CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI

Fungi- Eukaryotes; contain membrane bounded organelles such as nuclei and mitochondria

 Vary strikingly in size and shape

Fungal Cells- enclosed by cell walls (Chitin)
Chitin- a polysaccharide that consist of subunits of a nitrogen sugar
 Is not photosynthetic because it lack chlorophyll and chloroplast
 Heterotrophs- they cannot synthesize their own organic materials from simple inorganic raw
materials
 Secrete digestive enzymes onto living or dead organic material and absorb small organic
molecules of the predigested food through their cell walls and plasma membranes.
 Some are Decomposers- Obtain their nutrients from dead organic matter
 Some are Parasites- they obtain nutrients from living organisms
 Grows best in moist habitats; they require moisture and to grow and obtain water from the
atmosphere and from the organic material which they live
 Survive by going into a resting stage by producing spores that are resistant to desiccation
(drying out)

MOST FUNGI HAVE A FILAMENTOUS BODY

 Body structure of fungi is from unicellular yeast to the multicellular, filamentous molds.
 Yeast – unicellular fungi that reproduce asexually by budding, in which a bulge (bud)
grows and eventually separates from the parent cell
- Can also reproduce asexually by fission (the equal division of one cell to two
cell) and sexually through spore formation.
 Most are filamentous molds; consist of long, branched threads (filaments) called Hyphae (sing
Hypa)
 Mycelium- The vegetative body of most fungi, consisting branched network of
hyphae
 Some hyphae are Coenocytic; not divided into individual cells but are like an
elongated, multinucleated giant cell
 Other hyphae are divided by cross walls, called septa (sing. Septum); individual cells
that each contain one or more nuclei.
- The septa of septate fungi contains large spores that permit cytoplasm and
sometimes nuclei to flow from the cell to cell, providing a system of internal
transport.

FUNGI REPRODUCE BY SPORES

 Reproduce by microscopic spores; nonmotile (nonflagellated) reproductive cells dispersed by

wind or by animals
  Spores- a reproductive cell that gives rise to individual offspring in fungi and certain
other organism
- Usually produced on aerial hyphae form large reproductive structures called
Fruiting bodies.
 Fungi produce spores either asexually (by mitosis) or sexually (by meiosis)
 Usually contain haploid nuclei
 SR; The hyphae of two genetically distinct mating types come together and their cytoplasm
fuses, process known as plasmogamy. Resulting into 2 haploid nuclei, one from each fungus.
 AR; The diploid nuclei fuse, process known as karyogamy. Results in a cell containing a diploid
zygote nucleus.
 Meiosis then occurs, and haploid spores form.
 During sexual reproduction in the two largest Phyla (The asomycetes and basidiomycetes),
plasmogamy occurs (the hyphae fuse) but karyogamy (the fusion of two different nuclei)
 Dikaryotic- hyphae that contains two genetically distinct nuclei, referred as n+n
 Monokaryotic- hyphae that contains only one nucleus per cell

FUNGAL DIVERSITY

 Fungi has 5 main phyla: Chytidiomycota, Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and

Basidiomycota.
 Microsporidia- a group of intracellular parasites, classified in this text with zygomycetes.
 This was a polyphetic group (they did not share common ancestor) of species assigned together
simply as a matter of convenience.

CHYTRIDS HAVE FLAGELLATED SPORES

 Chytrids or Chytridiomycetes (Phylum Chytridiomycota)

 Fungus like protest
 Cell walls contains Chitin
 Small, simple fungi that inhabit in ponds and damp soil
 Most chytrids are decomposers that degrade organic material
Parasitic chytrids- Responsible for declaining amphibianpopulations dating back
to the 1070s

 Most Chytrids are unicellular or composed of a few cells that form a simple body called
Thallus.
Thallus- may have slender extentions called Rhizoids that anchor it to a food
source and absorb food.
 Chytrids are the only fungi that have a flagellated cells.
 Their spores bear asingle, posterior flagellum
 Earliest fungal group to evolve.
ZYGOMYCETES REPRODUCE SEXUALLY BY FORMING ZYGOSPORES

 Zygomycetes (Phylum Zygomycota)

 Produce zygospores
Zygospores- sexual spores that survive unfavorable environments by remaining
dormant.
- Their hyphae are coenocytic; they lack septa; however, septa do form to
separate the hyphae from reproductive structures.
 Most zygomycetes are decomposers that live in soil on decaying plant or animal matter.
 Rhizopus nigricans- best known zygomycete, the black bread mold
- Bread becomes moldy when a spore falls on it and the germinates and
grows into tangles mass of hyphae.
- Hyphae penetrates the bread and absorb the nutrients. Eventually, certain
hyphae grow upward and develop Sporangia (spores sacs) at their tips
- Sexual reproduction in the black bread molds occur when the hyphae of two
genetically distinct mating types, + and -, grow into contact with one
another.
- Plus (+) and Minus (-) nuclei then fuse to form adiploid nucleus, the zygote
- Zygopores develops with a thick protective covering, it can lie dormant for
several months and can survive dessication and extreme temperatures.
 The life cycle of the black bread mold
-Refer to the book-

MOLECULAR DATA SUGGEST THAT MICROSPORIDA ARE ZYGOMYCETES

 Microsporidia- small, unicellular parasites, infect eukaryotic cells

- Opportunistic pathogens that infect animals
- It infect people with compromised immune systems, such as those with
HIV/AIDS.
- Cause variety of disease involving many organ systems, some species cause
lethal infections
- Two developmental stage
Feeding stage and Reproductive stage
 Spores- which have protective walls
- They pass from cell to cell inside the host or are excreted in urine or through
the skin.
- Each spore is equipped with a polar tube
Polar tube- Long, threadlike
- (1) When the spores enters the gut of a new host, (2) discharge its polar
tube and (3) penetrates the lining of the gut.
- Acting as a hypodermic needle, the polar tube injects the contents of the
spore into the host cell.
 Infection by a microsporidium
 1. Spore of microsporidium has coiled polar tube
2. Spore ejects its polar tube and penetrates the host cell
3. Infective cytoplasm is injected into host cell.

GLOMEROMYCETES ARE SYMBIONTS WITH PLANT ROOTS

 Glomeromycetes (Phylum Glomeromycota)

 Fungus that forms a distinct branching form (arbuscular mycorrhizae) of
endomycorrhizae.
 Symbionts that from intracellular associations with the roots of most trees and
herbaceous plants.
Symbiotic association- an intimate relationship between individuals of different
species.
 Have coenocytic (no septa) hyphae
 Reproduce asexually with large multinucleate spores called blastospores
 Mycorrihzae (Greek word fungus root)- the symbiotic relationship between
fungi and the roots of the plants.
- The roots supply the fungus with sugars, amino acids, and other organic
substances.
- Mycorrhizal fungus- benefits the plants by extending the reach of its roots,
the plant takes in more water and minerals such as phosphorus and
nitrogen.
 Extend their hyphae through cell walls of root cells but do not penetrate the
plasma membrane.
 Endomycorrhizal fungi- intracellular fungi
- Fungi that form mycorrhizae that extend into plant roots
Arbuscular mycorrhizae- most widespread endomycorrhizal fungi. Lives
entirely underground
Arbuscules- the hyphae inside the root cells form branched tree shaped.
Site of nutrient exchange between the plant and the fungus.

ASOMYCETES REPRODUCE SEXUALLY BY FORMING ASCOSPORES

 Ascomycete (Phylum Ascomycota)

 Sometime referred as sac fungi because their sexually spores are produced in little sacs
called asci (sing. Ascus)
 Their hyphae usually have septa, but these cross walls are perforated so that cytoplasm
and even nuclei can move from one cell to another.
 Include most yeast; the powdery mildews; most of the blue-green, pink and brown
mold that cause food to spoil.
 Can cause serious plant diseases such as Dutch elm disease, chestnut blight, ergot
disease on eye.
  Asexual rep. involves the production of spores called Conidia, which are pinched off at
the tips of certain specialized hyphae known as conidiophores (conidia bearers).
Conidia- rapidly propagating new mycelia when environmental conditions are
favorable; each conidium that lands on a suitable food source rapidly grows into
a new mycelium, which in produces conidia
- Occurs in various shapes, sizes, and colors in different species.
- The color of conidia is what gives many of these molds their characteristic
brown, blue-green, pink and other tints.
 Some have genetically distinct mating strains; others are self-fertile, that is, they have
the ability to mate with themselves.
 Sexual Rep. takes place after 2 hyphae grow together and their cytoplasm mingles.
 Life cycle of Ascomycetes
-Refer to the book-

BASIDIOMYCETES REPRODUCE SEXUALLY BY FORMING BASIDIOSPORES

 Basidiomycetes (Phylum basidiomycota)

 Basidiomycetes or club fungi derive their name from the fact that they develop a
basidium (pl. basidia), a structure comparable in function to the ascus of ascomycetes.
 Each basidium is an enlarged, club-shaped hyphal cell, at the tip of which four
basidiospores develop
 Compact masses of hyphae called buttons develop along the mycelium.
- Each buttons grows into the structure that we ordinarily call a mushroom;
Basidiocarp- Stalk and a cap
Gills- the lower surface of the cap usually consist of gills
- The basidia develop on the surfaces of these gills
 Life cycle of typical basidiomycete
-refer to the book-

ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

 Most fungi are free-living decomposers that absorb nutrients from organic wastes and dead
organisms.
 Many fungal decomposers degrade cellulose and lignin, the main components of plant cell walls.
 When fungi degrade wastes and dead organisms, carbon (as CO2) and the mineral components
of organic compounds are released into the environment, where they become available to
plants and other organisms
 Fungi form many important symbiotic relationships with animals, plants, bacteria, and protista.

FUNGI FORM SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP WITH SOME ANIMALS

 Their survival depends on fungi that inhibit their guts, because fungi, like many microorganisms,
do have the enzymes that break down these organic compounds.
 The fungi benefit by living in a nutrient-rich environment.
  Fungi also form symbiotic relationships with ants and termites
 Leaf cutting ants brings leaves to their fungi and protect them from competitors and
predators.
 The fungi digest the leaves, thereby providing nutrients form the ants.

MYCORRHIZAE ARE SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FUNGI AND PLANT ROOTS

 Mycorrhizal fungi decompose organic material in the soil and increase the surface are of a
plant’s roots so that the plant can absorb more water and minerals. The roots supply the fungus
with organic nutrients.
 Connect plants, allowing nutrient to transfer among them.
 Release chemicals that protect the plant against herbivores and pathogens.

LICHENS ARE SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN A FUNGUS AND A PHOTOSYNTHETIC ORGANISM

 Lichen- looks like a single organism

 A symbiotic association between a photosynthetic organism and a fungus
 The photosynthetic partner is usually a green alga or cyanobacterium
- Grows rapidly when separated
 The fungus is often an ascomycete
- Grows slowly and requires a culture medium that provides many compleax
carbohydrates
- Does not produce fruiting bodies
 In some tropical regions the fungal partner is the basidiomycete
 Was considered as definitive example of mutualism
- Mutualism- equally beneficial to both species
- The photosynthetic partner carries on photosynthesis producing
carbohydrates molecules for itself and the fungus.
- The fungus obtain water and minerals for the photosynthetic partner as
well as protects it against desiccation.
 Have one of three growth forms: Cructose, Foliose and Fruticose
- Cructose- Lichens are flat and grow tightly attached to rocks
- Foliose- Lichens are flat, leaf-like lobes and not so attached
- Fruticose- Lichens grow erect and are branched and shrublike.
 Able to tolerate extreme temperature and moisture
 Produce color pigments;
- Orchil- used to dye wooden
- Litmus- used in chemistry laboratories as an acid base (pH) indicator

 Absorb mineral mainly from air and from rainwater

 Cannot excrete or sequester into vacuoles the elements that they absorb
 Reproduce mainly by asexual means, usually fragmentation
 Release special dispersal units called soredia (sing. Soredium)
ECONOMIC AND MEDICAL IMPACT OF FUNGI

 Fungi enables to decompose wastes and dead organisms

 Fungi reduce wood, fiber, and food to their basic components with great efficiency
 Can cause incalculable damage to stored goods and building materials each year
 Responsible for economic grains as well as losses
 People eat them and grow them to make various chemicals, such as citric acids and other
industrial chemicals

FUNGI PROVIDE BEVERAGED AND FOODS

 Human exploit the ability of yeasts to ferment sugars, which produces ethyl alcohol and carbon
dioxide.
 Wine- produced when yeast ferment into sugar
 Beer- produced when yeast ferment grains

Penicillium roquefortii- Mold that is used to make unique flavors and smell of cheese

Aspergillus tamarii- mold that is used to produce soy sauce fermentation of soybeans

Poisonous mushrooms:

 Belong to the genus Amanita

“Destroying angel” (A. Virosa)
“Death cap” (A. phalloides)
 Can cause intoxication and hallucinations

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)- responsible for the trancelike state and colorful versions
experienced by those who eat the mushroom

FUNGI ARE IMPORTANT TO MODERN BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE

 Saccharomyces cerevisiae- being used to study the mechanism of action of antifungal drugs and
resistance to these drugs
 Fungi produce useful drugs and chemicals
 Penicillin- discovered by Alexander Fleming
 Producedthe mold Pencillium notatum
- Antibiotic griseofulvin- used to inhibit the growth of athlete’s foot
- Cyclosporine- used to suppress immune responses in patients receiving
organ transplants
- Statins- used to lower blood cholesterol levels
- Fumagillin- inhibits the formation of new blood vessels and may become an
effective anti-cancer agent.
- Claviceps purpuraea- infects the flowersof rye plants and other cereals.
 = produces a structure called ergot where a grain would
normally form
Ergot is now used clinically to induce labor, stop urine
bleeding, treat high blood pressure and to relieve obe
type of migraine headache.

FUNGI CAUSE MANY IMPORTANT PLANT DISEASE

 Fungal infections may causes stunting of plant parts of the entire plants, may cause growths
similar to warts, or kill the plant
 A plant often becomes infected after hyphae enter through stomata (pores) in the leaf or stem
or through wound in the plant body.
 Parasitic fungi- produce special hyphal branches, haustoria, that penetrates the host cells and
obtain nourishment from the cytoplasm.

FUNGI CAUSE MANY ANIMAL DISEASE

 Fungi can cause superficial infections in which only the skin, hair, or nails are infected.
 Candida- a fungus that inhabits the human mouth and vagina
- Multiplies causing thrush, a painful yeast infection of the mouth, throat and
vagina.
 Histoplasmosis- infection of the lungs caused by inhaling the spores of a fungus abundant in
bird droppings.
 Mycotoxins- poisonous compounds collectively
 Aspergillus- produce potent mycotoxins called aflatoxins.
 Aflatoxins- harm the liver and are known cancer causing agents
 Sick building syndrome- occupants of a building experience adverse health effects linked to the
time in that building.