Chapter 1: Transport

1.1The Importance of Having a Transport System in Some

Multicellular Organisms

1. Living organisms need to exchange:-

a) food
b) waste materials
c) gases

2. The volume of the body is great and diffusion is too slow to transport substances.

TSA/V

1. Diffusion of substances can occur if:

a) TSA/V is large.
b) distance between the source of the substances and the cells is small.
c) concentration gradient is high.
1.2 The Circulatoy System

1. Components:
a) Blood
b) Heart
c) Blood vessels

Blood and haemolymph

1. Blood is the medium of transport in animals and humans.

2. Haemolymph is a blood-like nutritive fluid found in insects.

The functions of blood

1. Tranports oxygen from the lungs to the cells throughout the body.
2. Tranports carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs.
3. Tranports nutrients, hormones and waste products.
4. Regulate the pH of body fluid.
5. Regulate body temperature.
6. Regulate water content.
7. Blood clotting.
8. Protects the body against diseases.

The functions of haemolymph

1. Transports water, inorganic salts and organic compounds.

The composition of human blood

1. Made up of 55% plasma and 45% cellular components.

2. Plasma is the main transport medium in the body.
3. Cellular components of blood:
a) red blood cells (erythrocytes)
b) platelets
c) white blood cells (leucocytes).

Erythrocytes (RBC)

(Figure 1.4)

1. Biconcave disc shaped provides large surface area/volume ratio for gaseous
exchange.
2. Matured cells do not have nucleus.
3. Contains haemoglobin.
4. Haemoglobin is an oxygen carrying protein pigment which gives the RBC the colour
red.
5. Hb contains haem groups which contains iron. It is the site of oxygen binding.
6. Each haemoglobin molecules can bind up to four oxygen molecules.
6. Lifespan of erythrocyte is 120 days.
7. Destroyed in the liver and spleen.
8. Manufactured in the bone marrow.

Leucocytes (WBC)

1. Colourless and have a nucleus.

2. Larger than RBC.
3. Made from stem cells in bone marrow.

(Photograph 1.3)

4. Leucocytes can fight infectious diseases in the interstitial fluid.

5. Neutrophils and monocytes are phagocytes.
6. Eosinophils and basophils release enzymes that combat inflammation in allergic
reactions and kill parasitic worms.
7. Lymphocytes produce immune response against foreign substances.

Platelets

1. Cell fragments from the bone marrow.

2. No nucleus.
3. Involved in blood clotting.

Human blood vessels

Arteries

1. Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart.

2. Transport blood quickly at high pressure (due to heart’s pumping action).
3. To withstand such a high pressure, the walls of the aorta must be thick.

(Figure 1.6)

3. The muscle tissue enables the artery to constrict and dilate.

4. Aorta is the main artery.
5. The blood pressure in the human aorta is about 120 mm Hg.
6. Arteries branch into smaller vessels called arterioles.

Capillaries

1. Thin walled vessels (one cell thick).

2. Allow rapid gaseous exchange between the blood and cells via diffusion.

Veins

1. Brings back blood to the heart.

2. Smooth muscle layer in veins are thinner than that in arteries.
3. Large lumens and valves that maintain the one-way flow of blood.

The human heart

The structure and function of the human heart.

1. Heart is situated between the two lungs in the thoracic cavity.

2. Pumps blood.
3. Four chambers;
a) two upper chambers (atria) – receive blood returning to the heart
b) two lower chambers (ventricle) – pump blood out of the heart
4. The muscular wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the right because the left
ventricle needs to pump blood to all the parts of the body.

(Figure 1.7)

5. Valves are present to allow blood to flow in only one direction.

6. Bicuspid and tricuspid valve prevent blood from flowing back into the atria.
7. Semi lunar valves prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles when the
ventricle relax.
8. Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium via the pulmonary veins.
9. Deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body enters the right atrium via the vena cava.
10. As blood fills the atria, the atria contract and push the blood into the two ventricles.
11. When the ventricles begin to contract, the bicuspid and tricuspid valves are closed,
and blood is pushed out through the semi-lunar valves into the pulmonary arteries and the
aorta.
12. Deoxygenated blood is pumped to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries while
oxygenated blood is pumped through the aorta to the rest of the body.
13. The first sound lubb is caused by the closing of the bicuspid and tricuspid valves.
14. The second sound dub is caused by the closing of the semi-lunar valves.

The circulation of blood in humans

The pumping of the heart

1. The heart is made up strong cardiac muscle.

2. Cardiac muscle is myogenic (contract and relax without the need to receive impulses
from the nervous system).
3. The cardiac muscles are interconnected enabling electrical signals to be conducted
rapidly through the heart, and at the same time stimulate the cardiac muscle to contract in
coordinated way.
4. The coordination of the heart is initiated and coordinated by a pacemaker (cluster of
cells that sets the rate at which the heart contracts).
5. Pacemaker:
a) located at the wall of the right atrium.
b) generates electrical impulses.
c) made of sinoatrial node (SA) node and atrioventricular (AV) node
d) regulated by parasympathetic (slows down) and sympathetic (speeds up) nerves.
e) controlled by adrenaline or epinephrine (increases heartbeat rate during moments of
fear or threat).
6. SA node generates electrical impulses which spread rapidly over the walls of both
atria, causing both atria to contract.
7. From the SA node, the impulses reach the AV node.
8. From the AV node, specialized muscle fibres (bundle of His, bundle branches and
Purkinje) conduct the signals to the apex of the heart and throughout the walls of the
ventricles.
9. This causes the ventricles to contract and push blood out to the lungs and body.

Contraction of skeletal muscle around veins

1. When skeletal muscle contract, they squeeze the veins and push blood through the
veins.
2. The veins have one-way valves that allow blood to flow only towards the heart.

How blood pressure is regulated

1. Blood pressure:
a) Pressure exerted on the wall of the blood vessel.
b) Force that drives blood through the arteries and capillaries.
c) Highest in aorta and large arteries during systole (the contraction of ventricles when
blood is pumped out of the aorta and pulmonary artery).
d) 120 (systolic) /80 (diastolic)mmHg
e) Regulated by negative feedback mechanisms.
2. Baroreceptor (arch of aorta) and carotid arteries in the neck detect blood pressure and
send impulses to the medulla oblongata (cardiovascular centre).
Blood pressure Increase Decrease
Impulse Sent at faster rate Sent at a slower rate
Cardiac muscle Weaker Stronger
contraction
Smooth muscle of artery Relax Contract
Resistance of blood flow Decrease Increase
Blood vessels Widen (Vasodilation) Narrow (Vasoconstriction)
3. This brings the bp to normal value.

The circulatory system in humans, fish and amphibians

1. Flatworm does not need a circulatory system because oxygen and digested materials
can diffuse directly to all its body cells.

Insects Human Fish Amphibians

Circulatory Open Closed
system
Heart Four chambers Two chambers Three chambers
Circulatory Double Single Double
system

Insects
1. One or more hearts pump the heamolymph through vessels and into the haemocoel.
2. Haemocoel contains soft internal organs and is filled with haemolymph.
3. Here, chemical exhange occurs between the haemolymph and body cells.
4. Haemolymph flows out from the hearts into the haemocoel when the hearts contract.
5. When the hearts relax, haemolymph is drawn back into the hearts through pores called
ostia.

Fish
1. A heart with two main chambers, one atrium and one ventricle.
2. Blood leaving the ventricle will travel to the gill capillaries where gaseous exchange
occurs.
3. The gill capillaries converge into a vessel that carries the oxygenated blood to the body
(systemic) capillaries.
4. In the systemic capillaries, oxygen diffuses into the tissues while carbon dioxide
diffuses out of the tissues and into the capillaries.
5. The deoxygenated blood then returns to the atrium of the heart via veins.
6. Single circulatory system - blood flows in only one direction.

Amphibians
1. Three chambered heart, consisting of two atria and one ventricle.
2. Deoxygenated blood from the body is delivered into the right atrium and oxygenated
blood from the lungs is delivered into the left atrium.
3. Blood from both atria then enters a single ventricle.
4. Although there is some mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood inside the
ventricle, most of the oxygenated blood remains in the left portion of the ventricle.
5. The ventricle then pumps blood through the
a) pulmocutaneous circulation
– leads to the gas exchange tissues, which are the lungs and skin.
- gaseous exchange occurs.
- oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium of the heart.
b) systemic circulation.
- carries oxygenated blood to body tissues and then returns deoxygenated blood to the
right atrium via the veins.
6. Double circulatory system – blood flows through the heart twice.
Humans
1. Four chambered heart, two atria and two completely separated ventricles.
2. Deoxygenated blood and oxygenated blood do not mix.
3. Pulmonary circulation:
a) Deoxygenated blood is pumped into the pulmonary arteries.
b) Theses arteries carry the blood to the lungs, where it passes through the blood
capillaries.
c) This enables the release of carbon dioxide and the uptake of oxygen from the air.
4. Systemic circulation:
a) Blood is carried from the heart to all parts of the body except the lungs.
b) The oxygenated blood from the lungs return to the left atrium and flows into the left
ventricle.
c) Blood is then pumped to the body tissues through the aorta.
5. Double circulatory system – blood flows through the heart twice.

1.2 The mechanism of blood clotting

1. Blood clotting – stops or minimizes blood loss at the site of damaged blood vessels.

Blood clotting

1. When a blood vessel is damaged, the connective tissue in the vessel wall is exposed to
blood.
2. Platelets stick rapidly to the collagen fibres in the connective tissue and release
chemicals that make nearby platelet sticky.
3. The aggregation of platelets forms a plug called platelet plugs.
4. A platelet plug can stop blood loss completely if the damage to the vessel is small.
5. When the damage is more severe, the plug is reinforced by a clot of fibrin.
6. The clumped platelets, the damaged cells and clotting factors in the plasma form
activators.
7. The activators (thromboplastins), together with the help of calcium ion and vitamin K,
convert prothrombin, an inactive plasma protein to thrombin, an active plasma protein.
8. Thrombin in turn catalyses the conversion of the soluble protein fibrinogen into the
insoluble fibrin.
9. Fibrin is fibrous protein which forms a mesh over the wound trapping red blood cells
and sealing the wound.
10. The resulting clot hardens on exposure to air to form a scab.

Problems related to blood clotting.

1. Haemophilia
a) Inherited disease caused by a lack of particular clotting factors in the blood.
b) A person with this disease may die due to excessive bleeding from minor cuts and
bruises and may experience spontaneous internal bleeding.
2. Clot (thrombus) formation inside an unbroken blood vessel is called thrombosis.
3. Embolus - The thrombus that become dislodged and travel in the bloodstream.
4. The embolus is swept along until it becomes lodged in an artery which is too small to
pass.
5. When this happen, blood flow in the blood vessel is stopped.
6. If the clot occurs in a coronary artery, an area of the heart muscle may die or be
permanently damaged because of an inadequate supply of oxygen to that area.
7. If the clot blocks blood flow to the brain, it can result in a stroke.

1.4 Lymphatic system

1. Blood that enters the arterial end of a capillary is under high pressure.
2. The pressure is sufficient to cause fluid to leak continuously from the blood into the
spaces between the cells.
3. Interstitial fluid:
a) fills the spaces between the cells and constanly bathes the cells.
b) important to cells because it is through this fluid that exchange of materials between
blood capillaries and cells occurs.
c) Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from the blood through the interstitial fluid into body
cells.
d) Waste products and carbon dioxide from body cells through the interstitial fluid into
the blood.
e) consists of water, leucocytes, dissolved nutrients, hormones, waste products, gases and
small proteins from the blood.
4. Blood plasma at the venous end of the capillary is hypertonic compared to the
surrounding interstitial fluid. Blood pressure is also much lower at the venous end of the
capillary.
5. As a result, water, mineral salts and waste products flow back into the capillary.
6. 85% of the fluid that leaves the blood at the arterial end of the capillary re-enters at the
venous end.
7. The fluid must be returned to the circulatory system to maintain normal blood pressure.
8. 15% of the fluid returns to the blood through the lymphatic system.

The structure of the lymphatic system

1. The lymphatic system collects most of the excess interstitial fluid from the spaces
between the cells and returns it to the circulatory system.
2. The lymphatic system is a network of lymph capillaries and larger vessels.
3. Lymph capillaries:
a) blind-ended tubes.
b) located in the spaces between the cells.
c) channels interstitial fluid which is not absorbed into the bloodstream.
4. The lymph capillaries unite to form lymphatic vessels.
5. Lymphatic vessels:
a) has one way valves that ensure the continuous flow of the lymph away from the tissues
and prevent back flow of lymph.
6. Lymph nodes:
a) located at intervals along the lymphatic vessels.
b) produce and store lymphocytes.
c) help to defend the body against infection.
6. From the lymphatic vessels, lymph eventually passes into
a) thoracic duct
– receives lymph from the left of the head, neck and chest, the left upper limb and the
entire body below the ribs.
- empties its lymph into left subclavian vein
b) right lymphatic duct
– receives lymph from the right arm, shoulder area, and the right side of the head and
neck.
- empties its lymph into right subclavian vein
7. Lymph moves toward the subclavian veins with the help of
a) one-way valves
b) muscular contraction
c) intestinal movements
d) pressure changes that occur during inhalation and exhalation.

The role of the lymphatic system in transport

1. Maintain the balance of fluid in the body by carrying excess interstitial fluid back to
the bloodstream.
2. Prevents oedema – excessive accumulation of interstitial fluid in the spaces between
the cells caused by a blocked lymphatic vessel.
3. Lipids and fat soluble vitamins are transported to the bloodstream via lacteals (lymph
capillaries) in the villi.

1.5 The Role of the Circulatory System in the Body’s Defence Mechanism

1. Body needs defence mechanism to protect it against disease-causing microorganisms.

2. Paythogens – disease causing microorganisms. Example: bacteria, viruses and
parasites.

The first line of defence

1. Consists of physical and chemical barriers that prevent pathogens from entering the
body. Example: skin.
2. The outer layer of the skin is tough and provides a physical barrier that is impermeable
to bacteria and viruses.
3. The continual shedding of dead skin cells make it difficult for bacteria to grow on the
skin.
4. The skin also acts as a chemical barrier as it secretes sebum and sweat.
a) Sebum forms a protective film over the skin.
b) Sweat excreted by the skin contains lysozyme, an enzyme capable of breaking down
the cell walls of certain bacteria.
5. Mucous membrane (trachea, respiratory passageway, digestive and urogenital tracts)
secretes mucus that contains lysozyme which traps and destroys bacteria.
a) Mucous membrane of the nose has mucus-coated hairs that trap and filter
microorganisms, dust and pollutants from inhaled air.
b) Tears and saliva contains lysozyme.
6. Stomach secretes hydrochloric acid which destroys microorganisms that are presents in
foods and drinks.

The second line of defence

1. Phagocytes (white blood cells) performs phagocytosis.

2. Phagocytosis – process by which phagocyte engulf and ingest microorganisms or other
paryticles such as cellular debris.
3. Types of phagocytes:
a) Neutrophils and monocytes
– found in blood
b) Macrophages
- found in interstitial fluid
4. When an infection occurs, phagocytes migrate to the infected area.
5. Phagocytes enter the interstitial fluid by squeezing through capillary walls.
6. During the migration, the monocytes enlarge and develop into macrophages.
7. When a phagocyte encounters an invading pathogen, the phagocyte engulfs the
pathogen.
8. After the pathogen is engulfed and drawn inside the phagocyte, the enzyme lysozyme
kills the pathogen.

The third line of defence

1. Immune system – specific or targeted defence.

2. Immunity – state in which the body is resistant to infection by a disease-causing
pathogen, example, chicken pox virus.
3. If you are exposed again to the particular virus, your body will recognize and destroy
that virus before it can trigger symptoms of the illness.
4. Antigens:
a) large complex molecules, normally a protein that the immune system recognizes as
foreign.
b) normally found on the outer surface of an invading microorganism.
c) some are dissolved in the blood plasma or interstitial fluid. Example: snake venom and
bacterial toxin.
5. Antibodies are proteins found on the surface of lymphocytes.
6. Immune response is the interaction between antibody and antigen which results in the
antigen being eliminated from the body.
7. When a person has an infection, pathogens and white blood cells collect in great
numbers in the lymph nodes which causes the lymph node to swell.
8. The lymph nodes contain macrophages (destroy bacteria, dead tissue and other foreign
substances by phagocytosis) and lymphocytes (destroy antigens and foreign substances).

The various types of immunity

1. Type of immunity:
a) Active immunity
i) Body makes its own antibodies in response to stimulation by an antigen.
ii) Naturally acquired active immunity
- When a person is exposed to a pathogen, the antigens of the pathogens stimulate an
immune response.
- The immune system will produce antibodies in response to the antigens.
- Once the person recovers from the infection, he will be immune if exposed to the
particular pathogen again.
iii) Artificially acquired active immunity
- Measles are highly contagious.
- In order to protect a person from getting this disease, the person can be immunized
against the disease.
- Immunisation is the process of inducing immunity by administering a vaccine.
- Vaccine is a preparation of weakened, dead or non-virulent forms of a pathogen.
- When the vaccine is injected into the body, it will activate the body to produce
antibodies.
- Since the pathogen is modified or weakened, an individual gets mild or no symptoms of
the disease.
- For certain diseases, booster doses of the vaccine are to be given periodically.
- The first dose usually results in the production of a low level of antibody concentration
which is not sufficient to protect a person against the disease.
- The booster dose is necessary to increase antibody production to a level of immunity
that protects the person against disease.
- Does not offer immediate immunity against a disease.
- Long lasting immunity.
- Time lag between infection and a full immune response because the body needs time to
make its own antibodies against a particular antigen.
b) Passive immunity
- Body receives antibody from an outside source.
- Naturally acquired passive immunity
i) Occurs when a foetus is still in the uterus.
ii) Maternal antibodies cross the placenta to the foetal bloodstream.
iii) They protect the baby during the first few months after birth.
iv) Babies can also acquire passive immunity from antibodies found in the mother’s milk
or colostrum during breastfeeding.
- Artificially acquired passive immunity
i) Passive immunity involves the injection or transfusion of serum containing antibodies
against the disease.
ii) Example: serum which contains antibodies or antiserum from donor, can be injected
into a person who needs antibodies before he travels to a country in which a disease is
widespread.
iii) These antibodies temporarily protect the person in the event of exposure to the
pathogen that causes the disease.
iv) Effective but only lasts as long as the antibodies remain in the blood, usually for about
three months.
v) Short lived and offers only immediate, short term and temporary protection.

AIDS

1. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus that attacks the immune system.
2. Infection by the HIV results in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
3. AIDS is a condition in which a person who is infected experiences various infections.
4. This is due to the progressive destruction of the immune system cells.
5. The virus reproduces inside the lymphocytes and kills them in the process.
6. A person infected by HIV may-be symptom free for many years.
7. The effect s of the disease may take 8 -10 years to show.
8. Sine the immune system of a person is weakened, the body is prone to infections.
9. Eventually, the immune system collapses and the victim dies of an infection.
10. HIV enters the body through the transfer of body fluids such as blood and semen, or
across the placenta.
11. Newborns can become infected with the virus from their infected mothers during
delivery.
12. HIV infection of the foetus and newborn is usually preventable with proper medical
treatment of the mother during pregnancy and delivery.
13. Teenagers and adults can get the disease from unprotected copulation with infected
individuals.
14. They can also become infected by sharing contaminated needles used for injecting
drugs or tattoo ink.