Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
DOI 10.1007/s00445-014-0835-5
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Volcaniclastic sequences at the foot of Tacaná Volcano, southern
México: implications for hazard assessment
H. Murcia & J. L. Macías
Received: 15 September 2013 / Accepted: 24 May 2014 / Published online: 24 June 2014
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014
Abstract Extensive volcaniclastic deposits have originat-
ed from the Tacaná Volcanic Complex (TVC) throughout
its evolution. The valleys of the Coatán and Cahuacán
rivers have been the main routes for descending flows
which have occasionally reached the Pacific Ocean. As a
result, three fans have been deposited or increased their
volume. The most recent, Tapachula, is 13 km long and
covers an area of ~48 km2 that has been largely urbanized
by the city of Tapachula, which is located 30 km SW of
the TVC. The ~0.7-km3 fan is bounded by the Coatán
River to the west and the Cahuacán River to the east and
is composed of a complex succession of volcaniclastic
deposits accumulated between ~23,000 and ~1,300 years
ago in response to remobilization of debris along the
Coatán River basin. Collectively, the three fans consist
of 34 stacked units grouped into five stratigraphic se-
quences. From the oldest to the youngest, these sequences
are as follows: (1) Pre-Tacaná (Chanjale Fan), comprising
five units associated with the remobilization of material
produced during the formation of the Chanjale Caldera
~1 Myr ago; (2) Mal Paso (Mal Paso Fan), comprising
four units emplaced between ~100,000 and
>>23,000 years ago; (3) Lower Tapachula (Tapachula
Fan), consisting of two units deposited around
23,000 years ago; (4) Upper Tapachula (Tapachula Fan),
consisting of 14 units emplaced between ~14,300 and
Editorial responsibility: V. Manville
H. Murcia (*)
School of Environment, The University of Auckland, Auckland,
New Zealand
e-mail: hugofmurcia@gmail.com
J. L. Macías
Instituto de Geofísica, Campus Morelia, Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México, Morelia, Michoacán, México
e-mail: macias@geofisica.unam.mx
~1,300 years ago; and (5) the topmost sequence, Coatán,
is made up of 11 units deposited during the past
~1,300 years inside the valley of the Coatán River.
Today, ~200,000 people live on top of the Tapachula
Fan, which makes the city vulnerable to future lahars
from the TVC.
Keywords Tacaná Volcano . Tapachula . Volcaniclastic
deposits . Lahars . Alluvial fans . México
Introduction
Lahars represent one of the most dangerous volcanic
hazards associated with and following volcanic eruptions.
These events can affect areas far beyond the reach of
other volcanic hazards due to their runout capacity: e.g.,
>300 km from Cotopaxi Volcano, Ecuador (Mothes et al.
1998); >150 km from Mount Rainier Volcano, USA
(Vallance and Scott 1997); >170 km from Nevado del
Huila Volcano, Colombia (Pulgarín et al. 2004; Worni
et al. 2012); >114 km from Cerro Machín Volcano,
Colombia (Murcia et al. 2008); >100 km from Nevado
del Ruiz Volcano, Colombia (Pierson et al. 1990); and in
México, >120 km from Citlaltépetl Volcano (Carrasco-
Núñez et al. 1993), >80 km from Popocatépetl Volcano
(Siebe et al. 1995), >60 km from Nevado de Toluca
Volcano (Capra and Macías 2000), and >60 km from the
Tacaná Volcanic Complex (Macías et al. 2000). Lahars
can be generated many years after an eruption (e.g.,
>10 years at Mount Pinatubo Volcano (Torres et al.
2004)), and strikingly, they may also occur without warn-
ing (Scott et al. 2001). As a consequence, alluvial fans of
different sizes and shapes can be formed by stacked
successions of volcaniclastic deposits at the foot of vol-
canoes or in areas far from them, for example, around
835, Page 2 of 27
Quaternary volcanoes in Italy (Giordano et al. 2002), the
El Espinal and Guamo alluvial fans (Cortés 2001),
Quindio-Risaralda Fan (Guarin et al. 2004), and the
volcaniclastic Aranzazu Sequence (Borrero et al. 2008)
in Colombia, or the volcaniclastic sequence of Mount
Semeru in Indonesia (Lavigne and Suwa 2004). Many
modern cities are located in areas of fertile soils near
volcanoes and within their hazard zones. The total pop-
ulation at risk in these cities is increasing due to the
urbanization of the fans and fluvial plains. This phe-
nomenon is attributed to uncontrolled population growth
in cities and countries with poor land use planning,
limited or non-existent hazard information education,
and economic realities that encourage “squatting” in
high-hazard areas. Usually, these people have very little
knowledge of the surrounding environment and the haz-
ards to which they are exposed.
An excellent case study of this type of environment is
Tapachula City, located in the State of Chiapas in southern
México, which stands upon an alluvial fan formed by the
accumulation of secondary volcaniclastic deposits originating
from the Tacaná Volcanic Complex (TVC). Tapachula City
was founded in 1486 with the name of Tapachotl (Náhuatl
language) or “flooded earth.” Originally, the city was built on
a flat plain between the Coatán River to the west and the
Cahuacán River to the east, 35 km SW of the TVC. This
original settlement area has expanded over the last two de-
cades due to a recent rapid growth of the city’s population
beyond the current city limits onto the Coatán River flood
plain. This urban sprawl was even promoted by local politi-
cians and authorities, who established new homes on the flood
plain and furnished them with public services (i.e., power,
water, etc.), making these areas prone to future disasters. In
fact, the first warnings of escalating flood risks started during
rainy seasons in the early 1990s. Seasonal rain substantially
increased the level of the Coatán River, so that every year, the
swollen river swept away huts, people, and property, such as
during the November 1998 flooding (Caballero et al. 2006). A
peak in this escalating risk was reached on October 4, 2005,
when 5 days of continuous intense rain from Hurricane Stan
overloaded the Coatán River. The rising floodwater destroyed
ca. 2,000 houses across 10 neighborhoods (with another 12
neighborhoods also flooded) and affected ~100,000 peo-
ple (Murcia and Macías 2009). In addition, the four
bridges and the railroad track connecting Tapachula with
central México were destroyed, leaving the city stranded
during its worst tragedy in historical times. The flood exposed
older deposits along the Coatán River that contain a detailed
record of past floods and lahar deposits. In this paper,
we document the distribution of these deposits forming
alluvial fans. Radiocarbon dating is used to determine
the stratigraphy of the deposits and aid in reconstructing
the evolution of the area with the formation of three
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
alluvial fans. This information provides further evidence
that the TVC has been the source of large volumes of
secondary volcaniclastic deposits in the volcanic apron
and extending as far as the Pacific Ocean.
Location
Tapachula City (170 m above sea level) is located 30 km SW
of the TVC (15° 08′ N, 92° 06′ W, 4,120 m above sea level). It
is the second largest city in the State of Chiapas after the
capital city of Tuxtla Gutierrez. Tapachula is the main urban
center of the Soconusco region, one of the eight socioeco-
nomic provinces in the state. The TVC is located on the
international border between México (Chiapas State) and
Guatemala (San Marcos Department) (Fig. 1)
Tapachula has a total municipal population of 282,420,
of whom 189,991 live in the urban zone (II Censo de
Población y Vivienda 2005, Instituto Nacional de
Estadística, Geografía e Informática—INEGI). The city
has a warm-humid climate with an average annual temper-
ature of 26 °C and an annual precipitation of 2,500 mm
(http://www.tapachula.gob.mx). The TVC, on the contrary,
has a humid, semi-warm climate with variable temperatures
that range from 10 to 20 °C and a high annual precipitation
between 4,500 and 5,000 mm.
Terminology
Sediment-water flows (also called sediment-laden flows)
occur when debris is removed from its original deposi-
tional position and mixed with water flowing down a
slope. As this moves downhill, the flow may entrain
additional sediment or water, become more concentrated
or diluted, respectively, and modify its load and/or depo-
sition capability according to its dynamic behavior. The
resulting deposits are a function of the hydraulic and
rheological variations of the original flow where transport
and depositional effects depend mainly on the yield
strength, flow regime, and granular interaction (cf.
Shultz 1984). These flows can be classified as debris
flows, hyperconcentrated flows, and stream flows accord-
ing to their intrinsic properties (Beverage and Culbertson
1964; Shultz 1984; Pierson and Costa 1987; Smith and
Lowe 1991; Iverson 1997; Vallance and Scott 1997;
Iverson and Vallance 2001). In summary, debris flows
have yield strength (i.e., they are non-Newtonian), a pre-
dominantly laminar flow regime, friction-dominant gran-
ular interactions (i.e., viscose), and solid-phase transport
by suspension; as a consequence, they tend to form mas-
sive and inversely graded deposits. Debris flow can be
cohesive or non-cohesive depending on whether the clay
content in the matrix (sand+silt+clay) is >5 or <5 wt%,
respectively (Scott et al. 1995; Vallance and Scott 1997).
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835 Page 3 of 27, 835

Fig. 1 Location of the Tacaná Volcanic Complex and Tapachula City

835, Page 4 of 27
Stream flows do not have yield strength (i.e., they are
Newtonian) and have a predominantly turbulent flow re-
gime, collision-dominant granular interactions (i.e., iner-
tial), and a solid-phase transport system (traction, salta-
tion, and some suspension) which can generate normally
graded deposits with lamination or stratification, imbrica-
tion, tool marks, etc. Hyperconcentrated flows are a tran-
sition between these two end members (Pierson 2005).
Debris flow deposits are typically massive and inversely
graded, and extremely poorly sorted as shown by large
clasts embedded within a fine-grained matrix (e.g.,
Pierson and Scott 1985; Smith and Lowe 1991; Vallance
2000). Other common features include very small matrix
voids (i.e., vesicles) (e.g., Carrasco-Núñez et al. 1993;
Mothes et al. 1998; Capra and Macías 2000, 2002;
Bernard et al. 2009); water escape structures or dewatering
pipes (e.g., Rodolfo et al. 1996; T.C. Pierson written com-
munication); hardening or cementation of the deposit (e.g.,
Pulgarín et al. 2004; T.C. Pierson written communication);
unimodal, bimodal, or polymodal grain size distribution
(e.g., Capra and Macías 2000, 2002; Murcia et al. 2008);
and imbricated clasts (e.g., Vallance and Scott 1997; Capra
and Macías 2002). Hyperconcentrated flow deposits have
weak planar stratification, absence of cross stratification,
and are poorly sorted with gravel lenses and stratified beds
of organic material and pumice (e.g., Pierson and Scott
1985; Smith and Lowe 1991; Vallance 2000; Macías
et al. 2004). In addition, other authors have reported mas-
sive facies (e.g., Guarin et al. 2004), normal and inverse
grading (e.g., Vallance and Scott 1997; Thouret et al. 1998;
Giordano et al. 2002), unimodal grain size distributions
(e.g., Thouret et al. 1998), possible tool marks (e.g.,
Smith and Lowe 1991), and dewatering pipes (e.g.,
Giordano et al. 2002; T.C. Pierson written communication)
and have included cross stratification (e.g., Giordano et al.
2002). Stream flow deposits have planar and cross stratifica-
tion, ripples, and tool marks and are moderately to well sorted,
with imbrication and lenses of gravel and/or thin beds of sand
(e.g., Pierson and Scott 1985; Smith and Lowe 1991; Miall
1996).
The terms debris flow, hyperconcentrated flow, and stream
flow deposits are here used to describe the facies ex-
posed at outcrop scale. The description of these facies
does not involve all-flow-behavior for the classification
of the deposits. In other words, a deposit with facies of
hyperconcentrated flow deposits, for example, means
that it has typical features of this kind of volcaniclastic
deposit at outcrop scale only.
Deposits are treated here as lahar and associated stream
flow deposits because the flows were generated in the
flanks of a volcano by remobilization of volcaniclastic
products. They may have been syn-eruptive, post-
eruptive, or non-eruptive (see Murcia et al. 2013). A
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
“unit” represents an accumulation of sediments with de-
fined stratigraphic relationships and age. A unit can be
formed by one or more layers with abrupt or transitional
facies changes, which as a whole represents a single
depositional period. A “sequence” comprises two or more
units that share processes in space and time (i.e., strati-
graphic sequences). Thus, the sequences are separated by
discordances and/or abrupt facies changes (structure, tex-
ture, composition, and/or age).
Methodology
A total of 52 stratigraphic columns were produced for 97
outcrops during the field campaign (see Murcia (2008) for
detailed correlations). The columns are characterized by
stratigraphic markers, such as the 1902 Santa María
(Guatemala) pyroclastic fall deposit (Williams and Self
1983), and paleosols and charcoal that were dated with
14
C at the Radiocarbon Laboratory, Arizona University.
Twenty-six complete granulometric analyses were carried
out at the Instituto de Geofísica, UNAM. Descriptions of
the stratigraphy and deposits are based on the
sedimentological classification of Udden (1914) and
Wentworth (1922), which classifies the particles as clay
(<0.004-mm diameter), silt and sand (between 0.004- and
2-mm diameter), and gravel (>2-mm diameter). The term
matrix was used to describe particles smaller than 2 mm.
Some deposits were not analyzed because they were too thin
or indurated to be characterized and/or quantified.
Granulometric analyses for particles larger than −4 phi were
performed by using photographs and the point counting
technique of 100 particles in a 1×1-m2 area at outcrop scale.
Half-kilogram samples were collected at each outcrop for
dry sieving of particles between −3 and 4 phi (Instituto de
Geofísica, UNAM), and wet analyses were performed using
a scanning photo-sedimentograph for particles between 5
and 9 phi (Centro de Geociencias, campus UNAM
Juriquilla). Both granulometric results were merged into a
single granulometric distribution followed the method of
Kellerhals and Bray (1971). Reported statistical parameters
were obtained following Inman (1952) and Folk (1980).
Geology of the Tacaná volcanic Complex
The TVC forms the northwesternmost active volcanic
complex of the Central American Volcanic Arc (CAVA),
which extends ~1,300 km from México to La Yeguada
Volcanic Complex in western Panamá (Camacho 1995).
According to García-Palomo et al. (2006), the TVC lies
on Mesozoic metamorphic rocks (green schists and
gneisses). These rocks were affected by the intrusion of
granites and granodiorites during the late Eocene to early
Oligocene and granodiorites and tonalites during the early
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
to mid-Miocene (Mujica 1987). These rocks are overlain
by volcanic sequences of the San Rafael (~2 Ma),
Chanjale (~1 Ma), and Sibinal calderas. The TVC in-
cludes the Chichuj, Tacaná, and San Antonio volcanoes
and Las Ardillas Dome and was built inside the ~9-km-
wide San Rafael Caldera through the emplacement of lava
flows and volcaniclastic deposits. It has been destroyed at
least four times during the last 100,000 years, producing
extensive debris avalanches and lahar deposits (Espíndola
et al. 1989, 1996; Macías et al. 2000, 2010; Arce et al.
2004, 2012; Mora et al. 2004; Macías 2005; García-
Palomo et al. 2006; Borjas 2006; Ordaz 2006).
Petrologic and geochemical analyses of the TVC define
it as an andesitic structure with little variation in compo-
sition and with enrichment in light rare earth elements,
similar to the Central American Volcanic Arc and the
Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc (Mora 2001; Mora et al.
2004, 2013; Pompa 2005).
Geomorphology and hydrological network around Tapachula
City
Tapachula City is located on top of a stacked succession
of secondary volcaniclastic deposits. These deposits form
the Chanjale, Mal Paso, and Tapachula alluvial fans
(Fig. 2). Chanjale, the oldest, is a maximum of 30 km
long and 20 km wide, with an altitude difference between
its apex and tip of 100 m. The Mal Paso Fan is 50 km
long and 40 km wide with a 500-m difference in height
between the fan head and tip; this fan is bounded to the
west by the Coatán River and to the east by the Suchiate
River and extends all the way to the Pacific Ocean. The
Tapachula Alluvial Fan is 13 km long and 8 km wide
(maximum), with 200 m of fall from the fan head to its
tip; this fan is roughly bounded by the Coatán River to the
west and the Cahuacán River to the east (Fig. 2).
The hydrological network around Tapachula is restrict-
ed to three rivers: Coatán River to the west, Cahuacán
River to the east, and the Texcuyuapan stream (a tributary
of the Cahuacán River) at the center. The Coatán River
has its source in Guatemala, 15 km to the northeast of the
TVC, flows from east to west draining the northern flank
of the San Rafael Caldera, and then turns south between
the Chanjale and San Rafael calderas into Mexican terri-
tory (Fig. 2). The Coatán valley cuts through Mesozoic
metamorphic rocks, Tertiary granodioritic and tonalite
rocks, Pliocene and Pleistocene rocks of the San Rafael-
Chanjale calderas, and Pleistocene-Holocene
volcaniclastic deposits of the TVC. Once in México, it
captures the waters of the San Rafael River, on the west-
ern side of the TVC, and continues southward across the
western part of Tapachula City and other small towns
prior to discharge into the Pacific Ocean in the Mazatán
Page 5 of 27, 835
region. The Cahuacán River has its source directly on the
southern slopes of the TVC. This river descends in a
NNE-SSW direction toward the eastern part of
Tapachula City (Fig. 2). Its valley runs across
volcaniclastic deposits of the TVC prior to debouching
into the Pacific Ocean. The Texcuyuapan stream has its
source in the Chanjale Fan transecting the Tapachula Fan,
very close to its apex in a N-S direction (Fig. 2). This
stream is then captured by the Cahuacán River.
Volcaniclastic deposits around Tapachula
The stratigraphy of volcaniclastic deposits in the
Tapachula region is mainly exposed along the Coatán
River valley walls. It consists of the superposition of
the Chanjale, Mal Paso, and Tapachula alluvial fans that
are composed of material derived mainly from the remo-
bilization of debris from both TVC and pre-TVC rocks.
To define the stratigraphy and evolution of these fans,
we identified five sequences comprising 34 units exposed
at different terrace levels with the aid of stratigraphic
correlations, physical parameters of the deposits, and 15
radiocarbon dates (Table 1). From the oldest to the
youngest, these five sequences are called Pre-Tacaná,
Mal Paso, Lower Tapachula, Upper Tapachula, and
Coatán.
Pre-Tacaná Sequence
The Pre-Tacaná Sequence (P-TS) is exposed in the north-
east and northwest parts of the study area bounding the
Tapachula Fan. It consists of five units (Fig. 3; Table 2)
located in both banks of the Coatán River. This sequence
is well exposed upstream beyond the Tapachula Fan and
has a minimum accumulated thickness of 11.5 m. Its five
units have facies of debris flow deposits. They comprise
massive, matrix-supported, and poorly sorted deposits
consisting of rounded and highly altered volcanic frag-
ments mainly (up to 60 cm in diameter) embedded in a
red and mottled matrix (Fig. 3A). This sequence is high-
ly dissected by erosion due to hydromorphism (alteration
by water saturation) that in turn made all the deposit
clayey and not possible to describe further. In some
places, the sequence has thin clay layers atop it, which
are the product of erosion and subsequent accumulation
of altered material. A composite stratigraphic column is
shown in Fig. 3B. P-TS represents the distal parts of
debris flow deposits associated with the ~1-Ma
Chanjale Caldera (Chanjale Fan) (see Fig. 2). García-
Palomo et al. (2006) reported an Upper Pleistocene age
for these deposits
835, Page 6 of 27 Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835

Fig. 2 Satellite image showing the distribution of alluvial fans in the Wind software which is available at: http://worldwind.arc.nasa.gov/).
Tapachula region. The Mixcun pyroclastic flow deposit is also shown Cha Chanjale Caldera, SR San Rafael Caldera, Si Sibinal Caldera, TVC
adjacent to the Tapachula region (base image taken from NASA World Tacaná Volcanic Complex
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835 Page 7 of 27, 835

Table 1 Radiocarbon dates of the Tapachula Alluvial Fan

Sequence Conventional age δ13C Calibrated age Laboratory Sample Location

(years BP) (‰) number code
(1σ) (2σ) North West

Coatán Post-1950a −23.6 – – A-14419 TL-30-P2 14° 54′ 18.8″ 96° 16′ 30.7″
115±45 −25.9 AD 1685–1731 AD 1675–1777 A-14411 TL-03-C2 14° 54′ 19.0″ 96° 17′ 45.6″
AD 1808–1892 AD 1799–1941
AD 1907–1927
300+105/−100 −28.7 AD 1455–1667 AD 1427–1700 A-14414 TL-76-C1 14° 57′ 20.1″ 96° 15′ 22.4″
AD 1783–1796 AD 1702–1706
AD 1719–1819
AD 1832–1881
AD 1915–1949
680±45 −23.9 AD 1275–1309 AD 1260–1329 A-14416 TL-03-P 14° 54′ 19.0″ 96° 17′ 45.6″
AD 1361–1386 AD 1339–1397
1,320±75 −24.9 AD 641–770 AD 584–882 A-14417 TL-10-P 14° 53′ 44.5′ 96° 17′ 25.0″
Upper Tapachula 1,330±45 −22.9 AD 652–695 AD 630–772 A-14418 TL-15-P 14° 53′ 57.7″ 96° 16′ 50.7″
AD 701–709
AD 746–764
7,655+155/−150 −25.1 BC 6681–6362 BC 7027–6931 A-14422 TL-77-P1 14° 57′ 21.4″ 96° 15′ 18.2″
BC 6282–6274 BC 6920–6877
BC 6849–6219
8,015±75 −14.5 BC 7060–6823 BC 7139–7097 A-14421 TL-70-P 14° 56′ 21.0″ 96°15′20.5″
BC 7087–6682
8,990±95 −13.0 BC 8291–8170 BC 8424–8404 A-14420 TL-50-P 14° 56′ 45.1″ 96° 15′ 44.1″
BC 8116–7981 BC 8393–8375
BC 8350–7811
BC 7806–7795
10,190±65 −26.5 BC 10065–9812 BC 10187–9659 A-14423 TL-77-P2 14° 57′ 21.4″ 96° 15′ 18.2″
BC 9572–9557 AA75510
13,935+265/−255b −25.5 BC 15331–14545 BC 15664–14196 A-14413 TL-60-C 14° 57′ 9.79″ 96° 15′ 16.6″
14,345+210/−205b −22.9 BC 15790–15222 BC 16036–14916 A-14425 TL-90-P 14° 51′ 17.3″ 96° 15′ 15.4″
Lower Tapachula 22,975+295/−285 −20.1 BC 25624–25067 BC 25776–24633 A-14424 TL-79-P 14° 57′ 41.4″ 96° 15′ 16.4″
23,950±180 −24.4 BC 26227–25848 BC 26477–25737 A-14415 TL-79-C 14° 57′ 41.4″ 96° 15′ 16.4″
AA74808

Letter A indicates ages obtained by the conventional method and AA ages obtained by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). In the sample code, the
first two numbers indicate the station, letter P indicates age determined in paleosol, and letter C age determined in charcoal. Locations of stations are
shown in Fig. 9. Samples were analyzed in the Radiocarbon Laboratory, Arizona University, Tucson, by CJ Eastoe
a
Reported date was “Post bomb, 111.4±0.6 pMC.” pMC percent modern carbon. Calibrated age calculated using Calib 7.0.2 software (http://calib.qub.
ac.uk/calib/) based on Stuiver and Reimer (1993)
b
Extra counting

Mal Paso Sequence Murcia 2008) embedded in an indurated, white silt-clay

This sequence is exposed along both margins of the
Coatán River upstream of the Tapachula Fan. It consists
of four units and has an accumulated thickness of at least
11.2 m (Fig. 4; Table 2). Units 1, 3, and 4 have facies of
debris flow deposits, while unit 2 is a pyroclastic fall
deposit (unknown source) that was reworked at its top
(it exhibits facies of stream flow deposits) (Fig. 4A1). The
units with facies of debris flow deposits are massive,
matrix-supported (locally clast-supported), poorly sorted,
heterolitholo gic depo sits comp osed of angular,
subangular, and subrounded fragments (up to 1.3 m in
diameter) of mainly dark-gray basaltic andesites (see
matrix (Fig. 4A2). The Mal Paso Sequence (MPS) also
contains plutonic and metamorphic fragments. Volcanic
fragments show different degrees of alteration. The pyro-
clastic fall deposit is white, massive, with incipient lam-
ination and moldable consistency, well sorted, and com-
posed of silty fragments of quartz, plagioclase, and some
black and red volcanic lithics. The composite stratigraphic
column of MPS is shown in Fig. 4B. This sequence is
exposed at the top of the Mal Paso Fan. The age of the
MPS is bracketed by the oldest age of the TVC
(~100,000 years; Macías et al. 2000; Macías 2005) and
the age of the overlying Lower Tapachula Sequence
paleosol (~23,000 years; Table 1)
835, Page 8 of 27
Fig. 3 A Photographs showing the Pre-Tacaná Sequence units. A1 Units
with debris-flow deposit facies. Note the difference between the size of
the clasts within the units, which are separated by white-dotted lines. A2
Detail of one of the units. Note the poorly sorted deposit and the reddish
Lower Tapachula Sequence
Lower Tapachula Sequence (LTS) consists of two units
(Fig. 5; Table 2) that crop out continuously on both
margins of the Coatán River across the Tapachula Fan
and upstream of Tapachula City. In some places, inside
the fan, it lies unconformably and discordantly over the
Pre-Tacaná Sequence (Fig. 5A1), while upstream, beyond
the Tapachula Fan, it concordantly rests on the Mal Paso
Sequence. LTS has an accumulated thickness of at least
12.5 m at the fan and ~30 m upstream. Unit 1 exhibits
facies of debris flow and hyperconcentrated flow
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
mottled matrix. In A1, the shovel for scale is 80 cm, and in A2, the
hammer is 33 cm. Location of stations is shown in Fig. 9. B Composite
stratigraphic column of Pre-Tacaná Sequence
deposits, while unit 2 shows characteristics typical of a
river bed deposit (Fig. 5A2). At the base, the unit 1
deposits (Tables 2 and 3) are matrix-supported, very
poorly sorted (Table 4), and polymodal and exhibit crude
stratification (Fig. 5B). They consist of subrounded and
rounded (up to 60 cm in diameter), light-gray andesitic
fragments (see Murcia 2008) enclosed in a light-gray,
indurated sandy matrix of similar composition to the
larger fragments (Fig. 5A3). Plutonic and metamorphic
fragments are less abundant (<1 %). The granulometric
distribution of unit 1, debris flow facies, indicates that
the flow was non-cohesive (Table 3). In general, the unit
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835 Page 9 of 27, 835

Table 2 Physical characteristics of units that form the sequences which define and contextualize the evolution of Tapachula Fan

Sequence Unit Characteristics Maximum Maximum Observations

size of thickness
fragments observed

Coatán 11 1c, 2b, 3a, 4e, 5a, 6ab, 7b, 8 cd, 9abcd 1 cm 50 cm
10 1ab, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5a, 6bc, 7a, 8 cd, 9abc 30 cm 2m It has cloth, plastic, and glass
9 1a, 2b, 3a, 4c, 5a, 6bc, 7d, 8 cd, 9a 4 cm 30 cm Very altered fragments
8 1a, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5a, 6a, 7a, 8 cd, 9 ac 4 mm 25 cm It has charcoal
7 1b, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5a, 6bc, 7b, 8de, 9abc 12 cm 80 cm Evidence of facies changes
6 1a, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5a, 6ab, 7a, 8de, 9abc 15 cm 2m It has degraded plastic and charcoal
5-2 1a, 2b, 3a, 4d, 5a, 6a, 7b, 8 cd, 9acd 1 cm 40 cm 1902 Santa María Volcano eruption
5-1 1a, 2a, 3a, 4d, 5a, 6b, 7c, 8b, 9ad – 12 cm
4 1a, 2b, 3a, 4d, 5a, 6a, 7b, 8 cd, 9abcd 5 mm 1.5 m It has charcoal and paleosol lenses
3 1a, 2b, 3a, 4c, 5a, 6a, 7b, 8 cd, 9abcd 1 cm 60 cm It has charcoal
2 1e, 2b, 3a, 4d, 5a, 6ab, 7b, 8 cd, 9abc 2 mm 40 cm Brown matrix at the top
1 1ae, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5ab, 6a, 7b, 8e, 9abc 1.5 m 2.5 m River bed of the Coatán River
Upper Tapachula 14 1a, 2a, 3a, 4b, 5a, 6bc, 7a, 8c, 9a 20 cm 4m Earthy matrix
13 1a, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5a, 6a, 7b, 8bcd, 9abc 4 cm 30 cm Very indurated
12 1a, 2b, 3a, 4e, 5a, 6ab, 7a, 8 cd, 9ab 5 mm 31 cm Red, black, and gray volcanic fragments
11 1c, 2b, 3a, 4e, 5a, 6a, 7b, 8 cd, 9ab 5 mm 23 cm Slightly laminated
10 1a, 2b, 3a, 4e, 5a, 6a, 7a, 8 cd, 9ab 5 mm 1m It has paleosol, sand, and pyroclastic fall deposit lenses
9 1be, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5a, 6a, 7b, 8d, 9ab 70 cm 6m Evidence of facies changes, red colorations
and inverse gradation of volcanic fragments
8 1b, 2a, 3a, 4b, 5a, 6a, 7b, 8d, 9a 10 cm 6.5 m It is formed by massive bed successions with planar
contacts
7 1b, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5a, 6a, 7ab, 8c, 9abc 7 cm 1.3 m It is formed by massive bed successions with
planar contacts
6 1a, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5a, 6a, 7a, 8de, 9a 6 cm 50 cm It has pumice
5-3 1c, 2a, 3a, 4d, 5a, 6a, 7b, 8 cd, 9abc 1 cm 90 cm Slightly laminated
5-2 1e, 2a, 3b, 4b, 5a, 6a, 7ab, 8c, 9abc 2 cm 13 cm Poor inverse gradation
5-1 1c, 2a, 3a, 4c, 5a, 6a, 7b, 8 cd, 9abc 3 mm 50 cm Massive in the base
4-3 1a, 2a, 3b, 4b, 5a, 6a, 7b, 8 cd, 9abc 35 cm 1.2 m Less indurated at the top
4-2 1e, 2a, 3a, 4b, 5a, 6a, 7b, 8 cd, 9abc 4 cm 1.2 m Slightly inverse gradation
4-1 1c, 2a, 3a, 4c, 5a, 6a, 7b, 8c, 9ab 1 cm 22 cm Clay bed at the top
3 1b, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5a, 6a, 7b, 8 cd, 9ab 50 cm 19 m Evidence of facies changes, maximum thickness
observed in a paleochannel
2 1b, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5a, 6a, 7c, 8 cd, 9abc 10 cm 3.6 m Observed only in the right margin of the Cahuacán River
1 1c, 2b, 3a, 4d, 5a, 6a, 7b, 8de, 9abcd 4 cm 6.5 m Fragment concentrations in lenses
Lower Tapachula 2 1a, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5ab, 6a, 7b, 8e, 9abc 1m 30 m/TL-96 Fragments with imbrications
1 1b, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5a, 6a, 7b, 8de, 9ab 60 cm 12 m/TL-77 Evidence of facies changes, <1 % plutonic fragments
Mal Paso 4 1a, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5ab, 6bc, 7a, 8abcde, 60 cm 7m Very dense mafic volcanic fragments. Very indurated
9abc
3 1e, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5a, 6bc, 7a, 8 cd, 9ab 15 cm 1.3 m Very dense mafic volcanic fragments. Matrix dark brown
2-2 1c, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5a, 6a, 7a, 8 cd, 9a 3 cm 50 cm Locally massive, slightly indurated
2-1 1a, 2b, 4e, 6ab, 7c, 8bcd, 9a 2 mm 30 cm Incipient lamination, moldable consistency
1 1a, 2b, 3b, 4a, 5a, 6ab, 7b, 8cde, 9abc 1m 3.2 m Very dense mafic volcanic fragments, very indurated
Pre-Tacaná 5 1a, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5a, 6a*, 7d, 8e, 9ab 40 cm 7m There are no hardness differences between the matrix
4 1a, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5a, 6a*, 7d, 8e, 9ab 30 cm 1.3 m and the contained fragments. The deposits have
3 1a, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5ab, 6a*, 7bd, 8e, 9ab 45 cm 50 cm moldable consistency
2 1a, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5a, 6a*, 7d, 8e, 9ab 25 cm 30 cm
1 1a, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5ab, 6a*, 7d, 8e, 9ab 60 cm 3.2 m

Structure(s) (1): (a) massive, (b) poorly stratified, (c) planar and/or cross lamination, (d) normal gradation, (e) inverse gradation. (2a) monolithologic, (2b)
heterolithologic. (3a) loose, (3b) indurated. Sorting (4): (a) extremely poorly, (b) very poorly, (c) poorly, (d) moderately, (e) well, (f) very well. (5a)
matrix-supported, (5b) clast-supported. Matrix of (6): (a) sand, (b) silt, (c) clay. Matrix color (7): (a) brown, (b) gray, (c) white, (d) red. Fragment
roundness (8): (a) very angular, (b) angular, (c) sub-angular, (d) sub-rounded, (e) rounded, (f) well-rounded. Types of fragments according to their origin
(9): (a) volcanic, (b) plutonic (mainly granites), (c) metamorphic (mainly green schists)
*Product of strong alteration
835, Page 10 of 27
Fig. 4 A Photographs showing the Mal Paso Sequence units. A1 Units
characterized by debris-flow deposit facies are located at the top and
bottom, whereas the pyroclastic-fall deposit unit is in the middle. Note the
difference in the size of the clasts in the units. The thick arrow indicates
the pyroclastic fall deposit. A2 Detail of one of the units with debris flow
is ungraded, with some local lenses of gravel. The de-
posits of the overlying unit 2 (Table 2) are massive,
clast-supported, extremely poorly sorted, and composed
of rounded and well-rounded, light-gray andesitic frag-
ments and minor plutonic and metamorphic fragments.
Scattered imbrication of clasts, some of which reach up
to 1 m in diameter, occurs (Fig. 5A4). The crumbly
sandy matrix is yellowish to brown in color and has a
similar composition to that of the larger fragments. Due
to its low compaction, this unit has been completely
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
deposit facies. Note the poor sorting and the angularity and/or roundness,
and the heterogeneity of the fragments. Hammer in A2 is 33 cm. Location
of stations is shown in Fig. 9. B Composite stratigraphic column of Mal
Paso Sequence. PF pyroclastic fall deposit
eroded in some areas where just the lower unit appears.
A paleosol dated atop unit 2 yielded an age of 22,975+
295/−285 years BP (Table 1), giving a minimum age for
the LTS (a charcoal dated within this paleosol was dated
at 23,950± 180 years BP—Table 1; the origin of this
charcoal, however, could have been a local forest fire,
or it could have been reworked and incorporated into the
paleosol, for which, its age represents a minimum age of
the deposit and the LTS). The Lower Tapachula
Sequence represents the base of the Tapachula Fan. The
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
composite stratigraphic column of LTS is shown in
Fig. 5B.
Upper Tapachula Sequence
This sequence conformably overlies the Lower Tapachula
Sequence on both banks of the Coatán River. It consists
of 14 units and has an accumulated thickness of at least
43 m (Fig. 6; Table 2). Unit 1 is interpreted as a river
bed and/or an inundation plain deposit indicating rela-
tively low energy deposition over a long period of time;
units 4-3, 7, 8, 13, and 14 have facies of debris flow
deposits; units 2, 3, 4-2, 5-2, 6, and 9 have facies of
hyperconcentrated flow deposits; and units 4-1, 5-1, 5-3,
10, 11, and 12 exhibit facies of stream flow deposits
Fig. 5 A Photographs showing the Lower Tapachula Sequence units. A1
Discordant contact between the units of LTS and the units of Pre-Tacaná
Sequence. Note the erosive contact between them and the clast accumu-
lation due to the small topographic barrier. A2 Units with
hyperconcentrated flow deposit facies at the bottom and deposit of the
river bed at the top. Note the difference in color between both units. A3
Detail of unit 1 that consists of transitional facies between debris and
Page 11 of 27, 835
(Fig. 6A, B; Table 2). In general, units with facies of
debris flow deposits (Tables 2 and 3) are massive,
matrix-supported, very poorly sorted (Table 4), and bi-
modal (Fig. 6B). They are composed of subangular and
rounded volcanic fragments (up to 35 cm in diameter)
embedded in a silt-sand matrix of similar composition to
the larger fragments. The granulometric distributions of
these units indicate that the debris flows associated with
them were non-cohesive (Table 3). The units have plu-
tonic and metamorphic fragments in varying amounts
(<5 %) but always subordinate to the volcanic fragments.
Local lenses of gravel-sized fragments are observed. The
units with facies of hyperconcentrated flow deposits
(Tables 2 and 3) are massive, loose, matrix-supported,
and moderately to very poorly sorted (Table 4), with
hyperconcentrated flow deposits. Note the fragment concentration in
some areas. A4 Detail of the river bed deposit which exhibits well
rounded clasts and the contact among them. Person in A2 is 1.6 m,
shovel in A4 is 80 cm, and hammer in A3 is 33 cm. Location of stations
is shown in Fig. 9. B Composite stratigraphic column of Lower Tapachula
Sequence. FA a fluvial accumulation of river bed. Double asterisk denotes
age in paleosol. Single asterisk denotes age in charcoal
835, Page 12 of 27 Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835

Fig. 5 (continued)
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835 Page 13 of 27, 835

Table 3 Summary of the analysis of size classes for the units which form the sequences that define and contextualize the evolution of Tapachula Fan

Sequence Unit Sample Total deposit (100 %) Matrix (100 %)

Gravel Sand Silt Clay Sand Silt Clay

Lower Tapachula 2 TL-74-1 63.40 32.94 3.31 0.33 90.02 9.07 0.91
TL-10-3 66.35 32.85 0.71 0.08 97.64 2.11 0.24
1 TL-74-2 63.61 34.91 1.33 0.13 95.96 3.67 0.36
TL-10-4 70.09 29.25 0.58 0.06 97.81 1.96 0.22
Upper Tapachula 9 TL-73 76.87 16.97 5.14 0.99 73.42 22.25 4.32
8 TL-85-X 37.63 52.93 8.96 0.46 84.88 14.37 0.74
TL-66-2 31.89 61.49 5.84 0.76 90.29 8.58 1.12
7 TL-50-1 53.32 40.29 5.67 0.71 86.31 12.16 1.52
6 TL-50-2 7.62 80.46 10.39 1.52 87.10 11.25 1.64
TL-60-2 54.20 38.02 6.42 1.33 83.03 14.03 2.92
5-3 TL-70-1 0.54 97.67 1.68 0.09 98.20 1.69 0.09
5-2 TL-70-2 14.81 78.19 6.31 0.67 91.79 7.41 0.79
5-1 TL-70-3 0.58 93.79 5.18 0.44 94.34 5.21 0.44
4-3 TL-50-0 68.42 27.22 3.91 0.43 86.22 12.40 1.37
4-2 TL-50-3 9.89 70.44 16.04 3.60 78.18 17.80 4.00
4-1 TL-50-5 1.38 85.03 13.58 0 86.22 13.77 0
1 TL-90 1.22 95.79 2.68 0.29 96.97 2.72 0.29
Coatán 8 TL-05-1 0.21 95.82 3.95 0 96.03 3.96 0
6 TL-62-1 2.74 69.39 27.95 0 71.25 28.74 0
5-2 TL-40-1 0.07 95.44 4.17 0.30 95.51 4.17 0.30
4 TL-02-1 0.38 95.93 3.48 0.20 96.30 3.49 0.20
TL-10-1 0 84.97 15.02 0 84.97 15.02 0
3 TL-34 0 93.85 5.12 1.02 93.85 5.12 1.02
TL-67 0.35 92.73 6.91 0 93.05 6.94 0
1 TL-04 79.30 20.02 0.64 0 96.90 3.09 0

In the sample codes, the station numbers are indicated by the first two numbers

unimodal and bimodal distributions (Fig. 6B). They con-
sist mainly of sand-sized subangular and rounded frag-
ments (up to 10 cm in diameter) of quartz, amphibole,
biotite, and gray, black, and red lithics of volcanic,
plutonic, and metamorphic origin. Lenses and intraclasts
of paleosol, sand beds, and pyroclastic fall deposits are
embedded within the units. Units with facies of stream
flow deposits (Tables 2 and 3) are laminated, loose,
matrix-supported, moderately to poorly sorted (Table 4),
and unimodal (Fig. 6B). They are mainly composed of
subangular and rounded silt-sand-sized fragments of
quartz, amphibole, biotite, and gray/black/red volcanic,
plutonic, and metamorphic lithics. In general, the de-
posits are characterized by different degrees of hardness,
variable thicknesses, and restricted continuity (Fig. 6A).
The most common volcanic fragments within this se-
quence are andesitic (see Murcia 2008). The composite
stratigraphic column of Upper Tapachula Sequence
(UTS) is shown in Fig. 6B, which constitutes the up-
permost part of the Tapachula Alluvial Fan. The age of
UTS is bracketed between two paleosols dated at
14,345+210/−205 and 1,330±45 years BP (Table 1)
Coatán Sequence
Coatán Sequence (CS) is discontinuously exposed on both
margins of the Coatán River and forms the terraces within
the current river bed, thus being younger than the
Tapachula Fan. CT rests unconformably on all the other
sequences and consists of 11 units (Murcia and Macías
2009). CS has a minimum accumulative thickness of
11.5 m (Fig. 7; Table 2). Unit 1 corresponds to a river
bed deposit; units 2, 3, 4 5-2, 7, 8, 9, and 11 show facies
of stream flow deposits; unit 5-1 corresponds to a pyro-
clastic fall deposit from the 1902 eruption of Santa María
Volcano, Guatemala; and units 6, 7, and 10 exhibit facies
835, Page 14 of 27 Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835

Table 4 Statistical parameters of the units which are part of the sequences that define and contextualize the evolution of Tapachula Fan

Sequence Unit Sample Md Mz σg σi Skg Ski Kg

Lower Tapachula 2 TL-74-1 −4.55 −3.68 4.95 4.37 0.26 0.28 0.62
TL-10-3 −3.65 −3.17 4.33 3.81 0.17 0.15 0.63
1 TL-74-2 −3.05 −2.57 3.88 3.49 0.19 0.16 0.77
TL-10-4 −3.50 −2.58 3.48 3.06 0.40 0.39 0.68
Upper Tapachula 6 TL-50-2 2.00 1.78 1.98 2.12 −0.16 −0.05 1.13
TL-60-2 −1.45 −0.93 3.38 3.24 0.23 0.30 0.83
7 TL-50-1 −1.45 −1.00 3.53 3.27 0.19 0.19 0.75
8 TL-85-X 0.45 −0.13 3.68 3.43 −0.24 −0.17 0.78
TL-66-2 0.55 0.30 2.58 2.66 −0.15 −0.09 1.00
9 TL-73 −3.60 −2.25 3.33 3.26 0.61 0.61 1.54
5-3 TL-70-1 1.65 1.72 0.90 0.95 0.11 0.10 1.13
5-2 TL-70-2 1.05 1.00 1.93 2.05 −0.04 −0.01 1.13
5-1 TL-70-3 1.35 1.42 1.25 1.33 0.08 0.15 1.15
4-3 TL-50-0 −3.25 −1.98 3.2 2.93 0.59 0.60 0.81
4-2 TL-50-3 1.95 2.15 2.70 2.80 0.11 0.13 1.22
4-1 TL-50-5 2.05 2.18 1.50 1.67 0.13 0.21 1.25
1 TL-90 1.85 1.87 0.93 0.96 0.03 0.03 1.08
Coatán 8 TL-05-1 1.75 1.82 1.10 1.12 0.09 0.11 1.06
6 TL-62-1 2.65 3.15 2.55 2.43 0.29 0.26 1.00
5-2 TL-40-1 2.50 2.48 0.93 0.94 −0.03 −0.04 1.08
4 TL-02-1 2.10 2.17 0.95 0.94 0.11 0.12 0.98
TL-10-1 3.10 3.07 0.95 1.19 −0.05 0.11 1.48
3 TL-34 1.40 1.52 1.08 1.23 0.16 0.28 1.35
TL-67-1 2.35 2.33 1.08 1.11 −0.02 0.01 1.06
1 TL-04 −5.35 −4.43 3.78 3.43 0.36 0.39 0.74

In the sample codes, the station numbers are indicated by the first two numbers
Md median, Mz mean, σg graphic standard deviation, σi inclusive graphic standard deviation, Skg graphic skewness, Ski inclusive graphic skewness, Kg
Kurtosis (Inman 1952; Folk 1980)

of hyperconcentrated flow deposits (Fig. 7A). In general,
units with facies of hyperconcentrated flow deposit
(Tables 2 and 3) are massive, loose, matrix-supported, very
poorly sorted (Table 4), and bimodal (Fig. 7B). They are
composed of subangular to rounded, gravel-sized (≤30 cm
in diameter) volcanic clasts, fragments of quartz, amphi-
bole, biotite, and lithics of andesites (gray, black, and red),
and plutonic and metamorphic rocks enclosed in a silty to
clayey brown matrix. Local lenses of paleosol and
intraclasts of the 1902 Santa María Volcano pyroclastic fall
deposit are observed. Units with facies of stream flow
deposits (Tables 2 and 3) are laminated, loose, matrix-
supported, moderately to poorly sorted (Table 4), and
unimodal (Fig. 7B). They comprise silt-sand sized,
subangular to rounded fragments of quartz, amphibole,
biotite, volcanic clasts (gray, black, and red), and plutonic
and metamorphic lithics. The composite stratigraphic
column of CS is shown in Fig. 7B. The age of this
sequence is represented by the underlying paleosol dated
at 1,320±75 years BP (Table 1) and the October 4, 2005
overlying thin deposits (Murcia and Macías 2009)
Interpretative synthesis and Tapachula Fan definition
The Pre-Tacaná Sequence belongs to the Chanjale
Alluvial Fan which was formed by lahars derived from
the Chanjale Caldera formed 1 Myr ago (García-Palomo
et al. 2006). The Mal Paso Sequence belongs to the Mal
Paso Alluvial Fan which was formed by lahars, mainly
associated with the activity of TVC between ~100,000
and >>23,000 years ago. The Lower and Upper
Tapachula sequences belong to the Tapachula Alluvial
Fan which is formed by a stacked succession of deposits
associated with the remobilization of TVC deposits and/or
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
material from the San Rafael-Chanjale calderas; sediment-
water flows were emplaced between ~23,000 and
~1,300 years ago. The Coatán Sequence is contained
within the lowest deposits channelized into the recent
valley of the Coatán River (<1,300 yr). In addition, there
is an area eroded by Hurricane Stan flooding that was
reconditioned by engineering works; in this area, the river
valley was channelized, and it is currently a buffer zone
where no urban settlements are permitted (Murcia and
Macías 2009). The configuration of the Coatán River
valley is illustrated in Fig. 8, and the distribution of the
sequences in the Tapachula region is illustrated in Fig. 9
The complete lateral distribution of the Lower and Upper
Tapachula sequences is unknown; however, in the study area,
they belong to the Tapachula Fan and are representative of its
age. The relationship in time and space of these sequences
Fig. 6 A Photographs showing the Upper Tapachula Sequence units. A1
Variety of units. Note the little thicknesses. A2 Detail of Fig. A1. Note the
variation in grain size and the thin paleosols between the units. A3 Units
within the distal zone of Tapachula Fan. The arrow points to the oldest
paleosol found in the sequence. A4 Charcoal containing paleosol
Page 15 of 27, 835
indicates that the west sector of the Tapachula Fan has been
partially eroded by the Coatán River, making the valley an
appropriate zone for ongoing erosion-deposition processes.
Incision exposed volcaniclastic deposits of the older
Chanjale Fan, so the Coatán Sequence is in some places
underlain directly by the Chanjale or by the Tapachula Fan
deposits (Fig. 10)
In the proximal zone, the lateral boundaries of the
Tapachula Fan are defined by discordant contacts with the
Chanjale Fan. However, in the western medial and distal
zones, the boundary is diffuse, and in the eastern medial zone,
the boundary is shared with deposits which are inter-fingered
with those from Cahuacán River. The distal boundary of the
fan occurs within the fringes of Tapachula City, either where
dissection into the Coatán valley decreases considerably or
where it is not possible to observe surrounding terraces
underlying a unit with debris flow deposit facies. Person in A1 and A3
are 1.8 m, hammer in A2 is 33 cm, and pen in A4 is 12 cm. Location of
stations is shown in Fig. 9. B Composite stratigraphic column of Upper
Tapachula Sequence. FA b fluvial accumulation of river bed. Double
asterisk denotes age of paleosol. Single asterisk denotes age of charcoal
835, Page 16 of 27 Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835

Fig. 6 (continued)
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835 Page 17 of 27, 835

Fig. 6 (continued)
835, Page 18 of 27 Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
 Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
ƒFig. 7 A Photographs showing the Coatán Sequence units. A1 Stream
flow units. Dotted lines show the contact between different units. Note the
foundation of the house at the top. A2 Detail of some units containing
anthropogenic material. Person is 1.6 m and shovel is 80 cm. Location of
stations is shown in Fig. 9. B Composite stratigraphic column of Coatán
Sequence. CP pyroclastic fall deposit, FA a fluvial accumulation of river
bed. Double asterisk denotes age of paleosol. Single asterisk denotes age
of charcoal. Age indicates the year in the Christian Era
correlated with the Coatán Sequence. The surface of the
Tapachula Fan descends from 280 m above sea level (asl) at
apex to 80 m asl distally. Its dissection varies; proximally,
there are 30-m-high terraces, which evolve into 0.5-m discon-
tinuous terraces in the distal part. Downstream, beyond the
distal boundary of the Tapachula Fan, the Coatán River flows
another 30 km prior to debouching into the Pacific Ocean with
a difference in altitude of just 80 m. The area of the Tapachula
Fan is 48 km2 and its volume ~0.7 km3. According to obser-
vations made along the Coatán River valley and chrono-
stratigraphic extrapolation to the east, the volume ratio be-
tween the Lower and Upper Tapachula sequences is 7/3.
Figure 11 shows a simplified stratigraphic column of the
Fig. 8 Topographic sections made every 900 m along the Coatán River
valley. Vertical exaggeration is 22 times. Sections illustrate the current
configuration of the river, the relation of the topographic changes, and the
Page 19 of 27, 835
sequences and their stratigraphic relationship with the fans
described in this study.
Discussion: Tapachula Fan
Formation
Study of its stratigrapy shows that the Tapachula Fan was
created by the deposits of a huge sediment-water flow that
descended down the valley of the Coatán River ca.
23,000 years ago. The event emplaced a volume of ca.
0.35 km3 of debris (unit 1 of Lower Tapachula Sequence).
Following its sudden formation, the stratigraphic record indi-
cates that, at least at its western edge, the fan increased its
thickness and volume (0.15 km3) due to the fluvial dynamics
of the Coatán River over an extended period of time (unit 2 of
Lower Tapachula Sequence), with repeated sediment-water
flows occurring between ~14,300 and ~1,300 years ago, with
a minimum volume of 0.2 km3 being deposited (including the
Tapachula Upper Sequence and likely some other subsequent
stratigraphic sequences identified for the Tapachula region. Note that Mal
Paso Sequence does not appear in this section of the river; however, it
underlies the Tapachula Sequence upstream
835, Page 20 of 27 Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835

Fig. 9 Distribution map of sequences that illustrates and contextualizes the evolution of Tapachula Alluvial Fan. Shadow map in A was made with
contour lines every 20 m. Shadow map in B was made with contour lines every 1 m

deposits that are not exposed). During this period of time, the
Tapachula Fan was dominated by a braided/anastomosed
drainage pattern, as indicated by the discontinuity, thickness
variation, and lateral and longitudinal variation of deposition
facies. At the end of this period, the Coatán River dissected the
western boundary of the Tapachula Fan, exposing its contact
with the Chanjale Fan and allowing deposition from relatively
small sediment-water flows (the whole Coatán Sequence).
During the evolution of the fan, it is likely that contempora-
neous volcaniclastic flows descended the Cahuacán River
valley, such as those generated during the ca. 1,950 years BP
eruption of San Antonio Volcano (Macías et al. 2000; Mora
et al. 2013). Their deposits should therefore inter-finger with
the Tapachula Fan deposits.
Source of the flows and associated deposits
The Coatán River runs across diverse substrate rocks includ-
ing plutonic and metamorphic rocks, and volcanic and
volcaniclastic deposits of the San Rafael-Chanjale calderas
and the TVC. In the Tapachula region, the Chanjale Fan
evidences that a series of lahars originated in the Chanjale
Caldera 1 Myr ago. Due to hydromorphism, the Chanjale Fan
deposits display strong dissection and alteration producing a
distinctive morphology with respect to younger deposits as-
sociated with Tacaná. Along the Coatán River valley, deposits
that are not affected by hydromorphism around Tapachula
City are related to the following: (1) material sourced at the
TVC or (2) unaltered and similar-in-composition products
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
Fig. 10 Geological sections showing the vertical distribution of the
Tapachula Fan sequences and the stratigraphy among the Tapachula,
Chanjale, and Mal Paso fans. Note the chrono-stratigraphic extrapolation
from the older calderas. Therefore, the different deposits of the
Tapachula Fan can be directly related to volcanic activity of
the TVC, to destabilization of the volcanic edifice, or to
remobilization of material by intense rains not necessarily
associated with an eruption (tropical storms, earthquakes,
etc.). There are deposits of 18 eruptions so far described for
the TVC, all within the past 42,000 years, and each event may
have been a potential source of lahars depositing material
downstream onto the Tapachula Fan. Stratigraphic correla-
tions suggest that eruptions which occurred 40,000; 30,000;
or 28,000 years ago could have been the source of material
creating the Tapachula Fan around 23,000 years ago (age from
the paleosol on top of the oldest deposit in the Tapachula Fan).
These eruptions involved the partial or total destruction of
summit domes with the generation of block-and-ash pyro-
clastic flow deposits (Macías 2005) and hence suitable
sources for fan deposits rich in volcanic fragments, subor-
dinate basement rocks, low clay content, and subordinate
pumice fragments. Other eruptions older than 23,000 years
correspond to Plinian activity (~32,000 years ago, Macías
2005; ~23,500 years ago, Borjas 2006; Arce et al. 2012),
a flank collapse of Tacaná Volcano (<26,000 years ago;
Macías et al. 2010), and a small eruption that generated
pyroclastic surges (~24,500 years ago; Borjas 2006).
However, the characteristics and magnitude of the fan
Page 21 of 27, 835
to the eastern sector, the current configuration of the Coatán River valley
in the Tapachula region, and the stratigraphic relationship with underlying
fans and surrounding deposits. Vertical exaggeration is nine times
deposits formed indicate that they are not likely to be
related to any of these events.
Events since 23,000 years ago, which could have increased
the volume of the Tapachula Fan between 14,300 and
1,300 years ago, may have been associated with eruptions
from the TVC at ~16,300, ~14,400, ~10,000, ~7,600, ~6,900,
>5,700, ~5,700, ~2,600, or ~2,000 years ago. The eruptions
which occurred ~16,300; ~10,000; and ~2,000 years ago
generated block-and-ash pyroclastic flows due to the partial
destruction of a central dome (Macías 2005; Mora et al. 2013).
The other eruptions produced pumice pyroclastic flows and
pyroclastic falls and surges (Macías et al. 2000; Mora et al.
2004; Borjas 2006; Ordaz 2006; Arce et al. 2012). For this
period of time (~14,300 to ~1,300 years ago), the Tapachula
Fan consists of 13 units potentially associated with eruptions
(units 2 to 14), of which ages of six are well constrained by
underlying dated paleosols (units 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 12). Units 2,
3, and 9 with ages of 14,345; 10,190; and 7,655 years BP,
respectively, may be correlated to three TVC eruptions.
However, units 5, 7, and 12 with ages of 8,990;
8,015; and 1,330 years BP, respectively, are apparently
not related to any TVC eruption. Characteristically, the
deposits formed in this period of time (between ~14,300
and 1,300 years ago) show mainly volcanic fragments,
few basement fragments, sparse clay in the matrix, and
835, Page 22 of 27 Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835

Fig. 11 Simplified stratigraphic

column of the sequences
described and the relationship
with the fans of the region
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
rare or absent pumice fragments, besides internal changes in
the size of the grains. Thus, these deposits appear as isolated
patches and exhibit a wide spectrum of depositional facies.
Ages of the Tapachula Fan imply the existence of
two important stratigraphic hiatuses: the first one lasting
~8,700 years (between ~23,000 and ~14,300 years ago)
and the second one ~4,100 years (between ~14,300 and
~10,200 years ago) (Fig. 12). Similarly, ages of the
TVC indicate two important hiatuses occurring at almost
the same period of time: the first one of ~7,200 years
(between ~23,500 and ~16,300 years ago) and the sec-
ond one of around ~3,800 years (between ~14,300 and
~10,500 years ago) (Fig. 12). Such stratigraphic hiatuses
may not only correspond to periods of absent or little
volcanic activity with no deposition but also could
reflect erosion, no exposure of eruption-related deposits,
or insufficiently detailed studies in the area. Absence of
volcanic activity is supported by a thick deposit (>6 m)
representative of typical river bed and/or flood plain
deposition (unit 1 of Upper Tapachula Sequence) along
the Cahuacán River, which directly drains the slopes of
the volcano. Furthermore, these sediments are capped by
a 60-cm-thick paleosol (~14,300 years of age).
Fig. 12 Chrono-stratigraphic
correlation between the TVC
eruptive events and the lahar
deposits of Tapachula Fan
Page 23 of 27, 835
The dissection of the western Tapachula Fan likely
occurred during a period of low volcanic activity related
to a more recent hiatus of ~6,300 years in the fan (be-
tween ~7,600 and ~1,300 years ago) and ~3,000 years in
the TVC (between ~5,600 and ~2,600 years ago)
(Fig. 12). During this time, the erosive activity of the
Coatán River at the contact between the Tapachula and
Chanjale fans may have increased in relation to the
decreased TVC activity. In contrast, the rest of the
Tapachula Fan was not affected by erosion except by
the small Texcuyuapan River. As a consequence, the
Coatán valley became wider, developing terraces on its
margins.
Most of the units deposited during the last 1,300 years
of activity within the Coatán River valley could be related
either to volcanic eruptions or to heavy rains that
remobilized previously deposited material from upstream
in the river valley. The only events reported for the TVC
within this period of time are eruptions at ~800 and
~280 years ago, both of which produced small-volume
pyroclastic deposits (Ordaz 2006). Downstream, into the
Coatán valley, a total of 10 units (units 2 to 11) possibly
produced by volcanic eruptions were identified during the
835, Page 24 of 27
last 1,300 years. Unit 2 is well characterized by the 680±
45-year BP age of an underlying paleosol (Table 1); units
3 and 4 have maximum radiocarbon ages of 300+105/
−100 and 115±45 years BP, respectively; and the remain-
ing seven units (units 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11) have
imprecise ages. Therefore, both eruptions sourced at
Tacaná can be chrono-stratigraphically correlated with
events that occurred along the Coatán River at 680 and
<300 years BP. Characteristically, the deposits are
heterolithologic, moderately to well sorted, and have frag-
ments of underlying deposits, paleosols, and/or of pyro-
clastic fall deposits. Some of the more recent deposits also
enclose cloth rags, glass containers, pieces of metal, and
plastic bags.
In summary, all the deposits that form the Tapachula Fan with
the exception of its basal deposit (unit 1 of Lower Tapachula
Sequence) may be associated with the remobilization of material
from the Coatán River basin due to non-eruptive triggers, i.e.,
due to the instability of this material as a consequence of
hydrothermal alteration, earthquakes, and/or rainfall. Unit 1 of
Lower Tapachula Sequence is very likely a syn-eruptive lahar,
while the other units may be syn-eruptive, post-eruptive, or even
non-eruptive.
These relationships also suggest that the Mal Paso Fan
lahar deposits (formed between ~100,000 and ~23,000 years
ago) might be even older than ~42,000 years. This is the age of
the oldest recognized pyroclastic flow deposit from the TVC
that are rich in andesite-dacite fragments of the volcano
(Espíndola et al. 1989; Macías 2005). Instead, the Mal Paso
Fan lahar deposits consist mainly of basaltic andesite frag-
ments (Murcia 2008) that have not been reported so far at the
TVC, and therefore, no further stratigraphic relationships can
be done.
Hazard remarks
The first general studies of Tacaná Volcano had considered it
as a dormant andesitic volcano without a crater (Bergeat 1894
in Müllerried 1951; Böse 1902, 1903; Waibel 1933;
Müllerried 1951). Following a geothermal evaluation by the
Comisión Nacional de Electricidad of México, Tacaná was
redefined as a volcano with two caldera structures (3- and 1.5-
km diameter) and a central crater (0.5-km diameter), with
water and gas discharges at 55 and 94 °C, respectively (De
la Cruz and Hernández 1985, 1986; Medina-Heredia 1986). In
1986, the volcano produced a small phreatic explosion that
generated an 8-m-diameter crater and a 1-km-high column
rich in water vapor and gases (De la Cruz-Reyna et al. 1989).
From the 1986 eruption up until 1996, geological studies
characterized Tacaná as a polygenetic stratovolcano of
“closed” type composed of three volcanic structures and two
aligned domes, with explosive eruptions that occurred between
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
30,000 and 40,000 years ago (De Cserna et al. 1988; De la
Cruz-Reyna et al. 1989; Espíndola et al. 1989, 1996; Mercado
and Rose 1992). Espíndola et al. (1996) concluded that any
future eruptions would be related to a closed system, which
does not allow gradual degassing; this creates a high-pressure
system that may trigger eruptions of great violence, which
could affect areas up to 20 km from the volcano. Tacaná was
then defined as a volcanic complex formed by four structures
with two Plinian eruptions occurring 23,500 and 14,000 years
ago and a Pelean eruption occurring 1,950 years ago (Macías
et al. 2000; Macías 2005; Borjas 2006; García-Palomo et al.
2006; Mora et al. 2004; Arce et al. 2012). Analyses of the
hydrothermal activity showed chemical compositions similar
to infiltrated meteoric water and magmatic degassing (domi-
nated by the liberation of CO2), with meteoric precipitation
being the most significant water source (Rouwet et al. 2004,
2009; Rouwet 2006). Tapachula City, with nearly 200,000
inhabitants, was included in the hazard zone that might be
severely affected in the event of an eruption, with lahars as
the major hazard concern associated with the volcano
(Saucedo and Perez 1988; Mercado and Rose 1992; Macías
et al. 2000; Macías 2005). Such conclusions are fully supported
by the results of this study.
Conclusions
Tapachula City is situated on the surface of the
volcaniclastic Tapachula Fan. Deposits up to 30 m thick
on the margins of the Coatán River valley lie only 15 km
upstream from the outskirts of the city. The record of large
lahar deposits exposed along the Coatán River clearly in-
dicates that major lahars represent a serious threat to this
urban area. During the past 30 years, the city has invaded
the course of the Coatán River, settling entire city districts
adjacent to the river bed. The vulnerability of such uncon-
trolled urban growth to the river was demonstrated during
Hurricane Stan in October 4, 2005, with enormous econom-
ic impact to the region. It is important to note that a study,
similar to the one presented here, should be carried out
along the valleys of the Cahuacán and Suchiate rivers to
characterize their lahar deposits associated with the TVC
and also their more recent flow deposits related to torrential
rains. Meanwhile, we can conclude from the stratigraphic
sequences observed during our field investigation, aided by
radiocarbon dating, that the region is made up of three
alluvial fans that were emplaced during the past 1 Ma.
The oldest apron (Chanjale Fan ~1 Myr ago) was derived
from the remobilization of material related to the formation
of Chanjale Caldera. The other overlying two fans (Mal
Paso Fan ~100,000 to >>23,000 years ago, and Tapachula
Fan ~23,000 to ~1,300 years ago) are associated with TVC
activity. Additionally, several sediment-water flows have
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
occurred associated with heavy rains. This study provides
an important contribution for the reconstruction of the
eruptive history of the TVC and also a key element in the
design of a vital hazard map for the volcanic complex.
Acknowledgments This study was supported by grant of the Consejo
Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología de México (CONACYT) No. 47226
assigned to JL Macías and was part of the MSc thesis of the first author in
the Earth Science Postgraduate at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de
México. We want to thank the assistance in the field of C Ordaz. We
appreciate the help of La Changa Ecoturistic Park, National Water
Commision in Tapachula, and Civil Protection and Historical Archive
of the Tapachula City. C Muñoz performed the fine analyses in the
Laboratory of Geociencias Center, UNAM, Juriquilla, México. We thank
Damiano Sarocchi for his assistance in the image analyses and Natalia
Pardo, Juan Ramón Peláez, Sergio Salinas, and Javier Flórez for constant
discussions and feedback to the results of this study. Javier Flórez revised
the final version of this manuscript. Melody Runge did an English
revision. We highly appreciate the comments of Carlos Borrero and
Thomas Pierson as well as the reviews from Gerardo Carrasco, Vern
Manville, and James White that helped greatly to improve this
manuscript.
References
Arce JL, Macías JL, Hughes S, Saucedo R, Escobar R, García-Palomo A,
Mora JC (2004) Late Pleistocene Plinian activity at the Tacaná
Volcanic Complex, México-Guatemala. IAVCEI General
Assembly, Pucón, Chile. s03a-pm-007
Arce JL, Macias JL, Gardner JE, Rangel E (2012) Reconstruction of the
Sibinal Pumice, an andesitic Plinian eruption at Tacana Volcanic
Complex, Mexico-Guatemala. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 217–218:
39–55
Bergeat A (1894) Zur Kenntnis der jungen Eruptivgesteine der Republik
Guatemala. Z Dtsch Geol Ges 46:131–157
Bernard B, van Wyk de Vries B, Leyrit H (2009) Distinguishing debris
avalanche deposits from their reworked products: the Perrier se-
quence (French Massif Central). Bull Volcanol 71:1041–1056
Beverage JP, Culbertson JK (1964) Hyperconccentrations of suspended
sediment. American Society of Civil Engineers Proceedings.
Hydraul Div J 90:117–128
Borjas ML (2006) Estratigrafía del sector NE del Complejo Volcánico
Tacaná, Chiapas, México - Guatemala. Instituto Politécnico Nacional,
Escuela Superior de Ingeniería y Arquitectura. Lic. thesis. 117 p
Borrero C, Rosero JS, Valencia JD, Pardo A (2008) La secuencia
volcaniclástica de Aranzazu: Registro del impacto del volcanismo
en un sistema fluvial neógeno en la parte media de la Cordillera
Central, Colombia. Boletín de Geología (UIS) 30:61–77
Böse E (1902) Breve noticia sobre el estado actual del volcán de Tacaná.
Chiapas Memorias de la Sociedad Científica Antonio Alzate 18:
266–270
Böse E (1903) Los temblores en Zanatepec, Oaxaca a fines de septiembre
de 1902 y el estado actual del Volcán de Tacaná. Parérgones del
Instituto Geológico de México. Tomo 1, 25 p
Camacho E (1995) Resumen ejecutivo sobre el Complejo Volcánico de
La Yeguada-Chitra - Calobre y sus posibles amenazas. Laboratorio
de Geofísica. Universidad de Panamá. 4 p
Caballero L, Macías JL, García-Palomo A, Saucedo GR, Borselli L,
Sarocchi D, Sánchez JM (2006) The September 8-9, 1998 rain-
triggered flood events at Motozintla, Chiapas, México. Nat
Hazards 39:103–126
Page 25 of 27, 835
Capra L, Macías JL (2000) Pleistocene cohesive debris flows at Nevado
de Toluca volcano, Central México. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 102:
149–168
Capra L, Macías JL (2002) The cohesive Naranjo debris flow deposit (10
Km3): a dam breakout flow derived from the Pleistocene debris
avalanche deposit of Nevado de Colima volcano (México). J
Volcanol Geotherm Res 117:1–23
Carrasco-Núñez G, Vallance J, Rose WI (1993) A voluminous
avalanche-induced lahar from Citlaltépetl Volcano, Mexico: im-
plications for hazard assessment. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 59:33–
46
Cortés GP (2001) Estudio geológico de los depósitos de lahar asociados a
la actividad eruptiva del Volcán Cerro Machín. INGEOMINAS,
Internal Report. Manizales, 96 p
De la Cruz MV, Hernández ZR (1985) Estudio geológico a semidetalle de
la zona geotérmica del volcán Tacaná, Chiapas. Comisión Federal
de Electricidad, Internal Report. 41/85; 28 p
De la Cruz MV, Hernández ZR (1986) Geología del volcán Tacaná,
Chiapas. Geotermia, Revista Mexicana de Geoenergía 2:5–21
De la Cruz-Reyna S, Armienta MA, Zamora V, Juárez F (1989) Chemical
changes in spring waters at Tacaná volcano, Chiapas, México: a
possible precursor of the May 1986 seismic crisis and phreatic
explosion. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 38:345–353
De Cserna Z, Aranda-Gómez JJ, Mitre-Salazar LM (1988) Mapa
fotogeológico preliminar y secciones estructurales del volcán
Tacaná con Resumen de la historia eruptiva del volcán Tacaná,
México y Guatemala. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de
México, Instituto de Geología, Cartas geológicas y mineras. no.7
Espíndola JM, Medina FM, De Los RM (1989) A C-14 age determination
in the Tacaná volcano (Chiapas, México). Geofísica Internacional
28:121–128
Espíndola JM, Macías JL, Sheridan MF (1996) El volcán Tacaná: Un
ejemplo de los problemas de evaluación del riesgo volcánico. In:
Actas del Simposio Internacional sobre Riesgos Naturales e
Inducidos en los Grandes Centros Urbanos de América Latina:
Serie Scienza. 5: 62-71
Folk RL (1980) Petrology of sedimentary rocks. University of Texas.
Hemphill Publishing Co. Austin, Texas, 185p
García-Palomo A, Macías JL, Arce JL, Mora JC, Hughes S, Saucedo R,
Espindola JM, Escobar R, Layer P (2006) Geological evolution of
the Tacaná Volcanic Complex, México-Guatemala. In: Rose et al.
(Eds). Natural hazards in Central America: Boulder, Colorado,
Geological Society of America, Special Paper. 412: 39-57
Giordano G, De Rita D, Fabbri M, Rodani S (2002) Facies associations of
rain-generated versus crater lake-withdrawal lahar deposits from
Quaternary volcanoes, central Italy. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 118:
145–159
Guarin F, Gorin G, Espinosa A (2004) A Pleistocene stacked succession
of volcaniclastic mass flows in Central Colombia: the Quindío–
Risaralda fan. In: K. Scott, J.L. Macías (eds) 104 Acta
Vulcanologica. Debris avalanche and debris flows in volcanic ter-
rains: origins, behaviors and mitigation. 16: 109-124
Inman DL (1952) Measures for describing the size distribution of sedi-
ments. J Sediment Petrol 22:125–145
Iverson RM (1997) The physics of debris flow. Rev Geophys 35:245–296
Iverson RM, Vallance JW (2001) News views of granular mass flows.
Geology 29:115–118
Lavigne F, Suwa H (2004) Contrasts between debris flows,
hyperconcentrated flows and stream flows at a channel of Mount
Semeru, East Java, Indonesia. Geomorphology 61:41–58
Kellerhals R, Bray DI (1971) Sampling procedures for coarse fluvial
sediments. J Hydraul Div 97:1161–1180
Macías JL, Espíndola JM, García-Palomo A, Scott KM, Hughes S, Mora
JC (2000) Late Holocene Peléan-style eruption at Tacaná volcano,
México and Guatemala: Past, present, and future hazards. Geol Soc
Am Bull 112:1234–1249
835, Page 26 of 27
Macías JL, Capra L, Scott KM, Espíndola JM, García-Palomo A, Costa
JE (2004) The May 26, 1982, breakout flow derived from failure of
a volcanic dam at El Chichón Volcano, Chiapas, Mexico. Bull Geol
Soc Am 116:233–246
Macías JL (2005) Geología e historia eruptiva de algunos de los grandes
volcanes activos de México. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica
Mexicana. Volumen conmemorativo del centenario. Temas selectos
de la geología mexicana. Tomo LVII(3):379–424
Macías JL, Arce JL, García-Palomo A, Mora JC, Layer PW, Espíndola
JM (2010) Late-Pleistocene flank collapse triggered by dome grow
that Tacaná volcano, México-Guatemala, and its relationship to the
regional stress regime. Bull Volcanol 72:33–53
Medina-Heredia A (1986) Geoquímica de aguas y gases del volcán Tacaná,
Chiapas. Geotermia, Revista Mexicana de Geoenergía 2:95–110
Mercado R, Rose W (1992) Reconocimiento geológico y evaluación
preliminar de peligrosidad del volcán Tacaná, Guatemala-México.
Geofísica Internacional 31:205–237
Miall AD (1996) The geology of fluvial deposits: sedimentary
facies, basin analisis and petroleum geology. Springer –
Verlag, Berlin, 582 p
Mora JC (2001) Studio Vulcanologico e Geochimico del Vulcano Tacaná
Chiapas, Messico. Universitá Degli Studi di Firenze, Italy. PhD
thesisTesis doctoral. 147 p
Mora JC, Macías JL, García-Palomo A, Arce JL, Espíndola JM, Manetti
P, Vaselli O, Sánchez M (2004) Petrology and geochemistry of the
Tacaná Volcanic Complex, México - Guatemala: evidence for the
last 40000 yr of activity. Geofísica Internacional 43:331–359
Mora JC, Gardner JE, Macías JL, Meriggi L (2013) Magmatic controls on
eruption dynamics of the 1,950 yr B.P. eruption of San Antonio
Volcano, Tacaná Volcanic Complex, Mexico–Guatemala. J Volcanol
Geotherm Res 262:134–152
Mothes PA, Hall ML, Janda RJ (1998) The enormous Chillos Valley
Lahar: an ash-flow-generated debris flow from Cotopaxi volcano,
Ecuador. Bull Volcanol 59:233–244
Mujica R (1987) Estudio petrogenético de las rocas ígneas y
metamórficas en el Macizo de Chiapas, México. Instituto
Mexicano del Petróleo, Informe interno C-2009:47
Müllerried FKG (1951) La reciente actividad del volcán de Tacaná,
Estado de Chiapas, a fines de 1949 y principios de 1950. Informe
del Instituto de Geología de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de
México. 28 p
Murcia HF (2008) Depósitos de lahar del Complejo Volcánico Tacaná
y depósitos fluviales en el abanico de Tapachula, Chiapas –
México. MSc thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
159 p
Murcia HF, Hurtado BO, Cortés GP, Macías JL, Cepeda H (2008) The
2500 yr. B.P. Chicoral non-cohesive debris flow from Cerro Machín
Volcano, Colombia. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 171:201–214
Murcia HF, Macías JL (2009) Registro geológico de inundaciones en
Tapachula y el desastre del 4 de octubre de 2005, Chiapas, México.
Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geológicas 26:1–17
Murcia HF, Borrero CA, Pardo N, Alvarado GE, Arnosio M,
Scolamacchia T (2013) Depósitos volcaniclásticos: Términos y
conceptos para una clasificación en español. Rev Geol Am Central
48:15–39
Ordaz C (2006) Reconstrucción de la historia eruptiva del volcán Tacaná;
Chiapas, México, durante el Holoceno. Lic. thesis. Instituto
Politécnico Nacional, Escuela Superior de Ingeniería y
Arquitectura. 142 p
Pierson TC, Scott KM (1985) Downstream dilution of a lahar: transition
from debris flow to hyperconcentrated streamflow. Water Resour
Res 21:1511–1524
Pierson TC, Costa JE (1987) A rheologic classification of subaerial
sediment–water flows. Geol Soc Am Rev Eng Geol 7:1–12
Pierson TC, Janda RJ, Thouret JC, Borrero CA (1990) Perturbation and
melting of snow and ice by the 13 November 1985 eruption of
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia, and consequent mobilization, flow and
deposition of lahars. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 41:17–66
Pierson T (2005) Hyperconcentrated flow–transitional process between
water flow and debris flow. In: Jakob M, Hungr O (eds) Debris-flow
hazards and related phenomena. Springer Parxis Books: 159-202
Pompa V (2005) Petrología y geoquímica del Complejo Volcánico
Tacaná, México – Guatemala. Instituto Politécnico Nacional,
Escuela Superior de Ingeniería y Arquitectura. Lic. thesis. 118 p
Pulgarín B, Macías JL, Cepeda H, Capra L (2004) Late Pleistocene
deposits associated with a southern flank collapse of the Nevado
del Huila Volcanic Complex. In: Scott K, Macías JL (eds) Acta
Vulcanologica. Debris avalanche and debris flows in volcanic ter-
rains: origins, behaviors and mitigation. 16: 37-58.
Rodolfo KS, Umbal JV, Alonso RA, Remotigue CT, Paladio-Melosantos
ML, Salvador JHG, Evangelista D., Miller Y (1996) Two years of
lahars on the western flank of Mount Pinatubo: initiation, flow
processes, deposits, and attendant geomorphic and hydraulic chang-
es. In: Newhall CG, Punongbayan RS (eds), Fire and mud; eruptions
and lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippine. Institute of Volcanology
and Seismology, University of Washington Press, Seattle and
London, 989-1013
Rouwet D, Taran Y, Inguaggiato S, Varley N (2004) Hidrotermal activity
at Tacaná volcano, México-Guatemala. WRI-11, Wanty, Seal II
(eds). Taylor & Francis Group, London. 173-176
Rouwet D (2006) Estudio geoquímico comparativo de los sistemas
hidrotermales de los volcanes activos en Chiapas: El Chichón y el
Tacaná. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Instituto de
Geofísica. PhD thesis. 218 p
Rouwet D, Inguaggiato S, Taran Y, Varley N, Santiago JA (2009)
Chemical and isotopic compositions of thermal springs, fuma-
roles and bubbling gases at Tacaná Volcano (México-
Guatemala): implications for volcanic surveillance. Bull
Volcanol 71:319–335
Saucedo GR, Perez H (1988) Evaluación del riesgo volcánico en el área
del volcán Tacaná, Chiapas. Lic thesis. Instituto Politécnico
Nacional, Escuela Superior de Ingeniería y Arquitectura. 142 p
Scott KM, Vallance JW, Pringle PT (1995) Sedimentology, behavior and
hazards of debris flows at Mount Rainier, Washington. U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 1547, 56 p
Scott KM, Macias JL, Vallance JW, Naranjo JA, Rodriguez S,
McGeehin, JP (2001) Catastrophic debris flows transformed from
landslides in volcanic terrains: mobility, hazard assessment, and
mitigation strategies. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
1630, 67 p
Shultz AW (1984) Subaerial debris-flow deposition in the upper
Paleozoic Cutler Formation, Western Colorado. J Sediment Petrol
54:759–772
Siebe CG, Macías JL, Abrams M, Elizarraras RS, Castro R, Delgado H
(1995) Quaternary Explosive Volcanism and Pyroclastic Deposits in
East-Central Mexico: Implications for Future Hazards. In: Chacko
JJ, Whitney JA (eds) Guidebook of geological excursions for the
1995 Annual Meeting of the Geological Society of America, New
Orleans, Book 1, p 1-4
Smith GA, Lowe DR (1991) Lahars: volcano-hydrologic events and
deposition in the debris flow-hyperconcentrated flow continuum,
In: Fisher RV, Smith GA (eds) Sedimentation in volcanic settings:
SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology), Special Publication.
45:59-70
Stuiver M, Reimer PJ (1993) Extended 14C data base and revised Calib
3.0 14C age calibration program. Radiocarbon 35:215–230
Thouret JC, Abdurachman KE, Bourdier JL, Bronto S (1998) Origin,
characteristics, and behaviour of lahars following the 1990 eruption
of Kelud volcano, eastern Java (Indonesia). J Volcanol Geotherm
Res 59:460–480
Torres R, Mouginis-Mark P, Self S, Garbeil H, Kallianpur J, Quiambao R
(2004) Monitoring the evolution of the Pasig–Potrero alluvial fan,
Bull Volcanol (2014) 76:835
Pinatubo Volcano, using a decade of remote sensing data. J Volcanol
Geotherm Res 138:371–392
Udden JA (1914) Mechanical composition of clastic sediments. Geol Soc
Am Bull 25:655–744
Vallance JM, Scott KM (1997) The Osceola mudflow from Mount
Rainier: sedimentology and hazard implications of a huge clay-
rich debris flow. Geol Soc Am Bull 9:143–163
Vallance JM (2000) Lahars. In: Sigurdsson H (ed) Encyclopedia of
volcanoes. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 283–289
Page 27 of 27, 835
Waibel L (1933) Die Sierra Madre de Chiapas. Mitteilungen der
Geographischen Gesellschaft in Hamburg 43:13–162
Wentworth CK (1922) A Scale Grade Class Terms Clastic Sed: J Geol 30:
377–392
Williams SN, Self S (1983) The October 1902 plinian eruption of Santa
Maria Volcano. Guatemala: J Volcanol Geotherm Res 16:33–56
Worni R, Huggel C, Stoffel M, Pulgarin B (2012) Challenges of modeling
current very large lahars at Nevado del Huila Volcano, Colombia.
Bull Volcanol 74:309–324