Chapter Two: Morphology and structure of fungal cell

Prof. Abdul Jabbar N. Al-Shammari

Dept. of Medical Laboratory Sciences
2019-2020 summer course
Fungi are member in
microbiology domains
The living world is divided
into the five kingdoms of:
1. Planta
2. Animalia
3. Protista
4. Monera
5. Fungi
It is important to recognize
that the fungi are separate
kingdom belong to eukaryotic
domain.
Fungi are member in microbiology domains
• The five kingdom there after put in three domains of life. The Eukaryotic domain which
also including plants, animals, algae, Protista with flagella and another Protista.
• Fungi lack chlorophyll and are therefore not autotrophic (photosynthetic) like plants and
algae; rather they are heterotrophic absorptive organisms that are either saprophytes
(living on dead organic matter) or parasites (utilizing living tissue).
• Like plants, fungi have rigid cell walls and are therefore non-motile, a feature which
separates them from animals.
•
• To define the exact limits of the groups in a few words is virtually impossible, however
generally speaking fungi are eukaryotic, heterotrophic, unicellular to filamentous, rigid
cell wall, spore bearing organisms that usually reproduce by both sexual and asexual
means. Further they are insensitive to antibacterial antibiotics.
Morphology and
Structure of Fungal cell
Fungi are Eukaryotic cells
contain membrane bound cell
organelles including nuclei,
mitochondria, Golgi
apparatus, endoplasmic
reticulum, lysosomes.
These features separate fungi
from bacterial which are
prokaryotic cells lacking the
above structures.
Configuration of fungal cells:
• Fungi occur in two basic morphological forms:
• Yeast form.
• 1. A unicellular, single-celled fungus
• 2. Reproduces by simple budding to form
blastoconidia.
• 3. Colonies are similar to bacterial colonies
and usually moist or mucoid.
• 4. Yeast-like fungi may be basidiomycetes,
such as Cryptococcus neoformans or
ascomycetes such as Candida albicans.
• Yeast cell are rounded and have typical
eukaryotic features; contain a true nucleus
surrounding by nucleular membrane,
mitochondria and typical vacuole
• (b). A filamentous or mold form
which is a vegetative growth of
filaments.
• The mold consists of tubular
structure cells have multiple nuclei.
There are two types of hyphae
either long open tubular filaments
with no septa between individual
ells, called non-septate
(coenocytic) such as Chytrids and
glomeromycotan (formerly
Zygomycetes).
• Non-septate hyphae are
considered to be more primitive
because if a hyphal strand is
damaged the entire strand dies.
• The second types of hyphae are
septate in which the filaments are
partitioned by cellular cross-wall as
solid cross walls with pores or with
no pores and there is no flow of
cytoplasmic material between cells
such as Ascomycetes and
basidiomycetes.
• The septa divide the hyphae into
compartments but not into cells. In
some groups nuclei and/or
cytoplasm can flow through a hole
When a septate hyphal strand is
damaged, the pores between
adjacent compartments can be
plugged, thus preventing death of
the whole hyphal strand
• The filaments form of fungi also
produce a great variety of
conidia(spores) which borne on
specialized hyphae or
conidiophores.
• Many molds can be identified
by the morphology of these
spores and by their arrangement
on the hyphae.
• Fungal filaments are known as
hyphae and a mass of hyphae
collectively make up the
mycelium. The terms "hyphae"
and "mycelium" are used
interchangeably
The major differences between the yeast and mold
Feature Yeast Molds

Morphological configuration Yeast are unicellular, nucleated multicellular, filamentous fungi

rounded fungi

Reproduction reproduce by a process called Reproduce by spore production

budding

Staining by Gram stain Shows Gram positive cocci It is not staining by Gram stain,
larger than bacteria if it is stain shows Gram positive rod.

Pathogenicity opportunistic pathogens Saprophytic, opportunistic and

Pathogenic
Examples Candida albicans, Aspergillus, Rhizopus and Mucor
Cryptococcus neoformans and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Structures of fungal cell:
• Fungal cell composed of:
• cell wall
• cytoplasmic membrane
cytoplasm and cytoplasmic
organelles
• Ribosome
• genome
Fungal cell wall:

• Fungal cell walls are similar to plant

cell walls in structure but differ in
chemical composition.
• The main constituent of a fungal
cell wall is chitin and not cellulose,
Chitin with the chemical formula
(C8H13O5N) n is considered as a
complex carbohydrate, whose
structure resembles that of
cellulose, with one hydroxyl group
on each monomer replaced with
an acetyl amine group.
• Fungal cell wall completely differs from that found in
bacterial cells,
• there is no peptidoglycan in fungal wall,
• also not all species of fungi have cell walls. Most true
fungi have a cell wall consisting of chitin and other
polysaccharides; the chitin layer consisting mainly of
unbranched chains of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine.
Polysaccharides consisting from a layer of β-1,3-glucan
surrounded by mannoproteins on its surface
Glucan synthesis
• The glucan polymers are
synthesized and extruded into
the cell wall space by plasma
membrane-associated chitin
synthases and glucan synthases,
and cross the cytoplasmic
membrane by lipid carriers,
since this is true the glucan was
differed according to fungal
species.
•
• For example, the cell wall of Candida albicans (yeast)
compose of β-1,3- and β-1,6-glucan,
• while the filamentous Aspergillus fumigates contains
β-1,3- and β-1,4-glucan, and α-1,3-glucan.
• The mannoprotein is synthesized
by endoplasmic reticulum-
associated ribosome and pass
through channels from
cytoplasm to outside wall,
during passes the glycoproteins
are modified by addition of O-
linked oligosaccharides and their
N-linked oligosaccharides to
form complex matrix of fungal
cell wall.
• Fungal cell wall deserves special attention for several reasons:
• 1. One of diagnostic morphological feature of fungi due to the
presence of chitin instead of cellulose in plant cell.
• 2.The fungal cell wall gives shape and form of filament due to its
rigidity.
• 3.Protect fungal cell from mechanical damage, prevents osmotic lysis,
and provide passive protection against ingress of potentially harmful
molecules.
• 4.Fungi cell wall do not stain by Gram stain as differential stain like
bacteria, and if it takes the stain, it’s appear violet, similar to Gram
positive bacteria especially in yeast form.
• 5.Fungi lack of appendix protruded from wall such as flagella. The structure
completely absents in all stages of their life cycle, except in chytrids, which
produce flagellated gametes.
• 6.Fungal cell wall regards as target for antifungal drug.
• 7.The chitin components in the fungal cell wall have several benefits; such
as fertilizer, drug delivery system (Chitosan), food additive, antioxidant,
emulsifying agent, and also used for manufacturing strong and flexible
surgical threads.
• 8. Fungal cell wall act as molecular sieve that regulate the molecules enter
through the wall by absorption.
• 9. regard as binding site for attachment of enzymes and mediate the
interaction with other organisms
(b) The Protoplast:
• Main consistent of fungal cell it lacks of chloroplasts, but it
differentiated into other usual cell parts such as plasma of cell
membrane, cell organelles and vacuolated cytoplasm.
• 1. Cytoplasmic membrane: similar to another biological cell
membrane, composed of lipid bilayer and protein.
• The sterol in fungal Cell membrane is ergosterol but not cholesterol
as in human and animal cytoplasmic membrane, this is very
important features for antifungal selective toxicity.
• Fungal plasma membrane,
carries out various vital
functions, such as:
1.transportation
2. food absorption.
• Both yeast and filaments
fungi contain ergosterol to
serve the same functions
that cholesterol do in the
animal cells
• In young hyphae and hyphal tips,
the cytoplasm appears rather
uniform and homogeneous.
• The cell membrane is pressed
against the cell or hyphal wall
except for occasional
invaginations in some regions.
The Invagination is either in the
form of an in folded convoluted
pocket or a pouch enclosing
granular or vesicular material
called Lomasome.
functions of fungal cell membrane:
• maintaining ionic balance between the cell interior and the environment;
creating background conditions for water balance (i.e. volume control in
animal cells; turgor regulation in plants, fungi, and bacteria),
• mediating energy transfer from redox and dehydration reactions to a wide
variety of so-called active transport processes carried out at the plasma
membrane.
• The cationic substrate for this enzyme in fungal membranes is protons,
which usually must be exported in order to offset excess metabolic
production.
• With one or two important exceptions, the entire class of enzymes can
transfer net electric charges through membranes, so that they function as
“biochemical fuel cells” or “electro- enzymes”
• The fungal membrane lipids have regulatory factor for fungal
pathogenicity.
• Various glycolipids have been shown to impart virulent properties in
several fungal species, while others have been shown to play a role in
host defense
• lipids also contribute to other virulence mechanisms such as:
• drug resistance, biofilm formation, and release of extracellular
vesicles.
• In addition, lipids also affect the mechanical properties of the plasma
membrane through the formation of packed microdomains composed
mainly of sphingolipids and sterols.
• Changes in the composition of lipid microdomains has been shown to
disrupt the localization of virulence factors and affect fungal
pathogenicity.
Cytoplasm
• 2. Fungal cytoplasm is similar to that found in plant cells but differs in
organelles.
• It comprises a gel structure (cytosol) contain membrane bound cell
organelles including nuclei, mitochondria (no chloroplasts), Golgi
apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes and protein that makes
microtubules.
• In septate hypha, the tubular cell is filled with gel cytoplasm that either
pass through the pores or divide into compartments which contain one to
many nuclei depending on type of fungi or stage of growth, while in non-
septate hyphae the cytoplasm filled with the scattered nuclei.
• The tip of hypha contains one nucleolus surrounding by double nuclear
membrane. Fungal cytoplasm contains inclusions bodies such as glycogen,
oil drops, pigments and secretory granules used for food storage.
In septate hypha, the tubular cell is filled with gel cytoplasm that either pass through the pores or
divide into compartments which contain one to many nuclei depending on type of fungi or stage of
growth, while in non-septate hyphae the cytoplasm filled with the scattered nuclei.

Fungal cytoplasm contains inclusions bodies

The tip of hypha contains one nucleolus such as glycogen, oil drops, pigments and
surrounding by double nuclear membrane. secretory granules used for food storage
Fungal nucleus
• The cytoplasm in the individual
cells contains one, two or more
globose or ellipsoid nuclei where
the DNA is wrapped around
histone proteins.
• Fungal nuclei are predominantly
haploid and surrounded by
double membrane contains
pores that separated from
cytoplasm.
Fungal nucleus

• Fungal nuclei are relatively smaller than most other eukaryotic

organisms ranging in size from 1-2 µm to 20-25 µm in diameter.
During mitosis the nuclear membrane remains intact and no clear
metaphase plate.
Fungal nucleus
• The appearance is similar, though the amount of DNA is generally
less, even allowing for the haploid state of most nuclei
• indeed, some fungi are naturally diploid, other alternate between
haploid and diploid states. Multiple haploid nuclei can mask mutation
with specific advantage in selection.
• Nuclei may move through the cytoplasm of most filamentous fungi,
even though the dolipore septum of the Basidiomycota.
• https://www.slideshare.net/mgetso/fungal-genomics-112994393
• Fungal chromosomes: Fungal chromosomes or DNA (genomic) carry
the genetic information essential to the cell and protect the fungal
cells from genetic destabilization and other organisms.
• components of genome defense mechanisms, such as fungal
secondary metabolites are involved in chemical defense processes.
Structure of fungal nucleus: Fungal nucleus consists of:

• (i) A central, dense body with a

clear area around it.
• (ii) Chromatin strands, and
• (iii) The whole structure
surrounded by a definite nuclear
membrane.
• The number of chromosomes is
varying according to fungal
species, but in general the
estimated number ranging from
5-40,
Methods used for estimation and detection of fungal
chromosome:
• The detection and estimation of fungal chromosome is of interest for
molecular biologist and mycologist,
• but one problem facing the researcher that the size of fungal nuclei
are so small.
• The researchers follow the conventional methods used for detection
and counting the eukaryotes cell. The most important methods are:
• Light microscope: the
visualization and counting the
number of chromosome per
nucleus especially during meiotic
divisions have been successful
detected by lowest resolution of
light and stain with the standard
dyes like Giemsa or aceto-orcein
stain and estimated not more
than ten chromosomes per
nucleus.
• Germ tube burst method: This
method depends on germ tube
borne from hyphae especially in
yeast (Candidia albicans). the
hyphal cell and their spread on
the surface of a slide, stained
with conventional or fluorescent
stain and visualization under
light or fluorescent microscope,
usually give better resolution
and more accurate of
chromosome.
• pulse field gel electrophoresis
(PFGE). Determination of
chromosome number and
estimation of fungi genome size
by separation of the
chromosome on polyacrylamide
gel electrophoresis is an
accurate method, it’s also
enabled for determination of
chromosome length
polymorphism and the presence
of supernumerary
chromosomes.
• Light microscopy and PFGE was also used and give accurate results for
detection and numeration of fungal chromosome.
• Electron-microscopic observation of the synaptonemal complexes between
homologous chromosomes in prophase of meiosis.
• DNA sequencing: one of common method used for characterization of
fungi chromosome and is completed for a limited number of fungi.
•
• As mention above the fungi cell is haploid that means has n number of
chromosomes. There is relationship between nucleular number and
chromosome mass, that means in coenocytic hyphae with many nuclei in
one cytoplasmic mass has many more chromosomes. One would think that
at least the two model fungi, budding yeast and fission yeast, would show
similar numbers of chromosomes. Yet surprisingly, the budding yeast S.
cerevisiae has 16 chromosomes and the fission yeast S. pombe has
only 3 chromosomes.
Mitochondria:

• Numerous small and spherical to elongated bodies known as

mitochondria are dispersed in cytoplasm. Mitochondria are covered
by an outer double membrane; the inner infoldings form parallel flat
plates of irregular tubules called cristae. There is no difference
between mitochondria of fungi and green plants.
• Generally, these are called the power house of the cell. Mitochondria
consist of its genetic material (mt-DNA) as circular double helical
molecules devoid of histones and very similar to prokaryotic DNA
(molecular weight 1 × 107 Dalton). Mitochondria has its own
machinery for transcription and translation of organelle specific DNA.
Endoplasmic Reticulum:
• Presence of endoplasmic reticulum in fungal cytoplasm is observed
through electron microscope.
• It is made up of a system of microtubules beset with small granules.
In most of the fungi it is highly vesicular. It is loose and irregular as
compared with cells of green plants.
• In multinucleate hyphae the nuclei may be connected by
endoplasmic reticulum.
Golgi Apparatus or Dictyosomes:

• Except in Oomycetes (e.g. Pythium) and non-fungal eukaryotic cells,

Golgi apparatus is of rare occurrence in fungal cells.
• In Oomycetes and non-fungal eukaryotes, Golgi apparatus consists of
stacks of folded membranes functioning in secretion.
• In the cells of Saccharomyces a Golgi apparatus consisting of three
flattened sacs can be observed.
(v) Inclusions:

• The cytoplasm contains various kinds of inclusions. Examples of stored foods are lipid
globules, granules of glycogen, oils and the carbohydrate trehalose, proteinaceous
material and volutin.
• The glycogen may occur in vacuoles. Vacuoles are found in the old cells of hyphae. The
end of hyphal tip of young hyphae lacks vacuole. With the age, the vacuoles coalesce.
Vacuoles are surrounded by a membrane known as tonoplast.

• There are no starch grains. Of the pigments, the fungi lack chlorophyll. Carotenoids are
often conspicuous by their presence and may occur throughout the cytoplasm or
concentrated in the lipid granules or distributed in the cell wall. The cytoplasm, in
addition, secretes several kinds of ferments, enzymes and organic acids.
• Tubules: Tubules are most concentrated in the hyphal tip. It appears that tubules
• swell forming localized vesicles. The vesicles are moved rapidly along the tubule,
through pores of the septum, and to or from hyphal tips. Each compartment may have
many tubules operating, at different speeds, and in both directions simultaneously.
Septum:

• Basically three types of septa are found in fungal cells:

• (a) Complete septa which lack a pore and rare in vegetative hyphae
• (b) Perforated septa containing a pore through which cytoplasmic
organelles such as mitochondria and nuclei can pass freely, for
example septa found in members of Ascomycetes
• (c) dolipore (dolium means a large Jar) septa which are found in
Basidiomycetes and are rather more complex.
• Plasmid The cytoplasm is typical is all respects of a eukaryotic cell. Of
particular interest is the presence of plasmids. These have been
characterized in yeasts. As many as one hundred plasmids are found
in yeast cells. Plasmids are also found in filamentous fungi, where
some are associated with disease virulence.
• The flagellum
• Fungi like plants, they are non-motile except Chytrids fungi which
have flagella. The chytrid rumen fungi have posteriorly multiflagellate
(up to 16 whiplash flagella) zoospores. The organization of the
flagellar apparatus at the base of the flagellum is a characteristic
feature of different groups of the chytrids.
Size of fungi
• The part of a fungus that is generally visible is the fruiting
body, or sporophore.
• Sporophores vary greatly in size, shape, color, and longevity.
Some are microscopic and completely invisible to the unaided
eye; others are no larger than a pin head; still others are
gigantic structures.
• Among the largest sporophores are those of
mushrooms, bracket fungi, and puffballs. Some mushrooms
reach a diameter of 20 to 25 cm (8 to 10 inches) and a height
of 25 to 30 cm (10 to 12 inches). Bracket, or shelf, fungi can
reach 40 cm (16 inches) or more in diameter.
•
 End of Chapter two
Next chapter:Chapter Three: Taxonomy and classification of fungi