S.M. Elshebani, IEEE Trans. Magn.
27 (1991) 5250.
[13] K. Kimura et al., 5th MMM Intermag Conf. (1991) CE-10.