AND ERRORS

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ERRORS.

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Measurement – Is the process of assigning numbers to a given physical quantity.

For axample . if the length of the road is 3metres , it means that the unit of length is metre and this
unit is continued 3times in the length of that road.

Parts of measurement

I. Unit – show which quantity is measured

II. Number – which express how many times the mentioned unit is contained in the given physical
quantity

Physical quantity – is the quantity which can be measured

Types of physical quantities

I. Fundamental quantities
II. Derived quantities

Fundamental quantity- these are quantity that can not be expressed in terms of other quantities
(mass,length and time) . sometimes is called independent quantities

Thes quantities have both Dimensions and standard unit whiuch can be expressed dimensionally as
used in mechanics .

Derived quantities – thes are quantities that are obtained from fundamental quantities , such as area
, volume, pressure etc.

Thes quantities can be obtained by combining the fundamental quantities in one way or the other.

Examples.

I. Area = Length x Length

[A]= L x L = L2
II. Volume = Length x Length x Length
[V]= L x L x L = L3
III. Density = Mass /volume
[ρ] = M/[V]
= M/L x L xL = ML-3
[ρ] = ML-3
IV. Speed = Distance /Time
[v] = L/T = LT-1

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 Dimensions – Is the way in which the physical quantities are related to fundamental physical
quantities
Dimensions are denoted by spuare brackets [ ]
[mass]= Dimensions of mass is M.
Dimensions Analysis – Is the way of showing how physical quantities are related to each other.
Note.
Any physical quantity are dimensionally related to Mass, Length and Time. However symbol M,L, and
T are dimensionally used for Mass , Length and Time.
Example . Dimensions of velocity obtained from its definition, which is the rate of change of
displacement.

[𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉] 𝑳
[V] = = = LT-1
[𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆] 𝑻

USES OF DIMENSIONS / DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

These are:-
i. Derivation of formula
ii. Checking Homogeneity of the formula
iii. Determination of formula
iv. To convert one system of units to another

DERIVATION OF FORMULA.

Dimensional formula of physical quantities can be easily written if we know its relation with other
physical quantities . Dimensions are used as a a tool in establishing relationship between physical
quantities.

For example . through observation one would like to establish the connection between mass(m) its
velocity and workdone on it.

Steps as follow:-

From a statement that . Workdone is proportional to mass and velocity

W = α mv

W=kmv

W =k Mx Vy ……………..(i)

Where, K = proportionality constant.

[Work] = [Force] x [Distance]

= [M] [Acceleration] [L]

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[Work] = ML2T2

[V] = LT-1

[M] = M

Substitute Dimensions to equation …………(i)

ML2T2 = KMxLxT-y

Compare and equate indaces of corresponding dimensions

For M , x = 1

For L, y= 2

For T , -y = -2 = 2

Substitute for x and y in equation ……..(i)

W = KM1V1

W = KMV2

This is an empirical expression for the work done to move the body acquiring kinetic energy.

Through experiment K can be obtain K = ½

CHECKING HOMOGENEITY OF THE EQUATION

According to the principle of homogeneity

“A physical relation is a dimensionally correct if the dimensions of fundamental quantities are the
same in each and every term on either side of the equation”

This principles based on the fact that , only quantities of the same kind ( dimensions) can be added or
subtracted together.

Example,

Lets prove if Newtons third equation of motion is dimensionally constant

V2 = U2 + 2as

Where, V = Final velocity , U = initial velocity , a = acceleration due to gravity and s = Displacement

[V]2 = [U]2 + 2[a] [s]

Enter its dimensions

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[LT-1]2 = [LT-1 ]2 + 2[LT-2 ] [L]

L2 T-2 =L2 T-2 + 2 L2 T-2

Each term in the equation shows dimensioned of spuare of velocity , therefore it is dimensional
consistency

DETERMINATION OF UNITS

At time when solving problem using an expression involves number of variables raised to some
power the final unit of quantity being calculated may not be immediately recalled one way of
finding what unit is, is by making use of dimensional analysis

Example

G = 𝑭𝒓𝟐⁄𝑴𝑴

Dimensionally

[𝑭][𝒓𝟐]
[G] = [𝑴][𝑴]

Where

[F] = MLT-2

[r2] = L2

[m] = M

[G] = MLT-2 L2 /M2

[G] = MT-2 L3 /M2

[G]= M-1L3T-2

Since M-1 = kg-1 , L3 = m3 , T-2 = s-2 the unit of G are m3s-2kg-1 can also be written as Nm2kg-2

TO CONVERT ONE SYSTEM OF UNITS INTO ANOTHER .

The magnitude of physical quantities remins the same irrespective of the systems of the
measurements .

This facts enable us to convert one system of units into another

Suppose we have physical quantity Q . let n1 and n2 be numerical value of the physical quantitities
when measured into two systems having units of size u1 and u2 respectively . then

Q = n1u1……. On the first system

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 Q = n2u2……..On the second system

Clearly

Q = n1u1 = n2u2

Suppose the physical quantities has dimensional formula . M a Lb Tc. Lets fundamental units be M1a,
L1b, T1c and M2a, L2b, T2c , on second system respectively

Q = n1 [M1a, L1b T1c ] = n2 [M2a, L2b, T2c ]

𝐧𝟏 [𝐌𝟏𝐚,𝐋𝟏𝐛 𝐓𝟏𝐜 ]
N2 = [𝐌𝟐𝐚,𝐋𝟐𝐛,𝐓𝟐𝐜 ]

N2 = n1 [ ]a [𝑳𝟏
𝒎𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐
] b [ ]c 𝑻𝟏
𝑻𝟐

Thus. If we know values of physical quantities in one system of units , we can get its values in the
other system.

TO FIND DIMENSIONS OF CONSTANTS IN A RELATION

Sometimes a physical relation contains constants . In order to find the dimensions of these constants
we can use the principle of homogeneity of dimensions.

Suggest. The relation between Pressure (p) , Volume (v) and temperature (T) of a gas is given by

(P + )(v-b) = RT
𝒂
𝒗𝒂

Here a and b are constants required to find dimensions of a and b

𝒂
The quantity must represent pressure since it is added to pressure (p)
𝒗𝒂

Dimensions of “p” = [Force] / [Area]

= [ML-1 T -2]

Dimensions of “v2” = [L 3]2 = L6

𝒂
= ML-1T-2
𝐋𝟔

[a] = ML5T-2

Hence dimensions of a are ML5T-2

This constant “b” must represent volume subtracted from “v” Therefore [b] = L 3

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 DIMENSIONAL FORMULA – is a formula that obtained after express a physical quantity in terms of its
dimensions .

Example of dimensional formula

[F] = MLT-2

Two things are appeared from dimensional formula.

i. The unit of force depends upon the unit of mass, length and time.
ii. The unit of force varies directly as the unit of mass and length and inversely as the spuare of
time.

DIMENSIONAL EQUATION – Refers to the resulting equation obtained when each physical quantity is
represented by its dimensional formula in equation.

Example . The first equation of motion can be written by Dimensional equation as follow

V = u + at

[M0 L T-1] = + [M0 L T-1] [M0 L T-2] [M0 L0 T]

This is Dimensional equation.

Note. Dimensions in every term of the formula must be the same.

FOUR CATEGORIES OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES.

i. Dimensional variables
ii. Dimensional constant
iii. Dimensionless variables
iv. Dimensionless constant

DIMENSIONAL VARIABLES – These physical quantities which have dimensions but do not have fixed
value .Eg Force , Velocity ect

DIMENSIONAL CONSTANTS - These are physical quantities which possess dimension and have fixed
value Eg Gravitational constant , velocity of light etc.

DIMENSIONLESS VARIABLES – these physical quantities which have neither dimensions nor fixed
values Eg specific gravity , strain angle etc.

DIMENSIONLESS ONSTANTS – these physical quantities which do not possess dimensions but have
fixed value. Eg 1, 2, 4 etc

LIMITATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

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 i. Dimensionless constants occurring in a physical formula can not be determined .either by
experiment or mathematical analysis
ii. Dimensions analysis can not be used to derive relations involving trigonometrical and
exponential functions.
iii. Dimensional analysis does not indicate whether a physical quantity is scalar or vector
iv. Dimensional analysis can not be used to derive the exact form of a physical relation depends
upon more than three physical quantities ( mass, length and time)

REVIEW EXERCISE

1. Check the dimensional consistency of the following relation

FS = ½ MV2 – ½ Mu2

Where F = force , s = distance , m = mass , u = initial velocity , v = final velocity.

2. The equation of waves is given by

Y = rsinw (x/y – kx)

Where. Each symbol have their usual meaning . What are the dimensions of x and k ?

3. Find the value of 10Joules on a system which has 10cm , 100g and 30s as the fundamental units .
4. The frequency “n” of vibration of a stratched string is a function of its tension F, length L and
mass per unit length m from knowledge of dimensions prove that n α 1/L √𝑭/𝒎
5. The density of the earth is given by

Ρ = 3g/4𝝅RG where. R = radius of the earth , G= gravitational constant

Its consistency ?

6. A force experienced by an object moving in a circle depends on mass “m” of a object , the
celocity “v” at which it moves and radius “r” of the circle it describes.by using dimensions obtain
the expression for the force.
7. The periodic time T of a simple pendulum is assumed in the form of

T= KMx Ly gz . find the numerical value of x , y, and z , Give your comment on this expression

8. A student in examination wrote , s = ut + at2 , and check its homogeneity and gets its correct
formula . what is the problem with formula ?
9. The largest mass (m) of a stone that can be moved by a flowing river depend on the velocity of
flow N, density ρ of water and acceleration due to gravity g . Show how mass (m) varies to sixth
power of velocity.

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ERRORS ANALYSIS
ERROR – Is the small different between measured value from its exact value.
To day accurate measurement is important part of the physical but no measurement that is
absolutely pricise due to errors that occur on the measurements
When given result of a measurement it is good practice to state the estimated erro.
For example If the measured length of table is 23.2cm and error is about 0.1cm , then the length will
be recorded as 23.2±0.1cm . the 0.1cm represent error in the measurement , the length of table
lies between 23.1cm and 23.3cm.
TYPES OF ERRORS
These are :-
1. Systematic error
2. Random error

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS – are the errors thet appear in measurement due to known causes.

CAUSES OF SYSTEMATIC ERRORS

I. Incorrect design or calibration of the instruments

II. Lack of accuracy of the formula used
III. Incorrect reading or interpretation of the instrunebt.

MINIMIZATION OF SYSTEMATIC ERROR

I. Carefully design of instruments and calibration

II. Using improved methods of measurements

RANDOM ERROR – are the errors that appear in the measurements due to unknown causes. These
arise due to variety of factors which can not be taken into account.

Example

I. Fluatuation in the surrounding eg . temperature

II. Insesitivity of the instrument.

Its not possible to completely eliminate random errors.

MINIMIZATION OF RANDOM ERRORS

a) Making a number of readings of a given quantities several and taking the average.
b) Maintaining good experimental technique .eg reading from a correct position
c) Plotting a graph to establish pattern and obtaining the line of best fit.

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MISTAKE – Is the wrong way of doing something in measurement . the mistake is done when the
measurement is carried out in a wrong way.

Example . Using an ammeter to record voltage.

BLUNDER - Is the mistake done several times .

PRECISION –Is the something made with exact measurements.or can ve defined as the quantity of
being exact.This indicate the closeness with which measurements agree with one another quite
independent to any systematic error.

HOW TO AVOID OR MINIMIZING ERROR

It is possible to avoid or if not to minimize by the first reading the instructions of given experiment
and undertaking them.Apparatus should be checked thoroughly before put them into uses . In
most cases diagrams are given to show how apparatus must be arranged and connected , so
follow the instructions.

The following are some precautions to be taken in minimizing the error in each case

1. INSTRUMENTAL ERROR- This occur from measuring devices themselves,the following its
precautions
a) Regular maintenance and repair of apparatus
b) Proper storage of apparatus in special ductless rooms
c) Careful handling of apparatus when transferring them between places
d) Regular dusting , cleaning and oiling.
2. OBSERVATION ERRORS – The following its precautions
a) Avoid parallax error by reading the value from the scale perpendicular from position
b) Study the scale of instrument before operating it
c) Write the values read from the scale within the accuracy of instrument
d) Record the values actually made but not imaginary or cooked ones
3. ADJUSTMENT ERRORS- its precautions follows
a) Adjust the measuring device to remove zero error and where it is not possible record it
somewhere for further reference
b) Fix each item of the apparatus in the right position and more importantly for instruments like
meter ruler , thermometers etc must kept vertical or upright

Accurancy –is the ability of a measurement to match the actual value of the quantity being
measured.

Is the degree to which something is true or exact. The quality or state of being accurate or exact or
precision known as accurancy

ACCURANCY OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

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a) THE VERNIER CALIPERS

Is the device for determine inner and outer diameter of hollow objects like test tubes , pipes etc
.Have two scale which are main scale and vernier scale. The main scale reads up to one decimal
place where as as vernier scale reads up to the second decimal point of centimeter

Note. The smallest unit(accurancy) the vernier calipers can possibly measure is 0.01 cm or 0.1mm

THE MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

It measure the length of the magnitude of 1mm and less.There are two scales are sleeve scale and
thimble scale .It is used to measure the diameter of a wires, thickness of the metal sheetsd and
other tiny lengths.

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Note. The smallest unit(accurancy) that a micrometer screw gauge can possibly measure is 0.01 mm

THE METER RULER

It is used to measure length of an object.Total length it can measure is 1m which is subdivided into
1000 partitions each 1mm long .Thus smallest length a meter ruler can possibly measure is a
millimeter. This means accurancy of a meter ruler is 1 part out of 100 parts that make the whole.

TERMS USED IN ERROR ANALYSIS

Absolute error – Is the difference in the magnitude of true value and the measured value of a
physical quantity

Consider

P = a ±∆a

Q = b±∆𝒃

P + Q = ( a + b ) │ ± ∆𝒂 + ∆𝒃│

Note.

Errors are always maximized

Relative error – this is the ratio of absolute error to the value of the quantity being measured

Example

P = a ±∆a

∆𝒂
Then . Relative error = 𝒂

Percentage error – is the error obtained by taking relative error multiply by 100%

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 ∆𝒂
Percentage error = x 100%
𝒂

Example

What is the percentage error in the measurement 8.9±𝟎. 𝟐𝒄𝒎

Soln

𝟎.𝟐
Percentage error = x 100%
𝟖.𝟗

Percentage error = 2.2 %

PROPAGATION OF ERRORS

Errors can be added , subtracted , multiplied and devided on the measurement

1. Error in sum
Suppose the result Q is given as the sum of two observed quantities a and b
Q=a+b
If ∆𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∆𝒃 are the absolute error of a and b , The measurement should b recorded as a ±∆a and
b±∆𝒃 , If ∆𝑸 is the absolute error in the sum
Maximum error in measurement of a.

Q = ∆𝑸 = ( a + b) ± │∆𝒂 + ∆𝒃│

Errors in difference
Let Q = a – b
If ∆𝒂 and ∆𝒃 are absolute errors in the measurement of quantities a and b.
Then

Q = ∆𝑸 = ( a - b) ± │∆𝒂 + ∆𝒃│

Errors in Product

Let Q = ab

If ∆𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∆𝒃 are the absolute error of a and b , The measurement should b recorded as a ±∆a and
b±∆𝒃 , If ∆𝑸 is the absolute error to the result , the,

Q = ∆𝑸 = (a ±∆a) (b±∆𝒃)

Q = ∆𝑸 = ab ±𝒂∆𝒃 ± 𝒃∆𝒂 ± ∆𝒂∆𝒃

Deviding both sides by Q =( ab) we get

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 ∆𝑸 ∆𝒃 ∆𝒂 ∆𝒂 ∆𝒃
± =± ± ± ×
𝑸 𝒃 𝒂 𝒂 𝒃

∆𝑸
Note. ± , This is Fractional error
𝑸

Error in power

Let Q = a2

If ∆𝒂 is the absolute error in the measurement of quantity a, then the measurement should be
recorded as a ±∆a . If ∆𝑸 is the absolute error in the result , then

Q = ∆𝑸 =( a ±∆𝒂)2 = a2 + (∆a)2 + 2a∆a

Note. We can ignore term (∆a)2 , since it is the product of two small quantities and therefore , very
small in comparison with other quantities.

Q = ∆𝑸 = a2 ± 2a∆a

±∆𝑸 = 2a∆a

On fractional error,

Q±∆𝑸 = a2 ± 2a∆a

∆𝑸 𝟐𝒂∆𝒂 ∆𝒂 𝟐∆𝒂 𝟐∆𝒂

± =± ± =± =±
𝑸 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝒂 𝒂

Note. If Q = a n

∆𝑸 𝒏∆𝒂
= 𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝑸

General case ( Error on natural logarithm)

Consider

Q = 𝝅𝝆r4/8ln

Apply natural logarithm on both sides

Ln Q = ln (Q = 𝝅𝝆r4/8ln)

Differentiate

Ln Q = ln𝝅 + ln P + 4ln r – ln 8 + ln l – ln n

∆𝑸 ∆𝒑 𝟒∆𝒓 ∆𝒍 ∆𝒏
=± ± ± =±
𝑸 𝒑 𝒓 𝒍 𝒏

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EXAMPLE

Two quantities X and y have values (10±𝟎. 𝟎𝟏) and ( 5 ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟏) respectively . Find the absolute error ,
relative error and percentage error in the

a) Sum
b) Difference
c) Product
d) Quontient

Solution

(a)For sum

S±∆𝒔 = ( x + y) ±│∆𝒙 + ∆𝒚│

∆𝒔 = ±│0.01 + 0.01│

Absolute error ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟐

𝟎.𝟎𝟐
Relative error = 𝟏𝟎+𝟓

= 0.0013

Percentage error = 0.0013 x 100%

= 0.13%

(b)In difference

Absolute error = │0.01 + 0.01│

= 0.02

𝟎.𝟎𝟐
Relative error = 𝟏𝟎−𝟓

= 0.004

Percentage error= 0.004 x 100%

= 0.4%

(c)in product

Absolute error ±│𝒙∆𝒚 + 𝒚∆𝒙│

= 10( 0.01) + 5 ( 0.01)

= 0.15

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 𝟎.𝟏𝟓
Relative error = 𝟏𝟎×𝟓

= 0.003

Percentage error = 0.3%

REVIEW EXERCISE

1. The force acting on an object of mass m , travelling at velocity v in a circle of radius r is given by

𝒎𝒗𝟐 𝟐𝟎𝒎 𝟏𝒎
F= the measurements are recorded as m = 3.5kg ±𝟎. 𝟏𝒌𝒈, 𝒗 = ± 𝒔 𝒓 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 ± 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎.
𝒓 𝒔

Find the maximum possible 1/ Fractional error ii/ percentage error in the measurements of force

How will you record the reading?

2. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is given as T = 𝟐𝝅√𝒍/𝒈 . The length L of the
pendulum is about 10cm and is known to 1mm accuracy . the period of 100 oscillation is
measured with a stopwatch of 1 s resolution . What is the accurancy in the determination of g.
3. Error in measuring mass is 6% and volume is 1% What will be error in measuring of density
4. The specific restance 𝝆 of a circuit wire of radius r ,resistance R ohm and length is given by
𝝆 = 𝝅r2R/L If r = 0.26±𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎 R = 32±1 ohm and L = 78±0.01 cm

Find the percentage error in 𝝆

5. The side of the cube is measured as 7.5±𝟎. 𝟏 𝒎 , Find the volume of the cube.

Note. You should find a lot of concept concern about Dimesional analysis and errors and to do a lot
of question from the past papers and other books , You will be good in this topic.

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