NEGATIVE STIFFNESS DEVICE F OR SEISMIC P ROTECTION O F

STRUCTURES
Michael C. Constantinou1, Andrei M. Reinhorn1, Apostolos A. Sarlis1,
1
University at Buffalo (SUNY), Buffalo, NY-14260, U.S.A
{constan1,reinhorn, aasarlis}@buffalo.edu

Douglas Taylor2,
2
Taylor Devices Inc., North Tonawanda, NY-14120, U.S.A
TaylorDevi@aol.com

Satish Nagarajaiah3, Dharma Theja R. Pasala3

3
Rice University, Houston, TX-77005, U.S.A
{Satish.Nagarajaiah, drp1}@rice.edu

Keywords: Negative Stiffness Device, Apparent yielding, Passive, True Negative Stiffness

Abstract. Structural weakening and damping is an approach previously proposed for the

reduction of seismic forces and drifts in structures. While this approach is very efficient, it

requires a reduction in strength, which will result in inelastic excursions and permanent

deformation of the structural system during the seismic event. This paper describes a true

Negative Stiffness Device (NSD) that can emulate weakening of the structural system without

inelastic excursions and permanent deformations. The Negative Stiffness Device (NSD) is a

self contained device that produces a force which is in the same direction as the imposed

displacement, thus the name “negative stiffness”. The device is inherently unstable but when

placed in a structure, it transfers a force which in turn reduces all forces, drifts and

accelerations above the installation level. The NSD is therefore capable of limiting the forces

developed in a structure without any yielding which could lead to permanent deformations.

The NSD was developed at the University at Buffalo (UB), Rice University and Taylor

Devices Inc. and tested by the authors in a three storied structural model isolated with

elastomeric bearings on a shake table. The NSD consists of a highly compressed spring in a

double negative stiffness magnification mechanism. In order to ensure a considerable amount

 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

of positive stiffness of the global system around small displacements to minimize wind

vibrations a "gap spring assembly" (GSA) mechanism is implemented which delays the

engagement of the device by a prescribed displacement. Moreover, the device employs double

containment chevron braces that self-contain the large vertical forces needed for the

development of negative stiffness without transferring these forces to the structure. This paper

describes the novel NSD in detail and presents the development of analytical and

computational tools that describe the behavior of the device. The principles of global control

of structures using the NSD is presented in a companion paper.

2
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

1 INTRODUCTION

Designing structures for ductile behavior and allowing for significant inelastic action in

strong earthquakes results in reduction of inertia forces. However, this is accompanied by

large drifts, permanent deformations and eventually loss of functionality of the structure after

a seismic event. Reinhorn et al. (2005) and Viti et al. (2006) introduced the concept of

weakening structures (reducing strength and implicitly stiffness), while introducing

supplementary viscous damping to reduce simultaneously total accelerations and inter-story

drifts. However, weakening reduces strength resulting in additional permanent displacements.

An alternative approach is to “simulate yielding” by introducing negative stiffness at

predescribed displacements leading to the idea of “apparent weakening” (Nagarajaiah et al.

2010).

The concept of true negative stiffness for structural applications and apparent weakening

was introduced by Nagarajaiah et al. (2010). True negative stiffness means the force must

assist motion, not oppose it as it is in the case of a positive stiffness spring. Pseudo negative

stiffness (Iemura and Pradono 2009a) can be accomplished using active or semiactive

hydraulic device. The true negative stiffness does not need external power supply. A novel

Negative Stiffness Device (NSD) presented herein uses a series of springs and generates true

elastic nonlinear negative stiffness.

By engaging the NSD at an appropriate displacement (simulating a pseudo-yield

displacement) which is well below the actual yield displacement of the structural system, the

composite structure-device assembly, behaves like a yielding structure (Nagarajaiah et. al

2010). The NSD has a re-centering mechanism however, thereby avoiding permanent

deformation in the composite structure-device assembly unless, the main structure itself

yields. However, the combined structural system with just the NSD develops increased

3
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

structural deformations. Addition of passive dampers reduces and controls these deformations

without any considerable increase in the base shear. The addition of dampers combined with

the reduction of stiffness also lead to an increased damping ratio which presents an additional

advantage in controlling the displacements.

In order to visualize the effect of adding true negative stiffness to a structure, consider the

force displacement plots shown in Figure 1(a) (green line is structure, magenta is viscous

damper and red is negative stiffness device) (Nagarajaiah et. al 2010). By adding NSD to the

structure, schematically shown in Figure 1(b), the assembly stiffness reduces to 𝐾𝑎 = 𝐾𝑒 − 𝐾𝑛

beyond the displacement 𝑥1 (shown as blue line in Figure 1(b)). If, 𝐹2 and 𝑥2 are the

maximum restoring force and maximum displacement of a perfectly-linear system (green line

in Figure 1(b)) then for the same load the maximum restoring force and maximum

displacement of the assembly are 𝐹3 and 𝑥3 (blue line in Figure 1(b)), respectively. 𝐾𝑛 is

designed to achieve the desired reduction in base shear. Force exerted by the NSD is shown as

red line in Figure 1(b). Although the reduction in base shear is achieved, the maximum

deformation of the adaptive system is substantially increased in the process when compared

with an elastic system. However, the deformation of the entire assembly can be reduced by

adding a passive damping device in parallel to the NSD, schematically shown in Figure 1(c).

Photographs of a prototype NSD are shown in Figure 2a (un-deformed) and Figure 2b

(deformed). The device itself is inherently unstable. It can be installed in between the floors of

any structure a structure or at the base of an isolated structure between the ground and the

isolation level. Its effect is that it reduces the forces that are transferred above its installation

level by reducing the apparent strength at that level. The term apparent is used to emphasize

the fact the NSD does not reduce the actual strength of the main structural system, in fact it is

completely independent from the main structural system.

4
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

In order to ensure a considerable amount of positive stiffness at small movements or

vibrations caused by wind, traffic or other service loads, and in order to account for variability

in structural and NSD properties, a gap spring assembly (GSA) mechanism is introduced

which essentially engages the negative stiffness mechanism at a larger displacement

(displacement x1 in Figure 1) rather than at the initial position of the structure.

The current paper focuses on the detailed description of the NSD as well as the analytical

and computational framework used for modeling the NSD behavior. A companion paper

(Pasala et al, 2011) describes the control concepts using the NSD device described in here.

Another companion paper (Sarlis et al. 2011a) focuses on the experimental validation of the

analytical tools developed here-in by using results from simple tests. A third companion

paper (Sarlis et al. 2011b) focuses on the proof of concept testing program performed on a

large shake table at University at Buffalo using a three story seismically isolated structure

equipped with a prototype Negative Stiffness Device. Complete details and additional

analytical and computational issues, further experimental validation together with shake table

testing and the verification of the true Negative Stiffness (NS) concept through shake table

testing can also be found in (Sarlis et al. 2011c and 2011d).

2 NSD DESCRIPTION

2.1 NSD Operation

The NSD shown in Figure 2a and 3a is composed of a pre-compressed spring shown in the

center of the device as well the gap spring assemblies on the bottom. A combination of frame

elements and plates hold these pieces together. When the device deforms, the pre-compressed

spring rotates and it is the one that creates the force that assists the motion or the negative

force and thus the name negative stiffness for the device. The bottom spring assemblies (gap

spring assembly mechanism) provide the device inherently with a bilinear elastic positive

5
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

stiffness in order to make the device engage at larger displacements (displacement x1 in

Figure 1). More specifically, around equilibrium, the positive stiffness caused by the gap

spring assembly mechanism, cancels out the negative stiffness caused by the pre-compressed

spring so that essentially the force/stiffness generated by the device is close to zero. After a

prescribed displacement, the gap spring assembly softens drastically so that the pre-

compressed spring acts essentially on its own creating the negative stiffness. It is noted that

the operation of the gap spring assembly is achieved without any yielding so that there is no

inherent permanent deformation in the device.

Schematic diagrams of the NSD are shown in Figure 3a (un-deformed) and Figure 3b

(deformed) after imposing a displacement on the top of the device. In Figure 3b, the lever

imposes a displacement on the top of the pivot plate (point B) making the pivot plate to rotate

about point C. Due to the axial rigidity of the lever and its negligible rigid body rotation, the

imposed displacement and the displacement of Point B are approximately equal. Since the

pivot plate rotates about C, point D moves in the opposite direction from the imposed

displacement. Point E is rigidly connected to the top of the device and therefore has a

displacement equal to the one imposed. Due to the kinematics of points D and E, the pre-

compressed spring rotates and its pre-compression force facilitates the motion rather than

opposing it. Moreover since the “negative force” is generated by a spring whose deformation

depends nonlinearly to the NSD imposed displacement, the NSD exhibits nonlinear elastic

behavior.

The spring exhibits its minimum length when the device is un-deformed. As the device

deforms, the spring extends thus its pre-compression force reduces while its inclination angle

increases and the stiffness magnitude generated by the device reduces. This gradual stiffness

reduction will eventually lead to positive stiffness at larger displacements and this is termed as

6
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

“stiffening” throughout this paper. This stiffening part can be very important in the case the

maximum considered earthquake has been exceeded since it limits the displacements of the

structure or the isolators.

The gap spring assembly (GSA) mechanisms are located at the bottom of the device. For

each device there are two assemblies since they only work in compression. The GSA is bolted

on the bottom channel and is connected with the top supporting frame through simple contact.

When the device deforms, point E moves by the same amount as the displacement imposed on

the NSD and therefore the GSA and NSD share the same displacement. The GSA provides the

device inherently with a bilinear elastic positive stiffness in order to make the device engage

at larger displacements. This is achieved by arranging a pre-loaded spring in series with

another spring and holding the pre-loaded spring in place through a rod (Figure 6b). Detailed

derivations of the gap spring assembly mechanics are presented in section 4.2 of this paper.

A schematic of the NSD force displacement relation is shown in Figure 4. Figure 4a shows

the NSD force displacement without the gap spring assembly. The NSD generates the

maximum magnitude of negative stiffness at zero displacement. For small displacements, the

NSD exhibits approximately linear behavior. As displacement grows, the instantaneous

stiffness diminishes until it becomes zero when the stiffening displacement is reached. After

that the NSD generates positive stiffness. At even larger displacement the NSD force becomes

zero and the pre-loaded spring goes into tension. The gap spring assembly exhibits a bilinear

elastic behavior shown in figure 4b characterized by the softening displacement or else the

NSD engagement displacement dgap. Prior to softening the GSA can be designed in such a

way as to generate the same stiffness as the stiffness of the NSD at zero displacement so that

effectively the total stiffness generated by the NSD prior to the GSA softening will be

approximately zero. After softening the GSA generates almost zero stiffness and therefore the

7
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

NSD engages and starts generating negative stiffness. Figure 4c is obtained by the addition of

figures 4a and 4b.

Vertical loads created by the vertical pre-compressed spring are self contained and no

vertical loads are transferred to the NSD supports. Moreover, the NSD does not participate in

transferring any vertical loads coming from the main system. It is connected to the structure

using rollers that accommodate relative vertical motion between the main system and the

NSD. This is a tremendous advantage of the current NSD since it does not affect the stiffness

of the main system in the vertical direction. Stability limits are completely unaffected.

Finally, the pre-loaded spring is a machined spring constructed by Taylor Devices Inc.

Machined springs offer tremendous advantages over coil springs that are very important in the

implementation of such devices (Taylor Devices Inc.). Firstly, their light weight is important

to eliminate the influence of the NSD inherent dynamics. Moreover, they can easily exhibit

tension compression behavior without any special treatment which is a tremendous advantage

so that the displacement capacity of the NSD will never be limited by the spring. Finally

machined springs achieve exact and consistent spring rates and therefore the NSD behavior

can be very accurately predicted at the design level.

2.2 Advantages of NSD Tested at SUNY Buffalo

Negative Stiffness in applications other than earthquake has been proposed and used at

small scale for the vibration isolation of equipment by Molyneaux (1957), Platus (1992,1993,

1994a and b, 1995, 1999 and 2004) and Platus et al. (1996 and 1997), Carrella et al. (2008)

and for car suspension systems by Lee (2007). As part of the main structural system, it has

also been proposed in base isolation by Iemura et al (2008) with the application of the convex

pendulum bearings in parallel with elastomeric bearings to provide the main system with

horizontal stiffness. The NSD described in the current paper is a large scale novel design that

8
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

passively generates negative stiffness, is independent of the main structural system, is self

contained and it is not restricted to only base isolation. In comparison to its precursors, the

NSD presents the following advantages:

• The device changes the apparent global lateral strength/stiffness of the structure,

without changing the actual strength/stiffness of the structure. The apparent

stenght/stiffness is reduced to a very low level simulating global lateral yielding

without actual yielding in the main structure.

• The device produces true horizontal negative stiffness by passively generating a

force that assists the imposed displacement. No external power supply is needed since

all the elements comprising the device are passive.

• The device is self contained and therefore when installed affects only the horizontal

stiffness of the system while leaving the vertical stiffness intact. Stability and buckling

limits of the structure are not affected. The NSD does not participate in transferring

the vertical loads.

• There is no significant hysteresis in the device. The NSD is essentially elastic.

• The device provides variable stiffness which becomes positive at large deformations,

therefore its global behavior is “elastic nonlinear”. This is a desired feature as it

promotes stability.

• The device employs a double magnification mechanism that allows for easy

adjustment of the negative stiffness value. The gap spring assembly (GSA) mechanism

allows for adjustable gap opening.

• The device can engage at any desired displacement due to the gap spring assembly

implementation.

9
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

• The NSD uses a machined spring to generate the negative stiffness. Machined springs

offer extremely high precision for their properties and therefore the behavior of the

NSD can be very accurately predicted at the design level.

3 OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

In order to demonstrate the concept of true Negative Stiffness in Earthquake applications,

verify the device mechanics and experimentally prove the concept of true Negative Stiffness a

three story seismically isolated structure equipped with two NSD’s was tested in University at

Buffalo. Although the experimental work is the focus of companion papers a brief outline is

presented here.

The experimental setup is shown in Figure 5a. The 3 story structure –used before as a six

story structure (e.g., Wolff and Constantinou 2004) - is sitting on top of four low damping

elastomeric bearings used before in Wolff and Constantinou 2004. The elastomeric bearings

were tested individually at the single bearing testing machine at UB described in Kasalanati

and Constantinou 1999. Two NSD’s were installed on the side of the shake table and were

connected to the base of the superstructure with rollers in order to accommodate the height

loss that they exhibit during deformation. The tests conducted at UB were divided in to two

major categories: 1) Displacement controlled tests with and without the gap spring assembly

and 2) Shake table tests involving various configurations of the NSD with and without viscous

dampers. The displacement controlled tests were achieved by externally bracing the

superstructure at the base-mat level through a reaction frame that was constructed on the side

of the shake table and shown in Figure 5a on the right while the bracing system is shown in

Figure 5b.

4 ANALYTICAL EQUATIONS OF NEGATIVE STIFFNESS DEVICE

4.1 Negative Stiffness Device

10
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

In order to derive the force displacement equations of the device, equilibrium at the

deformed shape needs to be considered since the operation of the device is based on geometric

nonlinearity. Therefore one needs to consider the deformed shape and the device being

supported horizontally on top by the application of a force which is essentially the negative

force generated by the device. The forces acting on the pivot plate caused by the pre-

compressed spring and the lever are shown in Figure 6a. From geometry and considering the

fact that point C is fixed, the displacements of other points of the device are:

u B = u E = u D l2 =u (1)
l1

In Figure 6a, θ s is the angle of the spring θ p the angle of the pivot plate with respect to

vertical. θ s and θ p are obtained from Eq. (2):

1  l1 
θ s = arcsin u 1 +  (2a)
l s  l 2 

u
θ p = arcsin (2b)
l2

The spring length in Figure 6a at the deformed configuration is given by:

2
  u  
2 2
 2 l1 
l s =  l p + l1 − l1 1 −    + u 1 +  (3)

  l 2    l2 

l p is the length of the spring when the NSD is un-deformed and Fs is the force of the pre-

compressed spring given by Eq. (4):

Fs = Pin − K s (l s − l p ) (4)

Pin : is the pre-compression force of the spring and should have a positive value and K s is

the stiffness of the pre-compressed spring.

11
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

Writing the equilibrium equations for the pivot plate for the forces of Figure 6a and using

Eq. 1-4 yields the horizontal force at point C. Then from Figure 3b and since the double

hinged columns have zero shear force, one can see that the total NSD force is simply

FNSD = FC + Fg , Fg being the force generated by the gap spring assembly (GSA) mechanism.

The force from GSA is simply added to the force at C since it is supported directly on the

bottom channel. The final expression for the force generated by the NSD as a function of the

imposed displacement is given in Eq. 5:

 Pin + K s l p  l  l l +l 
u + F
FNSD = − − K s  1  2 + 2 + p 1 (5)
ls   g
  l 2  l1 2
l2 − u 2 

The force displacement of the gap spring assembly is bilinear elastic and for monotonic

positive displacement is given by Eq. 6:

 k s1u, 0 ≤ u ≤ d gap 
 
Fg =  k s 2 k s1

k s1 d gap + (u − d gap ) u > d gap 

(6)
 k s 2 + k s1 

d gap is the gap spring assembly softening displacement or else the NSD engagement

displacement and is a prescribed displacement at which NSD engages (shown as x1 in figure

1). It can be selected as desired by appropriately designing the gap spring assembly

mechanism as shown in the next section. ks1 and ks2 (ks1>ks2) are the stiffness of springs

installed inside the gap spring assembly shown in figure 6b. Details on the GSA are presented

in section 4.2.

The effective Negative stiffness generated by the NSD in the absence of the gap spring

assembly can be calculated using Eq. 5:

 Pin + K s l p  l  l l +l 

eff
K NSD = − − K s  1  2 + 2 + p 1 (7)
ls  
  l 2  l1 2
l2 − u 2 

12
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

The force displacement loops for the derivations above are generated in Figures 7 and 8 for

the properties shown in Table 1 for the cases with and without the gap spring assembly.

4.2 Gap Spring Assembly Mechanism

The implementation of the gap spring assembly mechanism makes the engagement of the

device at a pre-scribed displacement feasible. Its behavior has been described earlier and its

force deformation relation was presented in Eq. 6. Here the gap spring assembly mechanism is

presented in detail in order to obtain more understanding on how it generates the described

behavior that leads to Eq. 6. The gap spring assembly is shown in Figure 6b. It is composed of

spring S1 and spring S2 which is pre-compressed and held in place by a rod and two housing

plates. The GSA generates the elastic bilinear behavior only for compressive forces.

In figure 6b, Fg is the external force applied to the gap spring assembly or equivalently the

total force generated by the gap-spring assembly, u is the total displacement of the assembly

equal to the displacement of housing plate 2, u1 is the total displacement of housing plate 1,

u gap is the opening of the gap between housing plate 1 and S1 reaction plate and its value

should be large enough so that it never closes during the operation of the assembly, d gap is the

displacement at which the assembly will soften or equivalently the displacement at which the

NSD will engage. It should be distinguished from, u gap defined above. Fs1 is the total force of

spring S1 with stiffness k s1 , Fs 2 is the total force of spring S2 with stiffness k s 2 which is pre-

compressed to an initial pre-load Pis 2 (positive) and Fr is the total force exhibited by the rod

between housing plates 1 and 2 while k r is the stiffness of the rod.

The stiffness of the rod k r is orders of magnitude larger than the stiffness of any of the

springs S1 and S2 and its exact value does not affect the gap spring assembly behavior. The

13
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

stiffness of spring S1 is much larger than the stiffness of spring S2 –typically 20-100 times

larger-.

Spring S2 is initially pre-compressed to a value Pis 2 and installed between housing plates 1

and 2. Once installed, this spring is held in place by the nuts of the rod passing through the

housing plates. Therefore the rod deforms and the spring slightly reduces its pre-load.

Although -due to the rod’s high axial rigidity- the loss in preload is negligible and its value is

still Pis2, the initial rod deformation is very important since it defines the behavior of the

assembly as shown herein. The initial rod deformation coming from the pre-load Pis2 is:

Pis 2
u in = (8)
kr

If the rod loses this deformation, it gets separated from the pre-loaded spring and moves as

a rigid body inside the assembly without affecting the assembly behavior. As it is shown

herein, it is important to monitor when the deformation of the rod becomes zero since then the

force of the rod becomes zero ( Fr = 0 ).

From the free body diagrams of Figure 6b, the spring and rod forces can be expressed as:

Fs1 = k s1u1 (9a)

Fs 2 = Pis 2 + k s 2 (u − u1 ) (9b)

k (u − u + u1 ), u ≤ u in + u1 
Fr =  r in  (9c)
0 u > u in + u1 

From Eq. 9c and what was mentioned earlier, it is obvious that the force displacement of

the gap spring assembly is given in two stages. The first stage is defined when the force of the

rod is nonzero and therefore the rod and nuts are still in contact with spring S2. The second

stage initiates when the nuts separate from housing plates 1 and 2 and the force of the rod

14
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

becomes zero (Figure 6b). From the free body diagrams of figure 6b, equilibrium of housing

plates 1 and 2 is given in Eq. 10a and 10b.

Fg + Fr − Fs 2 = 0 (10a)

Fs1 + Fr − Fs 2 = 0 (10b)

Solving Eq. 8-10 yields the force displacement equations of the gap spring assembly for

the first stage given by Eq. 11a and 11b:

 k s1 
u = 1 + u1 ≈ u1 (11a)
 kr + ks2 

k s1 (k r + k s 2 )
Fg = u ≈ k s1u (11b)
k r + k s 2 + k s1

Eq. 11a shows that the total displacement of the assembly is approximately equal to the

deformation of spring S1 and therefore S2 moves as a rigid body. This is reflected in Eq. 11b

where the stiffness of the assembly depends almost entirely on the stiffness of spring S1.

The second stage initiates when the rod separates from the housing plates and the

displacement and force at which this occurs can again be calculated using Eq. 8-10 with Fr=0

and u = d gap .

Pis 2  k s1 k s 2  Pis 2
d gap = 1 + + ≈ (12a)
k s1  kr k r  k s1

 k 
Fg ,u = d gap = 1 + s 2  Pis 2 ≈ Pis 2 (12b)
 kr 

After the rod separates, the force displacement of the assembly is given by Eq. 13:

k s 2 k s1 k s1
Fg = u+ Pis 2 (13)
k s 2 + k s1 k s 2 + k s1

This shows that the assembly behaves like a series arrangement of springs S1 and S2 after

the rod gets separated from the housing plates. The softer spring S2 will dominate the stiffness

15
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

and therefore the assembly softens drastically if compared to Eq. 11b. In order for the GSA to

fulfill its role of canceling out the negative stiffness until dgap is reached, the stiffness of

spring S1 can be selected using Eq. 14 such that it is equal to the negative stiffness generated

by the NSD given by Eq. 7 for u=0.

Pin l1  l l +l 
k S1 = −  2 + 2 + p 1  (14)
l p l2  l1 l2 

As shown by the simplified expression of Eq. 12a, the displacement at which the NSD will

engage depends on the pre-load of spring S2. After one selects the stiffness of S1 from Eq. 14

and selects displacement dgap, then Eq. 12a yields the required preload in order for the

assembly to generate the desired behavior. One can easily adjust the gap opening after the

NSD is designed and installed in a structural application by reducing this pre-load.

Eq. 11-13 are shown in Figure 9 together with the entire notation defined earlier.

4.3 Stiffness Magnification

Stiffness magnification is the amplification of the force generated by the NSD by connecting

the spring to the pivot plate that rotates about point C (Figures 3 and 6a). The spring forces

applied at D get amplified due to the presence of the pivot plate and this is reflected by the

strong dependence of Eq. 5 on the ratio a = l1 l 2 . This ratio is called stiffness magnification

ratio (SMR).

Stiffness Magnification is extremely important in the feasibility of implementing such a

device. Typical applications of negative stiffness in vibration isolation of equipment require

springs or connecting members to be pre-compressed at about roughly the weight of the

isolated equipment. Although this can be acceptable in such applications due to the relatively

small weight of the equipment, in a structure, the requirement to pre-compress springs in

values comparable to the weight of the structure would make such a device impossible to

16
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

implement. Stiffness Magnification allows implementing devices with much smaller pre-

loads.

In order to better understand the significance of stiffness magnification, consider a

simplified negative stiffness system that would arise if the pre-compressed spring was directly

connected at point A (Figure 3a) on top and to the ground on the bottom and it is shown in

Figure 10. This is a simplified version of a typical Negative Stiffness system used for

vibration isolation of equipment (Molyneaux 1957). Once the top level displaces by u, the

spring inclines and the horizontal spring force component creates negative stiffness. The force

displacement of this system is given from Eq. 15.

 P − K l 2 − u2 + K l 
 in s p s p 
F = − u (15)
 2
lp − u2
 

Comparison of Eq. 5 and 15 is shown in Figures 11a and 11b respectively for various

spring lengths. The stiffness magnification factor is defined as the ratio of the effective

stiffness given by Eq. 7 divided by the effective stiffness coming from Eq. 15 divided by u

assuming small displacements and it is given by Eq. 16:

l1  l l +l 
SMF =  2 + 2 + p 1  (16)
l2  l1 l2 

The magnification factor above highly depends on the magnification ratio however it can

be seen that stiffness magnification (SMF>1) can be achieved even when the magnification

ratio has a value less than 1. The Stiffness Magnification Factor (SMF) as a function of the

spring length is plotted in Figure 12 for various values of the stiffness magnification ratio. For

the properties of Table 1, the NSD tested at SUNY buffalo generates roughly 20 times the

negative stiffness generated by the typical vibration isolation system of Figure 10 when the

exact same spring with the exact same pre-load is used for both applications. Even for small

17
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

spring lengths that the system of Figure 10 becomes more effective, a very large SMF can be

achieved. This means that the NSD can be implemented by using realistic springs while

keeping pre-loads relatively small.

The magnification factor can be modified after the design and installation of the device is

completed by modifying the stiffness magnification ratio. This is achieved by the fact that the

lever and the pivot plate are connected through a slotted hole at point B and held with a

friction connection shown in Figure 14. In the current NSD Point B can move up or down by

roughly 3cm and therefore l2 can be modified accordingly although even bigger adjustments

could be made if the slotted hole was made larger. Figure 13 shows the different range of

behaviors that can be achieved by the NSD with the properties of table 1 by modifying the

magnification ratio for the slotted hole dimensions that were mentioned above. The envelope

of behaviors is enclosed by the thicker lines.

4.4 Design of the Negative Stiffness Device

Prior to designing the NSD in detail one has to decide on the desired Negative Stiffness the

device will generate, the stiffening displacement and the engagement displacement of the

NSD which depend on the characteristics of the main system, maximum considered

earthquake, desired limit on accelerations/base shear etc.

After deciding on the quantities above one has to select the individual parameters of the

NSD so that it generates those quantities. The design of the NSD is essentially the selection of

properties l1 , l2 , l p , K s , Pin and dgap. The first step in the design is the selection of the length l2

which defines the maximum displacement capacity of the NSD. l2 has to be selected so that it

is larger than the expected NSD maximum displacement with some margin of safety in order

to account for the presence of welded pieces and the dimensions of the connecting parts that

18
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

might not allow the pivot plate to rotate by exactly 90 degrees as well as the possibility that

the maximum considered earthquake is exceeded.

After l2 is selected, one can proceed by selecting l1 , l p , K s , Pin. The Negative Stiffness

generated by the NSD is nonlinear and analytical expressions are extremely complicated to be

used for a preliminary design. Eq. 7 evaluated at u=0 can be used as a simplified equation to

calculate the parameters above and obtain preliminary estimates. It is noted however that the

desired negative stiffness has to be achieved when the NSD engages not at zero displacement.

Moreover the stiffening displacement needs also be considered in the final design and explicit

analytical expressions for it cannot be obtained. Therefore final values of parameters have to

be selected based iteratively based on Eq. 5 and 7 and not the simplified expression suggested

earlier. Typically larger stiffening displacements can be achieved using softer springs or

smaller magnification ratios and large pre-loads can be reduced by increasing the

magnification ratio.

Finally the GSA can be designed using Eq. 14 and 12a. The stiffness of spring S2 has to be

small compared to the stiffness of S1, typically 20 to 100 times less. The displacement

capacity of the NSD is also limited by the capacity of the GSA and this has to be considered

in the design by placing housing plates 1 and 2 far enough apart so that the total NSD

displacement capacity is not limited by the GSA capacity.

4.5 NSD equations for large displacement to height ratios

In this section, assumptions made in section 4.1 are removed and the NSD equations are re-

derived by considering the lever rotation as well as the height loss of the device. The

equations derived here should only be used for short and narrow devices. In fact the current

derivations show that the size of the NSD can actually be reduced significantly without any

major changes in the NSD behavior.

19
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

Figure 16a shows the deformed shape of the NSD. In figure 16a the lever is now shown

rotated and the displacements of points A and B are no longer equal. More specifically,

u = u A = u E ≠ u B = u D l 2 l1 . In order to derive the relation between the displacements of

points A and B, consider a reference coordinate system centered at point C in Figure 16a.

Point B then moves around two circles. One is denoted as R1 and is centered at C with a

radius l 2 and another denoted R2 is centered at A with a radius llv. Then the displacement of

point B as a function of the NSD imposed displacement is simply the intersection of the two

circles for points located above C ( y > 0 ) given by Eq. 17:

(llv + u )[2l 2 2 + D(u )] − (l 2 − ∆h ) [(2l 2 llv )2 − D(u ) 2 ] (17a)

uB =
2[(l 2 − ∆h ) + (l lv + u ) ]
2 2

D(u ) = ∆h 2 − 2∆hl 2 + u (2l lv + u )

(17b)
2 2
∆h = h − h − u

Once the displacement of point B is expressed as a function of u, then the procedure is

identical to the one of section 4.1. The final expressions for the NSD force are given by Eq. 18

with the use of Eq. 17.

  2  
 cos θ  u l1  + sin θ  1 −  u B   
 s B  s l  l1 
 l2    2 
FNSD [ ]
= − Pin − K s (l s − l p ) 
 2 2
  + sin θ  + F
s
 g (18a)
 cos θ lv l 2 − u B − u B sin θ lv 
 
 

2
 2   2
 u   l1 
l s =  l p + l1 − l1 1 −  B  + ∆h  +  u + u B  (18b)

  l2   

l2 

u l 
θ s = arcsin + u B 1  (18c)
 ls l2ls 

20
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

 l − l 2 − u 2 − ∆h 
θ lv = arcsin 2 2 B 
 (18d)
llv
 

In Figure 17a consider a virtual case in which the dimensions l1 l2 and lp are given from

table 1 while the height h is varied. This case is presented for demonstration purposes since in

reality those dimensions are not independent. Differences are noticeable only when the device

height becomes extremely small and proves the validity of the simplified equations of section

4.1 but also shows that smaller devices can be designed without significant implications on

the NSD behavior. In figure 17b, the effect of reducing the lever length is shown. Although

the lever should typically be long enough, it is shown that it does not affect the NSD behavior

apart from explaining minor asymmetries in the NSD loop when its length becomes very

small. Asymmetries occur due to Eq. 17.

5 MODELING OF NSD IN SAP2000

Modeling the NSD in user subroutines is straightforward by implementing Eq. (5) and (6).

In SAP2000 (Computers and Structures Inc.), the NSD behavior can be modeled using the

multi-linear elastic element. One can directly import the force displacement loop of the NSD

into SAP2000. There is no restriction in SAP2000 for the sign of the stiffness and therefore

negative springs can be implemented as well. The gap spring assembly can be also modeled

using the same multi-linear element. The NSD model in SAP2000 is therefore a parallel

arrangement of two elements 1) a multi- linear elastic element representing the negative

nonlinear elastic component from Eq. (5) with Fg=0 and 2) a multi- linear elastic element

representing the positive bilinear elastic component generated by the gap spring assembly and

given by Eq. 6.

The configuration as implemented in SAP2000 is shown in Figure 17. Both ML1 and ML2

elements share the same joints on top and bottom. ML1 and ML2 vertical stiffness needs to be

21
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

zero in all degrees of freedom except for the horizontal DOF that the NSD generates the force.

Zero stiffness is important since the NSD does not affect the behavior of the main system in

any degree of freedom other than the one it generates the force. Comparisons of the results

obtained in the SAP2000 model for a displacement controlled test are compared with the

analytical equations in Figure 18. Results match identically and the element is exact.

6. NSD INHERENT DYNAMICS

In this section the equations of motion of the NSD including its inherent dynamics are

derived. It will be shown herein that the NSD dynamics have minor influence in its behavior

and for most practical applications need not be considered. For most practical applications, the

NSD can be analyzed and modeled using the equations of section 4.1. A major factor that

leads to the small influence of the dynamics is the use of the machined spring due to its light

weight (Taylor Devices Inc).

The rigid body dynamics of the Negative Stiffness are derived here using a Lagrangian

formulation. The masses and moments of inertia in the actual device are shown in Figure 16b.

All frame elements connected to the top channel and the double hinged columns, undergo an

inverted pendulum motion around the base and their moment of inertia is lumped at F and H

respectively. At point C the mass moment of inertia of the pivot plate is lumped. The center of

mass of the spring undergoes both translation and rotation. Its mass m s is lumped at its center

of mass located at point S. Its moment of inertia varies with displacement u.

Considering the fact that the rotations of the individual components are coupled to the

imposed displacement there is only one degree of freedom. The rotation of the pivot plate and

spring is given by Eq. 2, the horizontal displacement of the center of mass of the spring is the

average of the displacements of points D and E from Eq. (1) while the vertical displacement is

half the vertical displacement of point D and can be easily calculated from geometry of

22
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

Figures 6a and 16b while angle θ can be calculated from the geometry of Figure 16b. All

quantities above are functions of the imposed NSD displacement alone.

The Euler-Lagrange equation for the NSD is:

d  ∂L  ∂L
 − =0 (19a)
dt  ∂u  ∂u

L = K −V (19b)

Where K is the total kinetic energy of the system and V is the total potential energy of the

system with respect to a reference coordinate system given as the sums of the kinetic and

potential energies of the individual moving parts of the device. The total kinetic and potential

energies (with reference to C) of the system are given from:

1  2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1
K= I pθ p + m s u s + m s v s + I sθs + I hθ 2 + I f θ 2 (20a)
2 2 2 2 2 2

v  h
V = −m f g (l p + l1 − y cos θ ) − m s g  l1 + DE  + mc g  h − v LB − cos θ  + Vel , s + W
  
(20b)
 2   2 

The potential energy coming from the deformation of the spring in Eq. 20b is:

2
1   P 
Vel , s = K s l s −  l p + in  (20)
2   K s 

The external work done by a restraining force in Eq. 20b has to be expressed as a potential

so:

W = ∫ FNSD du = FNSD u + C (21)

It is noted that the force above is the force needed to be applied at the top of device in order

to hold the device in place and make it stable. Equivalently this is the force generated by the

device.

23
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

Using Eq. 19-21, 1-4 and after performing some tedious algebra which involves the

calculation of the derivatives involved in Eq. 19 and 20 we can get the equation of motion of

the NSD which is given by Eq. 22 using the quantities of Eq. 23:

FNSD = M a u + M v u 2 + M u u (22)

ms (l1 − l2 ) 4l2 I p + ms l1 u
22 2
I f + Ih 2 2
ms lt q 2
Ma = 2 + + +
h − u2 4l2
2 2 2
4l2 l2 − u 2 ( 12r ) (23a)

 2  2 dls  d 2l s  
 q − u ⋅ r ⋅ 2  
2
2 ms lt q  lt u − l2 ls
 I f + Ih 4 I p + ms l1 u  du  du  
Mv =  + + (23b)
2
(
 h −u
2 2
) (2
4 l1 − u 2 )
2
12r 2 

 
 
 l 2  P  
  t l1v DE  
 in
− l p + ls 
 l 2 +  − 
l 2 l 2 − u 2  K s
2
  2  ms g l1 2m f gy + mh gh 
Mu =  Ks + +  (23c)
ls 2
4 l1 − u 2 2 l
2h h 2 − u 2 

 
 
dl
q = ls − u s (23d)
du
2 2 2
r = l 2 l s − lt u 2 (23e)
l t = l1 + l 2 (23f)

The force displacement loops of the device for various driving frequencies are plotted in

Figure 19 for the device properties of table 1. The graph on the left shows the results without

the gap spring assembly mechanism while the graphs on the right show the results including

the gap spring assembly mechanism. The latter is generated by simply adding Eq. (6) to the

graph on the left. The effect of the inherent dynamics is that of increasing the negative

stiffness and maximum force generated by the NSD while slightly delaying the initiation of

stiffening. The driving frequencies of Figure 19 are only for demonstration purposes. The

accelerations and velocities for the higher frequencies shown there are unrealistic and

therefore the effect of the inherent dynamics is negligible.

24
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

7. CONCLUSIONS

This paper described in detail the novel Negative Stiffness Device that was tested at

University at Buffalo and designed by researchers at University at Buffalo, Rice University

and Taylor Devices Inc. Aspects of the NSD design that make it unique such as the stiffness

magnification and the implementation of the gap spring assembly are also described in detail.

The Negative Stiffness Device generates True Negative Stiffness since it facilitates motion

and is entirely composed of springs. When implemented in a structure, it changes the apparent

global lateral strength/stiffness of the structure, to a very low level simulating global lateral

yielding without actual yielding in the main structure. The NSD is independent of the main

structural system and does not affect any of the actual characteristics of the main system. It

generates elastic nonlinear behavior and can engage at a pre-scribed displacement due to the

implementation of the Gap spring Assembly mechanism. The gap spring assembly mechanism

generates elastic bilinear behavior that is added to the negative stiffness generated by the

NSD. Until a pre-scribed displacement is reached the positive stiffness from the GSA and the

negative stiffness from the pre-compressed spring are equal and opposite yielding zero total

stiffness for the NSD. After a pre-scribed displacement is reached the GSA softens and the

NSD engages. A magnification mechanism is also implemented that helps in significantly

amplifying the forces from the pre-compressed spring which ensures an NSD design with

reasonable spring properties.

The NSD behavior depends on the pre-compressed spring properties that exhibit very small

variability and geometry and therefore presents reliable and very accurately predictable

behavior. This was also observed experimentally from tests conducted at UB-SUNY. Sample

results from the experiments are shown in Figure 20. In a companion paper, the experimental

validation of the analytical derivations and computational models developed here is presented.

25
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

The current experimental study presented additional constraints that would not be encountered

in a practical NSD implementation. Influences from these constraints in the NSD behavior

will be examined both analytically and validated experimentally in the companion paper. It

will be shown that the NSD behavior is predictable and reliable even during these conditions

and this will provide additional confidence for the practical use of the NSD. Another

companion paper, will present the proof of apparent weakening and True Negative Stiffness

that was introduced by Nagarajaiah et al. (2010) through shake table testing that will study the

influence of the NSD in reducing drifts and accelerations in a structure and the feasibility of

accurately predicting this response.

REFERENCES

Bracci J.M., Reinhorn A.M. and Mander J.B. (1992). “ Seismic Resistance of Reinforced
Concrete Frame Structures Designed Only for Gravity Loads: Part I- Design and Properties of
a One- Third Scale Model Structure”, Technical Report NCEER-92-0027, National Center for
Earthquake Engineering Research, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY,
USA

Carrella A., Brennan M.J., Waters T.P. and Shin K. (2008) On the design of a high-static-low-
dynamic stiffness isolator using linear mechanical springs and magnets, Journal of Sound and
Vibration, 315(3), 712-720

Computers and Structures Inc. (2007).”SAP2000: Static and Dynamic Finite Element
Analysis of Structures (Version 11.0.2) Analysis Reference Manual”, Computers and
Structures, Inc., Berkeley

Iemura H. and Pradono M.H. (2009), “Advances in the development of pseudo-negative-

stiffness dampers for seismic response control,” Structural Control and Health Monitoring,
16(7-8), 1545-2255.

Iemura H., Kouchiyama O., Toyooka A. and Shimoda I. (2008). “Development of the
Friction-Based Passive Negative Stiffness Damper and its Verification Tests using Shaking
Table”.The 14th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, October 12-17, 2008,
Beijing, China

Kasalanati A. and Constantinou M.C. (1999). “Experimental Study of Bridge Elastomeric and
Other Isolation and Energy Dissipation Systems with Emphasis on Uplift Prevention and High
Velocity Near Source Seismic Excitation”, Technical Report MCEER-99-0004,

26
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research, State University of New York
at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA

Lee C. M., V. Goverdovskiy and A. Temnikov (2007), “Design of springs with ‘negative’
stiffness to improve vehicle driver vibration isolation”, Journal of Sound and Vibration 302
(4-5) (2007) 865–874. URL http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2006.12.024

Molyneaux W. G. (1957), “Supports for vibration isolation”, ARC/CP-322, Aeronautical

Research Council, Great Britain.

Nagarajaiah S., Reinhorn A. M., Constantinou M. C., Taylor D., Pasala, D. T. R. and Sarlis,
A. A. (2010), “True Adaptive Negative Stiffness: A New Structural Modification Approach
for Seismic Protection”. 5th World Conference on Structural Control and Monitoring, Tokyo,
Japan, July 12-14.

Platus D.L., Negative-stiffness-mechanism vibration isolation systems, Proceedings of

SPIE—The International Society for Optical Engineering, Vibration Control in
Microelectronics, Optics, and Metrology, San Jose, CA, USA, Vol. 1619, 1992, pp. 44–54.

Platus D.L., Negative-stiffness-mechanism vibration isolation systems, Proceedings of the

Opto-mechanical Engineering and Vibration Control Conference, SPIE—The International
Society for Optical Engineering, Denver, CO, USA, Vol. 3786, 1999, pp. 98–105.

Platus D.L. (1993), “Vibration Isolation System”, US Patent No. 5178357, Washington DC:
US Patent and Trademark Office.

Platus D.L. (1994), “Vibration Isolation System”, US Patent No. 5310157, Washington DC:
US Patent and Trademark Office.

Platus D.L. (1994), “Damped Vibration Isolation System”, US Patent No. 5370352,
Washington DC: US Patent and Trademark Office.

Platus D.L. (1995), “Vibration Isolation System”, US Patent No. 5390892, Washington DC:
US Patent and Trademark Office.

Platus D.L. and Cunningham P. J (1996), “Vibration Isolation System”, US Patent No.
5549270, Washington DC: US Patent and Trademark Office.

Platus D.L. and Durran D.A (1997), “Vibration Isolation System”, US Patent No. 5669594,
Washington DC: US Patent and Trademark Office.

Platus D.L. (2004), “Vibration Isolation System”, US Patent No. 6676101B2, Washington
DC: US Patent and Trademark Office.

Reinhorn A.M., Viti S., and Cimellaro G.P. (2005), “Retrofit of Structures: Strength
Reduction with damping enhancement.”, Proceeding of the 37th UJNR Panel Meeting on
Wind and Seismic Effects, Tsukuba, Japan.

27
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

Sarlis A.A., Constantinou M.C, Reinhorn A.M, Pasala, D.T.R, Nagarajaiah S. and Taylor D.
(2011a), “Negative Stiffness Device- Detailed Mechanics and Experimental Validation” –
ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering.

Sarlis A.A., Constantinou M.C, Reinhorn A.M, Pasala, D.T.R, Nagarajaiah S. and Taylor D.
(2011b), “Negative Stiffness Device- Shake Table Testing” – ASCE Journal of Structural
Engineering.

Sarlis A.A., Constantinou M.C, Reinhorn A.M, Pasala, D.T.R, Nagarajaiah S. and Taylor D.
(2011c), “Negative Stiffness Device- Analytical Framework and Experimental Validation” -
MCEER-11-XXXX, Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research, Buffalo,
NY.

Sarlis A.A., Constantinou M.C, Reinhorn A.M, Pasala, D.T.R, Nagarajaiah S. and Taylor D.
(2011d), Negative Stiffness Device- Shake table testing and Proof of Negative Stiffness
Concept” MCEER-11-XXXX, Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering
Research, Buffalo, NY.

Structural Engineering and Earthquake Simulation Laboratory (2004). “Laboratory Manual”

SEESL, Buffalo, NY USA. Available online: htto://nees.buffalo.edu/docs/labmanual/html/

Taylor Devices Inc., North Tonawanda NY, USA, http://www.taylordevices.com/machined-

springs.html

Wolff E.D. and Constantinou M.C. (2004). “Experimental Study of Seismic Isolation Systems
with Emphasis on Secondary System Response and Verification of Accuracy of Dynamic
Response History Analysis Methods”, Technical Report MCEER-04-0001, Multidisciplinary
Center for Earthquake Engineering Research, State University of New York at Buffalo,
Buffalo, NY, USA.

Viti S., Cimellaro G. P., and Reinhorn A. M. (2006), Retrofit of a Hospital through Strength
Reduction and Enhanced Damping. Smart Structures and Systems, 2(4), 339-355.

28
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

Table 1: NSD Properties

Quantity Value
Primary Quantities
Distance from spring pin to fixed pin l1 = 25.4cm
Distance from lever pin to fixed pin l2 = 12.7cm
Spring length l p = 76.2cm
Spring rate K s = 1.4 KN
cm
Preload Pin = 16.5KN
Secondary quantities
Double hinged column height h = 124.5cm
Lever length llv = 67.3cm
Gap Spring Assembly Mechanism
NSD engagement displacement d gap = 1.65cm
Spring S1 –Stiffness k s1 = 4.9 KN / cm
Spring S2 –Stiffness k s 2 = 0.3KN / cm
Spring S2 – Pre-load Pis 2 = 8.1KN

Figure 1: Working Principle of NSD (Nagarajaiah et al 2010)

29
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

a) Un-deformed NSD b) Deformed NSD

Figure 2: View of Negative Stiffness Device tested at SUNY Buffalo

a) Un-deformed NSD b) Deformed NSD

Figure 3: Schematics of Negative Stiffness Device tested at UB-SUNY

Neg. Pos.
NSD Force with GSA

Stiff. Stiff.
NSD Force Without GSA

ks2 << ks1

Displ. dgap: GSA
Force of GSA

softening displ./
dgap: GSA NSD engagement Displ.
us: Stiff.
softening displ./ displacement
displ.
NSD engagement
displ.
Kn,u=0
ks1=Kn,u=0
us: Stiff.
Spring in Spring Displ. displ.
compression in
tension
a) NSD w/out GSA b) GSA c) NSD w/ GSA

Figure 4: Schematics of force displacement loops exhibited by the NSD

30
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

a) 3story structure tested at UB b) Bracing of superstructure

Figure 5: Experimental Setup

a) NSD mechanism b) Gap Spring Assembly

Figure 6: Free body diagrams of NSD mechanism and Gap Spring Assembly

a) NSD w/out GSA and GSA b) NSD w/GSA

Figure 7: Force versus NSD imposed displacement plots for NSD with and without the gap
spring assembly

31
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

a) Instantaneous Stiffness b) Effective Stiffness

Figure 8: Stiffness versus imposed displacement generated by the NSD

Pis 2
d gap =
k s1
k s1 k s 2
Force

k s1 + k s 2
Pis 2
k s1

Displacement

Figure 9: Force Displacement generated by the gap spring assembly

lp
2 2
l p+u
Pre-
Compressed
Spring

Figure 10: Typical Simplified Negative Stiffness System

32
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

a) Typical Neg. Stiff. System of Figure 10 b) NSD tested at UB-SUNY

Figure 11: Comparison of NSD with an equivalent simplified NSD application

Figure 12: Stiffness Magnification Factor as a function of the spring length

Figure 13: Range of Behaviors that can be achieved for the NSD tested at UB-SUNY

33
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

Figure 14: Connection of lever and pivot plate at point B used for modifying the stiffness
magnification ratio.

u/llv =0.06 u/llv =0.21 u/llv =0.50

u/h=0.06 u/h=0.21 u/h=0.50 u/l =0.10 u/llv =0.33 u/llv =0.60
u/h=0.10 u/h=0.33 u/h=0.60
lv

u/h=0.16 u/l =0.16 u/l =0.38 u/llv =0.75

u/h=0.38 u/h=0.75 lv lv

Figure 15: Force Displacement Loops of NSD using the exact equations

a)Exact NSD kinematics b) Modeling for NSD Dynamics

Figure 16: Deformed NSD for use in the exact equations and Dynamics

34
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

J1 J1

ML1: Negative ML1: Negative

Nonlinear Nonlinear
Elastic Spring Elastic Spring

ML2: Positive
J2 BiLinear J2
Elastic Spring
Without GSA With GSA

Figure 17: Modeling of Negative Stiffness Device in SAP2000

Figure 18: Comparisons of analytical results versus results from the simplified SAP2000
element for a displacement history imposed on top of the device

0.
f=0.3Hz f=0.5Hz f=0.7Hz f=1Hz f=1.4Hz f=1.8Hz f=2.2Hz f=2.6Hz
f=0.4Hz f=0.6Hz f=0.8Hz f=1.2Hz f=1.6Hz f=2Hz f=2.4Hz f=2.8Hz

Figure 19: Force Displacement Loops of NSD for various excitation frequencies

35
 Michael C. Constantinou, Andrei M. Reinhorn, Apostolos A. Sarlis,
Douglas Taylor, Satish Nagarajaiah and Dharma Theja R Pasala,

Figure 20: Experimental results obtained from the NSD testing

36