GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Geometric design of a railway track is the most important aspect of railway track. The geometric
design should be such so as to provide maximum efficiency in traffic operation with maximum
safety at reasonable cost. The success or failure of track mainly depends on geometric design and
the safety of traffic depends on control of derailment which generally occurs due to,

1. Defects in track

2. Defects in vehicles and defective operations.

CAUSES OF DERAILMENT

Derailment may be occurs due to following reasons,

1. On straight track.
 Due to defective alignment.
 Due to defective gauge.
 Due to defective cross levels.
 Due to low joints.
2. On curved track
 Improper super elevation.
 Improper radius of curve.
 Improper operating speed.
 Unequal distribution of loads on the 2 rails.
3. At turnouts and crossings
 Excessive gaps at points.
 Lifting of toe of switch due to inadequate fittings or improper working of elastic
fastening.
 Excessive wear of the switches.
 Tight gauges.
 Defective check clearances at the nose of crossing.
 Improper assembly of crossings.
 Loose crossing bolts provided to connect using rails or check rails.

REQUIREMNTS OF GOOD TRACK

1. It should have proper gradient.

2. It should remain deep throughout the year.
3. It should have good drainage.
4. It should have proper curves.
5. It should have proper points and crossings.

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 6. It should have efficient signaling and interlocking mechanics.

GRADIENT: - Any departure of the track from the level is known as grade or gradient. An up
or rise in gradient is one when the track rises in the direction of movement of train whereas
falling or down gradient is one when the track falls in the direction of movement.

Gradients are provided with the following purpose,

 To provide uniform rate of rise or fall of the track.

 To reduce the cost of earthwork.
 To reach different stations at different elevations.

TYPES OF GRADIENTS

1. RULING GRADIENT: It may be defined as the max gradient allowed on the track
section. The steep gradient necessitates more powerful locomotives, costly haulages.
Therefore as gentle a gentle a slope as possible should be provided on the track. As a
rule, rise in gradient should be followed by fall in gradient. With this arrangement, the
amount of energy used in climbing is saved in descending gradient.

In determining the ruling gradient of the section, the length of the gradient, its position
should be considered as main parameter. The secondary parameters are the volume of
traffic it can handle, the distance between successive stations, speed at which system has
to run etc.

Indian railways specify the fall gradient. They are as follows,

- Plain terrain 1 in 150 to 1 in 200

- Hilly regions 1 in 100 to 1 in 150

2. MOMENTUM GRADIENT: These gradients on the section, which though not severe
than ruling gradient acquire sufficient momentum to negotiate them are known as
momentum gradient.
They do not determine the maximum load of the train due to their favorable position at
the section. For a momentum grade no obstruction like signal should be provided.
Therefore tractive resistance due to starting and acceleration will be getting increased.

3. PUSHER GRADIENT OR HELPER GRADIENT: At stated above, a ruling gradient

limits the max weight of the train which can be hauled over the section by a locomotive.
If a ruling gradient is so severe on a section, then it necessitates the help of extra engine
to pull the same load. Then this gradient is known as Helper or Pusher gradient.
Ex: On western ghat for broad gauge, a pusher gradient of 1 in 37 is provided.

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 As per Indian Railway manual, Helper gradient of 1 in 75 to 1 in 100 is provided when
one additional engine is used.

4. GRADIENT IN STATION YARDS: Generally gradient in station yards are flat of the
order 1 n 500 to 1 in 800. Too much steep gradients are not provided at station yards due
to following reasons,
 To prevent the movement of standing vehicle on the track due to effect of gravity
combined with strong wind or gentle push.
 To prevent additional resistance due to grade on the starting of the vehicle which is about
twice at the start than vehicle is in motion.

GRADE COMPENSATION ON CURVES:-

If a curve is provided on a track with ruling gradient, the resistance of the track will be increased
due to this curve, beyond the limit or resistance due to ruling gradient. In order to avoid
resistance beyond the allowable limits, the gradients are reduced in the curve. This reduction in
gradient is known as grade compensation for curves. The curve resistance is greater at lower
speed and it is generally expressed in % or degree or curve.

Note: While solving numerical example, depending on different gauge following values may be
adopted.

For Broad gauge (B G) - 0.04% / degree of curve

Meter gauge (M G) - 0.03% / degree of curve

Narrow gauge (N G) – 0.02% / degree of curve

OBJECTIONS TO CURVATURE OF THE TRACK:-

A straight railway track is ideal but curves also provided in railway track due to many reasons
such as to bypass the obstacle, to connect important points etc. the curves so provided will have
following disadvantages,

 Effect on working of trains: curve results in restriction on train speed, limiting its speed
and ban on use of heavy locomotives.
 Increase in maintenance cost: on curves, wear and tear of the track of the locomotive
parts is much greater which increases the cost of maintenance.
 Running of trains on curves is not smooth. Therefore at the change in direction because
of resistance, barking sound is created.
 More chances of accidents such as derailment, collision of trains, etc…occur at curves.
Hence as far as possible, curves should be avoided at following places namely

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 - Level crossings
- Bridge approaches
- Tunnel approaches
- Deep cutting
- Steep gradient
- Station yards & station approaches.

Relationship between degree & radius of curve:

A curve is defined either by its degree or by radius

The degree of the curve is the angle

Subtended at the centre by a chord of 30.5m.

This can be calculated as

AB =chord length= 30.5m

R = radius of arc in m

Circumference of the circle = 2πr

Angle made by the circle = 360°

Hence angle subtended by the chord, θ = (360/2πR)*30.5

= (1748.4/R) ≈ (1750/R)

In case of railways, degree of the curve is restricted as

For broad gauge, θ = 10°

For meter gauge, θ = 16°

For narrow gauge, θ = 40°

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Super elevation on curves (or) cant:

It is the difference in height between inner and outer rail on curves. It is provided by gradually
raising the outer rail above the inner rail, the inner rail being normally maintained at its original
level. Functions of super elevation are:

 It provides better load distribution on 2 lines.

 It reduces wear and tear of rails on ruling stocks and the magnitude of wear
and tear on rails and locomotive will be uniform.
 It neutralizes the effect of lateral forces.
 It provides smooth running of trains and comfort to passengers.

Effect of centrifugal force:

When a body moves in a circular path, it has a tenancy to move in a straight path tangential to
circular path. This tendency of the body is due to the fact that the body is subjected to constant
radial acceleration (v2 /gR)

This radial acceleration produces a force known as centrifugal force which is given by

F = (WV2 / gR ) where W = weight of the body

V = permissible safe speed

R = radius of curve

The effect of centrifugal force has to be counter acted if the body is to be moved in a
circular path and this counteracting force is known as centripetal force.

Thus a force is necessary to keep the train moving in a curved path which is obtained by
raising the outer rail over the inner rail one on the curve by an amount equal to super elevation.
When both wheels bear or rest equally on rails, there is enough super elevation to bring resultant
centrifugal force at right angle to the plane of top of rail. This condition reached is known as
equilibrium super elevation.

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To device the expression for equilibrium super elevation or relationship between super
elevation, gauge, speed and radius of curves.

Let θ be the angle at which XY plane is inclined.

e = super elevation

G = gauge length

F = centrifugal force

W = weight of vehicle

From the fig., tanθ = (e/G)

From the force diagram, tanθ = (F/W)

Equating these two, we have (e/G) = (F/W)

Hence, e = (F/W).G

But F = (WV2/gR).G

e = (V2G/gR)

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The above formula will be derived in FPS unit, In metric unit

e = (GV2/127R)

Where, 127 is obtained after conversation to metric unit.

In India, for broad gauge, G = 1.676 m

Hence, e for broad gauge (e) BG = (1.315 V2 / R) cms

For meter gauge, G = 1m

(e)MG = (0.8 V2 / R) cms

For narrow gauge, G = 0.762m,

(e)NG = (0.6V2 / R) cms

Thumb rule to estimate super elevation:

In the field super elevation is calculated using a relation,

Super elevation for BG in cms = ( speed in kmph / 10 )2 * (degree of curve /13)

For eg: If V = 50 kmph , degree of curve = 2

e = (50/10)2 * (2/13) = 3.846

Alternatively, wkt R = (1750/θ) = (1750/2) = 875m

Hence, B G track, e = (1.315 V2 / R )

e = 3.75 cms

Note:

For M.G, super elevation is kept 60% of B.G value.

Maximum Super elevation:

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On the basis of experiments carried out by many researches in Europe and India on std gauge for
overturning velocity, keeping track maintenance stds as main parameters. The max super
elevation can be kept 1/10th to 1/12th of the gauge.

On Indian railways, max super elevation fixed for different ranges of speed are as follows:

Gauge Max Speed in Kmph

100kmph 100kmph 120kmph 160kmph 200kmph
under under special
ordinary condition
condition
B.G 140mm 165mm 165mm 185mm 185mm
M.G 90mm 100mm - - -
N.G 65mm 75mm - - -

To estimate safe speed on the curve:

If in a track, if there are no of trains say n 1, n2, n3….. moving with different operating speed
namely, v1, v2, v3…. Then to have safe speed, weighted observation speed is considered as value
of speed to estimate super elevation from the equations delivered,

Weighted speed, V= n1v1 + n2v2 + n3v3 +……

n1 + n2 + n3 + …..
To estimate safe speed depending on type of curve and type of gauge:
On curves, the safe speed can be calculated empirically using following formulae, suggested by
Martin.
a) For B.G and M.G on transition curve safe speed= 4.4√ (R-70)
b) For non-transitional curve, 80% of the above value is the value of the safe speed,
V= 0.8 x 4.4√ (R-70)
c) For N.G,

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 1) For transitional curve, safe speed, V = 3.65√ (R-6) subjected to max speed of
50kmph.
2) For non-transitional curve, V= 2.92√ (R-6) subjected to max speed of
40kmph.

Note:

1) In case of N.G, under any circumstances, speed should not cross more than 50kmph.
2) For high speeds, ( for suburban trains) safe speed V= 4.58√R
Where, V= design speed in kmph,
R= radius of curve in m

The above formulas holds good if the locomotive is diesel engine or electric engine.

Note:

In India, max speed achieved by steam engine for different types of gauges are as follows,

For B.G = 96kmph

M.G = 72kmph
N.G = 40kmph

Cant deficiency:

Cant deficiency is the difference between the equilibrium super elevation necessary for
maximum permissible speed on the curve and actual super elevation provided on the curve.

Theoretically, for ideal condition we will estimate equilibrium super elevation from
equation derived for different gauges.

To satisfy field condition and safety aspects and accommodating different shapes of
curve, different values of speed obtained. The least value is used to estimate the super elevation

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obtained by safe speed. The difference should be brought to minimum level to accommodate all
the types of condition .In this content, cant deficiency plays a significant rule.

Effects of cant deficiency:

 Higher the cant deficiency, higher unbalanced centrifugal force. To balance these forces,
stronger track and track fastenings is essential to withstand lateral forces. Hence
construction and maintenance of track
 Higher the cant deficiency, frequency of derailment is more.
 Higher the cant deficiency, greater will be the discomfort of the passengers.

On Indian railways following cant deficiency is allowed,

Gauge Speed upto 100kmph Speed above 100kmph

B.G 75mm 100mm
M.G 50mm -
N.G 38mm -

Note:

(1) The estimation of max. permissible speed on the curve is taken as least of the following
a. Max. sanction speed of the section
b. Safe speed on the curve calculated by Martin’s formula
c. Speed provided on the consideration by super elevation
e = (GV2/127 R)
d. Speed provided corresponding to length of transition curve.

2. As per Indian railway works manual, equilibrium speed for providing super elevation on curve
should be least of the following,

a. when sanction speed on BG and MG is above 50kmph,

 75% of sanction speed subjected to max. of 50kmph

 Safe speed on the curve estimated by Martin’s formula.

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 Among the two values, least value is considered.

b. When the sanction max. speed is 50 kmph or less on BG and MG.

 max. sanctioned speed

 safe speed on the curve, whichever is less.

Station and Station yards:

Station is a place on a railway line where trains are stopped for the passengers to enter
and detrain. It is a place where an authority to proceed is given.

Types of stations:

According to function, station may be classified into 3 major groups,

1. Way side stations.

2. Junction stations.
3. Terminal stations.

WAY SIDE STATION: The stations on which the trains move only in 2 direction i.e. upside &
downside direction are known as way side stations. Further these stations are classified into 3
major groups,

a. Halt station.
b. Flag station.
c. Crossing station.

HALT STATION: This is a simplest type of stopping station. It may or may not have a station
master. There will be only one platform. No permanent staff is kept at halt like station master,
guard etc. Tickets to the passengers are issued by travelling ticket examiner or travelling booking
clerk. Sometimes tickets are issued by the contractors. Such types of stations are provided to give
facilities to the nearby villages & when the traffic is light they are provided.

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FLAG STATION: The stations where only traffic is dealt are known as flag stations. There are
no arrangements to control movement of trains & crossing facilities i.e. signal cabins, shunting
operations are not carried here. These stations have buildings like main station building goods
platform goods shed & 2or 3 staffs quarters. Sometimes the main line is connected with one or
two loop lines to facilitate goods handling.

CROSSING STATIONS:

These stations are provided to have facility of crossing. Hence crossing stations will have
necessarily a pair of main lines & these 2 main lines are connected by crossing units. There will
be a pair of platform placed parallel to the mainline and to have accessibility from one platform
to another platform foot over bridge will be provide. There will be some additional lines
connected to 1 of the main line where wagons will rests & such stops are called as buffer stops.
On 1 side of the mainline, there will be goods platform 7 station building. Here there will be
clock room, canteen & other minor facilities. During the process of crossing which ever train

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comes late it should be authorized to move first. Hence for the line , train comes late loops will
be already connected.

JUNCTION STATION:

The stations where branch line meets the main line are known as junction stations. Following are
the essential for junction stations,

a. Facilities for interchange of traffic between main & branch line. Here there will be units
like triangle or turn table to change the direction of the engine & for shunting operation.
b. Facilities for repair & cleaning of compartments terminate at junction stations. The place
where engine will rest and repairs are executed are called loco sheds.
c. Facilities for goods sidings, engine sheds, rest houses for TC & engine drivers are
provided
d. There will be place like clock room where passengers can rest.

TERMINAL STATIONS:

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Stations at which a railway line or one of its branch terminates to the other direction

Or that station is the last station is generally called as terminal stations. The terminal stations will

Have the additional arrangements like,

a. Facilities for servicing the engine

b. Facilities to deal goods traffic like marshalling yard, engine shed etc
c. There will be turn table for change of direction of engine.
d. There will be a booking counter for tickets generally work around the clock.

SITE SELECTION FOR RAILWAY STAION:

 The proposed site should be on a fairly level ground with good drainage facility.
 At proposed site portable water in sufficient quantity should be
 It should be near a town or big village.
 Sufficient area for future development must be available at the time of upgrading process
from one gauge to another gauge. Hence as gauge changes the size of the vehicle will
change & accordingly platform & other specification will change.
 It should not be situated on curves to avoid inter visibility problem.
 It should be able to serve the needs of civil & military authorities.
 The site should be such that permissible max gradient could be attained easily.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF RAILWAY STATIONS:

Requirements in railway stations are categorized under 4 heads,

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a. Public requirement
b. Traffic requirement
c. Locomotive requirement
d. General requirement
a. Public requirement :
1. Booking office for purchase of tickets & booking for goods.
2. Platform.
3. Waiting room.
4. Arrangement for drinking water.
5. Retiring rooms.
6. Refreshment room.
7. Bathrooms.
8. Sanitary arrangements.
9. Lighting arrangements.
10. Enquiry office.
11. Public telephone.
12. Name board for stations.
13. Cloak room.
b. Traffic requirement :
1. Machine for dating the tickets.
2. Weighing machines.
3. Arrangements for controlling & recording the movement of trains.
4. Sufficient number of sidings to accommodate goods traffic.
5. Suitable platform for unloading, loading &
6. Storing the goods.
7. Sitting arrangements for staff & traffic department.
c. Locomotive requirement :
1. Arrangements for water columns for supplying water to engines.
2. Arrangements for supplying fuel to engines.
3. Arrangements for cleaning & examining locomotives.
4. Arrangements for inspection of vehicles.

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 5. Turntable to change the direction of locomotive.
6. Arrangement of residential accommodations rest & waiting rooms for loco staffs.
d. General requirements :
1. Suitable approach road to the station.
2. Provision of a clock showing correct time.
3. Availability of coolies on the platform to transport the luggage.

Yard:

Yard is defined as a system of tracks laid within definite limits for various puposes such
as sorting of vehicles, making trains, distribution of passengers etc.
Yards are also used to control the movements by prescribed rules & regulations. It has to
coordinate nearby signals.
Depending on functions, yards are grouped as 4 categories.
1. Passenger yard.
2. Goods yard.
3. Marshalling yard.
4. Locomotive yard.

1. Passenger yard :
The main function of passenger yard is to provide all the facilities for the safe movement
of passengers. The important requirements are;
a. Booking office, luggage booking room, cloak room where passengers may keep their
luggage safely.
b. Parking space for all the types of vehicles outside the station.
c. Enquiry office.
d. Drinking water facilities & other allied facilities.

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 2. Goods yard :
Following are the main requirements of goods yard;
a. Approaching roads for the movement of goods.
b. Loop lines with number of parallel dead end sidings and buffer stops.
c. For loading and unloading sufficient number of platforms should be provided.
d. Sufficient storage space for storing goods.
e. Cart weighing machines.
f. Booking office.
g. Vacuum testing machines etc.

3. Marshalling yard :
It is a place where goods, wagons received from different centers are sorted out & placed
in the order to be detached at different stations. Thus marshalling yard acts like
distribution centers. Also it is in this place where wagons will be added or detached & the
whole shunting operation will be carried in the marshalling yard area.
Factors affecting the efficiency of marshalling yards:
1. Marshalling yard should be designed in such a way that shunting operation should not
disturb the schedule of regular train.
2. The design of marshalling yard should be such that maximum number of wagons are
dispatched in a given period of time as the efficiency of marshalling yard depends on
its capability to sorting out maximum number of wagons than sorting them in place.
3. As far as possible marshalling yard should be kept parallel to the running line.
4. Movement of wagons in one direction is desirable as the movement of wagons in both
the direction will result in delay and uneconomic.
Necessary repairing facilities should be provided on one or more sidings to that
marshalling activity is not hampered when repairing of loop will be going on.

With a typical layout, explain the function of Marshalling yard.

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The ideal layout of Marshalling yard consists of 3 major sections.
1. Reception siding.
2. Sorting.
3. Dispatch or departure siding.
1. Reception siding:
These sidings are provided to receive the vehicles & their lengths will be equal. They
only receive incoming trains wait in this area for further process.
2. Sorting siding:
Here, after having shunting operation at reception sidings depending on the destiny,
vehicles are sorted sequentially. Here the number of sorting lines mainly depends on
the number of destination connecting to a particular area.
3. Departure siding:
Here after sorting process is completed to lining the vehicle to main line, this area is
utilized.
4. Locomotive yard :
This will have the following facilities.
a. Engine shed.
b. Ash pit.
c. Inspection chamber.
d. Repairing shed.

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 e. Repairing pit.
f. Water column.
g. Hydraulic jack for lifting the engine.
h. Sick tracks.
i. Overhead tanks.
j. Loco well.

Level Crossing:

When railway line and road line meet at some level, such locations are called as Level crossings.
The level crossing may be either right angled crossing or it is obtuse angled crossing. In case of
right angled crossing, crossing is controlled with or without gate where as in other type of
crossing necessarily it should be controlled with gate.

The gates are operated either manually or mechanically. In case of level crossing, rails are
embedded at the formation level of the road & there will be additional pair of rails runs for a
shorter length generally called as check rails.

When signal is opened 10mins before the arrival of train, gates should be closed. The moment
the train passes whichever gate it is lastly closed it has to be opened first. (Refer text for figures).

Turnouts:

It is a section where system will change or track will change its direction. If the turnout is
changing to left side, then such turnouts are called as left turnouts and if it is changing to right
side of the progression of the movement of the train, then it is called right handed turnout. A
turnout will have the following components;

1. Switches are provided at the heel & toe of the rail section.

Design of Turnouts:

In railways, to change the direction of the system, the devices provided are called as turnouts.
Generally, irrespective of the gauge, 3 types of turnouts are provided and generally designated
as; Type-1 Turnout, Type-2 Turnout & Type-3 Turnout.

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Design of Type-1 Turnout:

The distance between the theoretical nose crossing and toe of the switch is called as curve. Lead
denoted by ‘CL’ which is given by a relation CL=2GN

G= gauge width, N= no. of horizontals along the plane generally designated as 1 in N.

The distance between head of the switch to toe of the switch is called as Switch head (SL).

Switch head is given by the equation, SL=√ (2.Ro.d)

Where, Ro= radius at the point of contact.

d = head divergence

Radius at the centre ‘R’ is given by a relation, R= Ro-(G/2) and the expression for Ro is
given by a relation Ro=2GN2 + 1.5G knowing curve lead and switch lead, we can
estimate lead generally designated as ‘L’ which is nothing but the distance between the
theoretical nose crossing to head of the section.

Heel of the section is nothing but the point where turnout will end with respect to main line.

.˙. Curve lead, L= CL-SL.

Note:

1. In case of Type-1 crossing, generally turnoff angle 1 in N is given along with gauge
width & heel divergence.
2. If turnout is asked to design by right angle technique then it also comes under the class,
Type-1 turnout.
3. The formulae to evaluate the elements of turnout changes which is expressed in following
relations.
Here, curve lead, CL= G.cot (α/2).
4. Radius at the point of contact, Ro= (CL/sin α).
5. Mean radius, R= Ro- (G/2).
6. SL= √ (2.Ro.d) and Lead, L= CL-SL.

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Design of Type-2 Turnout:

In this case, the angle of turnout or crossing num ‘N’ is given, G is given, Heel divergence will
be given and in addition to angle of switch, β will be given.

In this case, α is estimated using the relation,

1. N= cot α.
2. Crossing lead, α= (g-d) cot ((α+β)/2), and radius at the point of contact,
Ro= (G-d)/(cos β-cos α).
Area radius, R= Ro-(G/2)

Note: Here, since we are getting lead directly CL & SL doesn’t come into picture. Again
crossing lead is the distance between the theoretical nose crossings to heel of the switch.

Design of Type-3 Turnout:

When flow of traffic is rapid and turnouts are not manually controlled, then in that case Type-3
Turnout is preferred.

If a vehicle approaches a specific position because of the pressure built in the track, some
horizontal arrangement system, turnout will establish contact w.r.t the main track where
frequencies of arrival & departure of trains are more, then in that case Type-3 turnout is
preferred, especially at junction stations, terminal stations and where suburban train movement is
dominating.

Note: In this case, crossing no. will be given or turnoff angle will be given so that ‘α’ can be
estimated using cot α= N. switch angle ‘β’ will be given, gauge width will be given, heel
divergence will be given and length of straight arc ‘x’ will be given.

Here, for the ш type of turnout, the analysis is carried as follows.

First, Radius at the point of contact, Ro= (G-d-x.sin α)/ (cos β-cos α).
Then, mean radius is worked out using the relation, R= Ro-(G/2).
Lastly, curve lead, α= x cos α + (G-d-x.sin α) cot ((α+β)/2).

Design of Crossings:

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When 2 through lines are connected together by a loop line such elements are called as crossing
elements.
Crossing elements are provided in 3 different situations.
If there are two parallel lines, and if it is to be connected by crossing elements by a reverse
curve, then such sections are called as Type-1 crossings.
If crossing element has to be connected with equal inclination w.r.t the gauge face of the track &
having equal radius. Then such sections are called as Type-2 crossing.
If 2 main streams are to be connected between both the ways, then such sections are called as
Diamond crossings.

Design criteria for Type-1 crossing: (refer text for fig.)

In this case, angle of crossing is given or it is also called crossing no. ‘N’. G is defined & ‘D’
which is centre to centre distance between 2 parallel lines is also defined. The distance between
the interaction of the outer rail & outer loop line to inner through line & inner loop line is
generally called as Intermediate sight distance which is generally defined along the direction of
through line.
Intermediate straight distance, S= (D-G).N- G.√ (1+N2)
The overall length of the cross over i.e., the starting point of the crossing to end point of crossing
along the motion of vehicle is known as overall length of cross over which is given by the
relation, l= 4.G.N+S.
Note:
1. In Type-1 crossing, the crossing no. of both the tracks are equal.
2. First we have to find ‘S’ and then ‘l’.

Design criteria for Type-2 crossing: (refer text for fig.)

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In case of type-2 crossing, the crossing no. will be same, type of curve provided is reverse curve
but the curve will have equal radius.
In this case G, N, D and R are given.
First we have to find overall length of crossing, l= √ (d (4R-2G-D))
And intermediate length of cross over (not necessarily straight), S= l- 4GN.
Design of Diamond crossing:
In case of Diamond crossing we may expect 2 different situations.
If 2 through lines are connected both the ways, then such crossings are called as scissor type of
crossing.
If a through line is connected by another through line with certain inclination then such crossings
are called as Diamond crossings.

In the central portion, ABCD forms the shape of rhombus. The property of rhombus is
AB=BC=CD=DA.
Let ‘α’ be the angle of crossing.
Here EB=DF=AE cot α. Also AE=G & cot α=N.
Again from the figure, from triangle ACFl, AC+ CF cosec (α/2)
Again, CF=G so that AC= G cosec (α/2).
Similarly, diagonal BD= 2(BO) where, ‘O’ is intersection of diagonal.
Here BD= 2BC sin (α/2).

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Signals:
To control the movement of flow effectively without having head on collision or derailment of
the track, signals are provided. Depending on the position of the signal & function of the signal,
signals are classified as Audible signals, Hand signals & Fixed signals.
In case of audible signal when a system travels on a pair of track, it imparts a noise which is
translated to the other end and the traffic movement is recognized. This type of signal has
become out dated because of the fact that if two trains are moving in opposite direction, it is
impossible to recognize the priority of the direction.
Hand signals are provided through flags. If the stations are of gate type stations or if the level
crossings are of less importance, then hand signals are preferred. There will also be a lamp
attached which is used to recognize the vehicle during night time.
Fixed signals are used near the railway stations which are generally located 500m to 800m from
the signal cabin. They will have a horizontal arm connected to vertical port. The vertical port will
have a crank rod. One end is fixed to spindle in the top of the shaft & other end to a balancing
lever which is kept in the middle of the vertical port. One end of the cam is connected to a chair
& passed in horizontal plane.

Working principle:
When the position of the arm is horizontal, it means loops are not connected & interlocked and it
is warning the system to rest at that position. If the arm is kept at an angle 45˙ or 60˙, then it is an
authority to proceed. The horizontal arm will have three lights namely Red, Green & Yellow. If
Red light is on, it means loops are not connected & interlocked and the train has to stop at the
signal. If it is Green then it can move up to railway station. If it is Yellow without any
interception it can precede the station.
(figure of Warrant signals or Warner signals)
These signals are similar to semi-four signals but there will be two arms attached to each other.
The exterior end of the arm will have V-notch shape. These warrant signals are used at points &
crossings and near marshalling yard to carry out shunting operation without affecting the train
flows. These signals can be operated at both night and day time. During day time if the arm is at
an inclined position, it indicates proceed.

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If both the arms are horizontal, then it indicates further section is not clear and has to move
slowly. During night time Yellow light indicates to stop the vehicle at a specific point. Green
light indicates off position means authority to proceed.

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