ASSIGNMENT ON

SHIP CONSTRUCTION & WELDING

COURSE: SHIP STRUCTURE AND STRESSES (BNS-4109)

SUBMITTED TO

SENIOR NAVAL ARCHITECT

BSc IN NAVAL ARCHITECTURE & MARINE ENGINEERING
BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,DHAKA

SUBMITTED BY

BMS ROLL NO: N-50224

ACADEMIC NO: 4138
7TH SEMISTER

DATE OF SUBMISSION
09TH JULY,2020
Contents
 Over the years as international trade increased and also bulk
transportation of goods became more and more necessary, various types of ships
came into being depending on the type of cargo that needs to be carried. This trade will
naturally involve very high volume of transportation of all kinds of items starting
from bulk grain, ore, coal to crude, automobiles and various other kinds of farm and
engineering products. Passenger ships and inter island ferries also play a very
important role in transportation as well as tourism. These vessels, their outward
features, i.e. the hull form may not be very different, but the internal structural
arrangement will be very much dependent on the type of cargo the vessel needs to
carry. The internal structural arrangement should be such that it will facilitate
loading, stowage and unloading of the cargo. And needless to say, should ensure
safe transportation of the cargo. It naturally implies that the structure will be able to
sustain all the service loads and also at the same time the hull form should be
hydro-dynamically efficient.The various parts of the ship must be properly connected
together if the ship is to be strong and rigid. The strength of any connection should, so
far as possible, be equal to strength of the parts connected.
 Welding is a joining process by which two separate parts can be joined to
make one integral part. Ideally there should be complete continuity between the parts
and the joint area should be indistinguishable from the parent metal of the individual
parts. The joining of two parts can be achieved if the electrons can be shared by the
atoms across the interface. This is achieved by applying external heat leading to
fusion of the parts to be joined. All fusion welding processes must satisfy four basic
requirements, supply of energy to achieve union by fusion, mechanism for removing
superficial contamination from the joint faces, avoidance of atmospheric contamination,
control of weld metallurgy to achieve desirable microstructure. This can be achieved in
many ways, which give satisfactory service. Not every welding process is equally
suitable for all types of metals or all types of joints.
 There are many advantages to be gained from
employing welding in ships as opposed to having a riveted construction. These may be
considered as advantages in both building and in operating the ship.

For the shipbuilder the advantages are:

(a) Welding lends itself to the adoption of prefabrication techniques.
(b) It is easier to obtain water tightness and oil tightness with welded joints.
(c) Joints are produced more quickly.
(d) Less skilled labour is required.

For the shipowner the advantages are:

(a) Reduced hull steel weight; therefore, more deadweight.
(b) Less maintenance, from slack rivets, etc.
(c) The smoother hull with the elimination of laps leads to a reduced skin friction
resistance which can reduce fuel costs.
(a) Gas Welding:
In gas welding heat energy required to heat the surfaces is obtained by
the combustion of mixture of two gases. Generally oxygen and acetylene are used for
gas welding purpose. These gases are mixed in proper proportions in the welding
torch. This welding torch is provided with two regulators to regulate the gases.
The flame produced due to the combustion is used to heat the metal surfaces to
plastic state and welding is completed by adding the filler material.

(i) Oxyacetylene Welding:

As the name implies in this case the two gases used are oxygen and acetylene.
It is to be noted that oxygen and acetylene are commercially available in
cylinders. If required acetylene can be produced by the chemical reaction
between calcium carbide and water as under-

And the chemical reaction for the combustion of acetylene is,

When the combustion takes place, we get the flame at the tip of the torch as
shown.
Mainly there are 3 types of flames:
(i) Neutral Flame:
It is obtained by mixing equal quantities of acetylene and oxygen. It is used
for welding all the metals like ferrous metals, Cu, and Aluminium alloys.
When we change the proportions of Oxygen and acetylene. Carburising and
oxidising flames can be obtained.
(ii) Carburising Flame:
It is obtained by more quantity of acetylene. It is very much suitable for
welding of steel as the rate of welding is faster by this flame.
(iii) Oxidising Flame:
 It can be obtained by more quantity of oxygen. It is mainly used for welding
of brass. It is also very much suitable for cutting operations.
Advantages:
(1) Gas welding is more suitable for thin sheets.
(2) The equipment is portable, so suitable for outdoor repair works.
(3) By changing the nozzle in the torch, the torch can be used for gas cutting.

Limitations:
(1) It is a slow process compared to arc welding.
(2) Gases used in the gas welding are costlier.

ii)Air acetylene welding:

As the name implies in this case air and acetylene are used as the gases to
produce the flame. In this case temperatures produced are low compared to
other gas welding processes. This method is generally used for Lead welding.

(b) Arc Welding:

(i) Metal Arc Welding:

When the welding rod touches the work piece, an arc is
produced and tremendous amount of heat is liberated. The temperature of the
arc is about 3600° C. This heat energy is utilised for melting work piece and
welding rod. So, a small pool of molten metal is formed. This molten metal is
agitated by the action of arc and the metal is perfectly mixed and after cooling it
produces a sound joint.

Types of Electrodes

Arc stability, depth of penetration, metal deposition rate and positional welding
capability are greatly influenced by the chemical composition of the flux coating on
the electrode. Each of the chemicals in the coating serves a particular function in
the welding process. In general, their main purposes are to induce easier arc
starting,stabilize the arc, improve weld appearance and penetration, reduce spatter,
and protect the molten metal from oxidation or contamination by the surrounding
atmosphere .
Electrodes can be divided into four main groups based on the composition of
flux covering:
• Cellulosic
• Rutile
• Basic
• Metal powder electrodes

Cellulosic electrodes
These electrodes are coated with flux rich in cellulose. During
welding it burns and produces hydrogen and carbon monoxide which
provide the required shielding. The presence of these gases in the arc
having high ionization potentials results in a high arc voltage and
therefore a high arc energy. This leads to in a deeply penetrating arc
and a rapid burn-off rate calling for high welding speeds.

Rutile Electrodes
These electrodes contain a high proportion of titanium oxide (rutile)
in its coating. This with high content of ionizers makes these
electrodes easy to use. The titanium oxide promotes easy arc
ignition, smooth arc operation and causes low spatter

Basic electrodes
The coating of these electrodes contains a high proportion of calcium
carbonate and calcium fluoride. This makes the slag more fluid than
that with rutile coatings. The slag formed from the basic electrodes is
of fast-freezing type. Therefore these electrodes help in welding in
vertical and overhead position.

Metal powder electrodes

These electrodes contain iron powder in the flux coating. This
produces a marked effect on its performance

Application:
This arc welding is most commonly used in the fabrication of tanks,
vessels, trusses, frames, boilers, automobile chassis and body buildings etc.

(ii) Submerged Arc Welding (SAW):

It is the improved arc welding process, which is used for the production of butt
welds of thick steel plates.
In this case the arc produced is submerged (covered) in the flux, hence the
name submerged arc welding. Through the flux hopper, flux is supplied and
wire feeder feeds the bare wire continuously.
In this case arc produced is submerged in the flux. Because of heat of arc the
wire and parent metals melt and form a pool of molten metal. Thus molten pool
produces a welded joint after cooling.
(iii) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW):
It is also known as Tungsten Inert Gas welding (TIG).
It is a fast process, produces clean welds and it can weld metals considered to
be impossible to weld. TIG-welding utilizes a non-consumable electrode in a
special holder, a separate filler material and an inert gas i.e., argon gas
cylinder, power supply source.
When the tungsten electrode strikes the work piece, an arc will be produced.
Around the arc inert gas shielding is formed as the gas is coming out from the
torch. Because of heat of arc, work piece and filler material melt and form a
molten pool. This molten pool after cooling forms a sound welded joint in the
shielding of inert gas.

Advantages of TIG Welding:

1. Welded joints are stronger more ductile and corrosion resistant than the other
weld made by other methods.
2. The welding of non-ferrous metals is simplified as no flax is required.
3. Dissimilar metals can also be welded easily.
4. Due to presence of inert gas, there is less smoke.
5. The arc is transparent due to shielding inert gas, so the welder gas can
clearly observe the weld as it is being made.

Limitations of TIG Welding:

1. The process is relatively slow in operation.
2. The back side of weld joint has to be protected from the atmosphere.
3. The cost of inert gas is quite high.
4. A1 joints require proper cleaning before welding as the inert gas does not
provide any cleaning or fluxing action.

(iv) Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW):

It is also known as Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding. In MIG welding we get clean
and good welds also fast filler metal deposition rates. It uses high welding
current which is used to break the globules of molten metal into fine spray.
 Figure 40.11, shows schematic diagram of MIG welding. MIG uses a
consumable electrode. It is supplied through an electrode holder into the arc.
Then at the same speed electrode is melted and deposited into the weld. A
small motor with adjustable speed will be used to remove the wire from the reel
and fed into the arc.
Generally CO2 or Argon are used as shielding gases. Mainly the process was
developed for welding Aluminium and Titanium. But nowadays it has wide
application since it can be used for welding in all the positions; and less skilled
operators are required to operate this set up.

Pressure Welding
Pressure welding is a process in which external pressure
is applied to produce welded joints either at temperatures below the
melting point, which is solid state welding, or at a temperature above the
melting point, which is fusion state welding. The atoms are moved
together to a distance that is equal to or less than the equilibrium inter
atomic separation distance. This type of welding process requires the
two pieces being joined to be extremely clean and especially free of
oxides and non metallic films which must be removed from the surfaces
of the metals by wire brush, so as to ensure the strongest welded joint
possible. Pressure welding techniques are used primarily on metals that
are highly ductile or whose ductility increases with increasing
temperatures. Types of commonly used pressure welding processes in
industrial applications are:
 Cold pressure welding is used for joining sheets, wires and electric
components.
 Explosive welding is used when joints of dissimilar metals are to
be welded.
 Ultrasonic welding, when thin sheets are to be joined.
 Percussion welding is utilized for joining dissimilar metals.
 Friction welding is used when similar or dissimilar metals are to be
joined.
 Induction welding is used for welding pipes
 Inertial welding is for welding of high strength alloys.
i)Butt Welds
are usually prepared by chamfering-off, or 'Veeing' the
plate edges, so that the angle between them is about 60o and
by spacing the plates so that there is a small gap between them
at the bottom of the 'V'. A series of runs of welding is made on
the Veed side and when this has been completely filled-in, one
run, called a 'back run', is made on the other side of the joint.
In the figure, the runs are numbered in the order in which they
are made, whilst B indicates the back run. Thick plates may be
double-veed: that is, veed on both sides.

ii)Fillet Welds
are used for making T-joints and lapped joints. The
leg length ('L' in figure) is governed by the thickness of the
abutting part of the joint, whilst the throat thickness ('T' in
figure) must be at least 70 per cent of the leg length. Fillet welds
may be continuous or intermittent.
a) Full Penetration Fillet Welds
are stronger than ordinary fillet welds and are used
where special strength is required in T joints. The
vertical leg of the joint is veed, so that the weld metal
can penetrate right through.

b) Double Continuous Fillets

are used for especially important structural
connections and for watertight and oil tight work.

c) Intermittent Fillets
are used for many joints which are not required
to be watertight. The length and spacing of fillets
depend on the work which the joint is required to do.
At the ends of structural joints, the fillets must be
doubled and carried around
the ends.
d) Chain intermittent fillets
are used for the more important connections and
staggered intermittent fillets for others. As compared
with continuous fillets, intermittent fillets reduce
weight, but have some inherent disadvantages. Tack
Welds are spots of welding, placed at intervals and
used to hold parts temporarily in place whilst a proper
welded joint isbeing made.
Different types of welding joints are classified as Butt, Lap ,
Corner, Tee and edge joints which are shown in figure
 Porosity
It refers to the gas pockets or voids free of any solid material, frequently found in
welds. Porosity is caused when gas is released as a weld metal cools and its
solubility is reduced, and from gases formed by chemical reactions in the weld.
Porosity may be scattered uniformly throughout the weld, isolated in small areas,
or concentrated at the root. Though in many cases, porosity is spherical, in some
it is worm-shaped, and elongated in the so1idification direction of the weld metal.
Porosity may be caused by excessive welding temperatures or incorrect
manipulation.

Porosity

Porosity
Slag inclusions
This term is used to describe the oxides and other non-metallic solids that
become entrapped in the weld metal or between the weld metal and the base
metal. They generally come from the electrode covering material or from fluxes
employed in the welding operations. In multilayer welding operations, failure to
remove the slag between layers will result in slag inclusions in these zones.

Slag inclusions
Tungsten inclusions
In the gas tungsten-arc welding processes, the occasional touching of the
electrode to the work or to the molten weld metal, particularly in the manual
process, may transfer particles of the tungsten into the weld deposit. These
tungsten inclusions generally are undesirable, and for critical work a limit on the
size and numbers of these inclusions is specified.

Tungsten inclusions
Incomplete fusion
Incomplete fusion, or lack of fusion as it is frequently termed, is used to describe
the failure to fuse together adjacent layers of weld metal or adjacent weld metal
and base metal. This failure to obtain fusion may occur at any point in the
welding groove. Incomplete fusion may be caused by: failure to raise the
temperature of the base metal (or previously deposited weld metal) to the melting
point, or failure to remove slag, mill scale, oxides or other foreign material
present on the surfaces to which the deposited metal must fuse.

Incomplete fusion
Inadequate joint penetration
In this condition the joint penetration is less than that specified. Hence, partial
joint penetration may or may not be a defect, depending on what is specified for
that particular joint. Often “inadequate joint penetration” is used (improperly) to
describe what is defined as “incomplete fusion” in ΑWS Α3.0-61 Definitions –
Welding and Cutting. The AWS (American Welding Society) rationale is that
“fusion” should be used when describing how completely the weld is bonded to
or fused to the surface of the joint: “Penetration”, on the other hand, describes
how far the weld extends into a joint.

Inadequate joint penetration

Undercut
This term is used to describe a groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the
toe of a weld and left unfilled by the weld metal. It also describes the melting
away of the sidewall of a welding groove at the edge of a layer of bead, thus
forming a sharp recess in the sidewall in the area to which the next layer or bead
must fuse.

Undercut

External undercut
Arc strikes
Although arc strikes are not normally considered defects, fractures (brittle and
fatigue) frequently initiate from arc strikes. Arc strikes are formed during the
unintentional melting or heating of areas outside the intended weld deposit area.
They usually are caused by the welding arc but can be produced beneath an
improperly secured ground connection. The result is a small melted area that can
produce undercut, hardening, or localized cracking, depending upon the base
metal.
Cracks
Cracks result from ruptures of metals under stress. Although
sometimes large, they are often very narrow separations in weld or adjacent
base metal. Cracks are one of the most harmful of welding defects and are
prohibited by most specifications. However, small cracks, often called fissures or
microfissures, may not reduce the service life. There are three types of cracks,
having as criteria the position and the place that we find them, and are: i)
longitudinal, ii) transverse and iii) crater. Specifications are reluctant to specify an
allowable maximum crack size, rather, they tacitly admit that any cracks too
small to be resolved by the required inspection procedure are permitted. Cracks
in metallic structures can be characterized as ductile or brittle cracks, according
to the type of fracture that takes place.

Cracks
Fracture
is categorized according to the type of loading. Generally, fatigue
cracks cannot cause the total failure of the metallic structure of the
ship, and they are often observed in regions in the secondary
structure of the ship. While the brittle cracks growths rapidly, for the
fatigue cracks may need to pass years before they cause total
failure to the structure. The cracks in metal structures can lead to
the failure of the material either with a ductile either with a brittle
fracture. The description of the cracks includes information about the
behaviour of the cracks in the microstructure level, in order to
become comprehensible the behaviour of the cracks in the level of
the structure. Cracks in metallic structure of the ship are mostly
ductile and derive from the fatigue of the structure.