CHAPTER 16: ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND CAPACITANCE

In Ch 5 we proved that work done on an object against gravity turns out the stored PE of that object, or, in other
words,
PE i ‒ PE f = WF.
Potential Energy initial- Potential Energy Final= Work Final
Or, in other words, it’s the negative of the work
M done by the conservative force:
∆PE = PEf ‒ PE i = ‒ ∆WF.

Based on Work-energy theorem, Work done on an object because of continuous application of a force
F =W = Fs = (Ma) (vav × t) = M(vf 2 – vi 2 )/2 = KEf ‒ KEi → raised KE
Force= Work= ( Force x Displacement ) note s= displacement
= (Mass x acceleration) (Average velocity x time)
= Mass (final velocity squared -initial velocity squared)
2
= Kinetic Energy final- Kinetic energy initial
M Work done against gravity

=W

= Fs Force x displacement

= Mg h  Raised PE
M

 …. meaning mechanical work done on an object results in an enhanced level of stored energy to that
object.
 This idea could also be applied in case of electrical work with the analogy shown below.

RESEARCHED EXPLANATION
Both the weight (gravitational force, F)and the gravitational field, g = F/m,
point toward Earth.
If you lift a ball against gravity, you do work on the ball, increasing its PE.
Consider 2 unlike charges: they attract each other.
We must do work, to pull one away from the other.
This transfers energy to the moved charge: it’s stored as electrical potential energy.
The larger the charge, the greater the increase in its potential energy, PE.
E = F/q  
The electric field is the force per unit charge.
The electric potential difference is symbolized as V
V = Work done moving a + charge between two points  in an electric field
        divided by the magnitude of the test charge.

TE
Both the Coulomb force and the force due to gravity are inverse-square in nature and eventually as force due to
gravity is conservative, it follows that the Coulomb force is also conservative (work done depends only on the
initial and final points, regardless of path followed).
Electrical work in the field of a charge +Q in moving a smaller amount of charge +q through a distance r, may be
measured as
Wq = Fs = (kqQq/r2 ) r = kqQq/r.
Work (charge)= force x displacement
= constant (charge X charge)
r2

Figure 1. A charge accelerated by an electric field is analogous to a mass going down a hill. In both
cases potential energy is converted to another form. Work is done by a force, but since this force is
conservative, we can write W = –ΔPE.
Q= A CHARGE HAS TWO TYPES POSITIVE AND A NEGATIVE

The change in electric potential energy, ∆PE, of a system consisting of an object of charge q moving through a
displacement ∆x in a constant electric field E, is given by
∆PE = ‒WAB = ‒ qEx ∆x
1) where Ex is the x-component of the electric field and
∆x = xf ‒ xi is the displacement of the charge along the x-axis.
SI unit of electric PE : joule (J). Eqn.
(1) is applicable only for a uniform electric field E.

How did we differentiate between electric force (Fq) and electric field (Eq = Fq /q) ?
Work done on q = Fh
= kQq x h
r2

W for a “unit test” charge = W1

= (kQ ) × r = kQ
r2 r

Electric charge is something that a particle or object has due to excess/ deficient charge present on it.
Electric field is the magnitude of electrostatic force experienced by an electrically charged particle in
space
Potential difference and electrical potential :
As from Ch 15 we found that electric field (Eq) = electrostatic force/ unit charge
(Fq, or, Eq=Fq), here in this chapter we will find some correlation between electric potential
q q
energy and (electric) potential.
The electric potential difference ∆V between points A and B is the change in electric potential energy as a charge
q moves from A to B divided by the charge q, or, ∆V = VB ‒ VA = ∆PE/ q …… ……….(2)

The electrical potential difference is defined as the amount of work done to carrying a unit charge
from one point to another in an electric field. In other words, the potential difference is defined as
the difference in the electric potential of the two charged bodies.

The electric potential (voltage) at any point in space produced by a point charge Q is given by
the expression below. It is the electric potential energy per unit charge and as such is a
characteristic of the electric influence at that point in space. Since it is a scalar quantity, the
potential from multiple point charges is just the sum of the point charge potentials of the
individual charges and can be extended to calculate the potential from a continuous
charge distribution.

Voltage= Kx (charge)
Radius
K= constant
Q= charge (C Coulomb)
V= volts
r= meters (m)
 k=Coulomb's constant

VOLTAGE IS A REPRESENTATION OF THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY PER UNIT CHARGE. IF A UNIT OF ELECTRICAL CHARGE WERE
PLACED IN A LOCATION , THE VOLTAGE INDICATES THE POTENTIAL ENERGY OFIT AT THAT POINT. IN OTHER WORDS, IT IS A
MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY CONTAINED WITHIN AN ELECTRIC FIELDS OR A CIRCUIT. VOLTAGE IS A SCALAR QUANTITY IT DOES NOT
HAVE A DIRECTION.

SI unit: joule per coulomb, or volt (J/C, or V).

For a uniform electric field E, using eqn.
(1) we get ∆V = ‒ Ex ∆x ……. ……….
(2a) from which N = V , or,
C m

Nm = CV, MKS unit of electric potential being volt (V).

Mechanical work Electrical work

Electric potential due to a point charge: Vq = kq (absolute value).

r
As mechanical energy is a scalar quantity, electrical potential energy and potential are also scalars.

Ex 1 : How much work is required to carry an electron from the positive terminal of a 12-V battery to the negative
terminal?

In moving from the positive to the negative terminal one faces a potential frop so we write V = ‒ 12 V.
So, We = qV = (‒ 1.6 × 10‒19 C) (‒ 12 V) = 1.9 × 10‒18 J
Ex 2 : In the figure below let’s take the uniform electric field (E) in between the two charged plates be E = 2.0
kV/m (ref. to the equation CV = Nm) and d = 5.0 mm. A proton is shot from the negative plate towards the
positive plate with a speed of 100 km/s. What will be its speed just before it strikes plate A?

The proton is repelled by the positive plate and thus we may expect it to be slowed down.

Potential difference between the plates = V = Ed = (2.0×103V) (0.005 m) = 10 V

From conservation of mechanical energy,

KE lost = PE gained Or,
½ mp(vf 2 ‒ vi 2 )
= qV, or,
½ (1.67×10‒27 kg) [vf 2‒ (1.0 × 105 m/s)2 ]
= (1.6 × 10‒19C) (‒10 V) from which v f = 90 km/s → the proton does slow down

 the numbers do not correspond the formula

Ex 3 : What is the absolute potential at each of the following distances from a charge of 2.0 μC : r = 10 cm, and 50
cm? How much work is required to carry a 0.05 μC charge from the point r = 50 cm to r = 10 cm?
Big V is the symbol for absolute potential

V10 = kqq/r
 = (9 × 109 Nm2 ) (2.0 × 10‒6 C)
C2 0.10m
= 1.8 × 105 V V50
= kqq/r = (9 × 109 Nm2 /C2 ) (2.0 × 10‒6 C/ 0.50 m)
= 36 × 103 V, or, 36 kV Work
= q(V10 ‒ V50) = (5.0 × 10‒8 C) (1.44 × 105 V)
= 7.2 mJ (ref : Nm = CV = J)

Electric Potential (continued), Capacitance :

Electric potential due to a charged conductor: Few facts about a conducting material
1. Electric field (Eq) inside a good conductor (hollow or solid) is zero
2. The whole amount of charge in a charged conductor distributes itself on the surface
3. Electric field always points perpendicular to the outside surface of a conductor with a magnitude
E = σ / εo
4. Electric potential inside or on a conductor is constant
5. On an irregular shaped object charges accumulate more on sharp spots resulting in stronger electric fields

Earlier in this chapter we found that the work (W) done on a charge q in moving it from one point to the other
against a potential difference V, is
qV, or, W = ‒∆PE = ‒q(VB ‒ VA),
as a charge is transferred from a point A to another point B.

Based on this definition no work is required to move a charge between two points that are at the same electric
potential, or,
W= 0 whenever VB = VA.

Also, all points on the surface of a charged conductor in electrostatic equilibrium are at the same potential. As E is
perpendicular to the surface of the conductor, W = 0 in moving a charge from A to B in the figure meaning the
whole surface is at the same potential.
A surface on which all points are at the same potential is called an equipotential surface. As the potential
difference between any two points on an equipotential surface is zero. no work is required to move a charge on
an equipotential surface.

Based on the equation for potential V due to a point charge q,

V = kq/r, for a single point charge,
the potential is constant on any surface with r constant.
Work needed W eV to move an electron e through a potential of 1 volt, known as electron-volt, is
W = eV
= (1.60× 10‒19 C) (1V)
= 1.60× 10‒19 Joule.

Based on the fact of establishing a uniform electric field in between two charged plates, we may say that charge
accumulated on one plate is prop. to the voltage supplied. Or.
Q α V, or,
Q = constant x V = CV

Capacitance : A charged capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy to be used when needed for a specific
application.

The capacitance C of a capacitor is the ratio of the magnitude of the charge on either conductor (plate) to the
magnitude of the potential difference between the conductors (plates),

C = Q. MKS unit : Farad (F) = Coulomb (C).

∆V Volt V
 For a parallel plate capacitor C = Q/∆V = σA/(Ed) (σ being the charge density on each plate) = σA/(σεo)d
(using Gauss’s theorem) = εoA/d

Ex 1 : What is the charge on a 300 pF capacitor when it’s charged to a voltage of 1.0 kV? Q = CV = (300 × 10‒12 F)
(1000 V) = 3 × 10‒7 C = 0.3 μC.

Ex 2 : A metal sphere mounted on an insulated rod carries a charge 6.0 nC when it’s potential is 200 V higher than
the surrounding. What is the capacitance formed by the sphere and its surrounding? C = Q/V = (6 × 10‒9 C) / 200
V = 30 pF

Ex 3 : A parallel-plate capacitor has an area A = 2.0 × 10‒4 m2 and a plate separation d= 1.0 mm. (a) Find its
capacitance. (b) How much charge is on the positive plate if the capacitor is connected to a 3.00-V battery? (c)
What is the charge density on the positive plate, assuming the density is uniform ?

(a) C = εoA/d = (8.85 × 10‒12 C 2 / Nm2 ) (2.0 × 10‒4 m2 ) / (1.0 × 10‒3 m) = 1.77 pF (b) Q = CV = (1.77 × 10‒
12 F) (3.0 V) = 5.31 × 10‒12 C (c) σ = Q/A = (5.31 × 10‒12 C)/ (2.0 × 10‒4 m2 ) = 2.66 × 10‒8 C/m2 .

Combinations of capacitors :
i) Capacitors in parallel : The same voltage V is applied against each capacitor.
So each of the capacitors has the charge depending on its capacitance, thus, V = Q1/C1= Q2 /C2 =
Q3/C3…
.Or, the total charge
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = (C1 + C2 + C3) V.
Thus the equivalent capacitor for parallel combination is Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3