Chapter 10

Engr228
Circuit Analysis

Dr Curtis Nelson

Chapter 10 Objectives
• Understand the following ac power concepts, their
relationships to one another, and how to calculate them in
a circuit:
• Instantaneous power;
• Average (real) power;
• Root Mean Squared (RMS) value;
• Reactive power;
• Complex power;
• Power factor; and
• Power factor correction.
• Understand the condition for maximum real power
delivered to a load in an AC circuit and be able to
calculate the load impedance required to deliver maximum
real power to the load.

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 1

 Instantaneous Power

• Instantaneous power is the power measured at any given

instant in time.
• In DC circuits, power is measured in watts as
v2
P = vi = i 2 R =
R
• In AC circuits, voltage and current are time-varying, so
instantaneous power (also measured in watts) is also time-
varying. Power is still measured as

v2
P = vi = i 2 R =
R

Instantaneous AC Power

p( t ) = v( t ) × i( t )

• In an AC circuit, voltage and current are expressed in

general form as
v ( t ) = V m cos( ω t + θ v )
i ( t ) = I m cos( ω t + θ i )

• Instantaneous power is then

p (t ) = Vm I m cos(ωt + θ v ) cos(ωt + θ i )

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 2

 Instantaneous Power - continued
p (t ) = Vm I m cos(ωt + θ v ) cos(ωt + θ i )

• Using the trig identity

cos( x) cos( y ) = 0.5 cos( x − y ) + 0.5 cos( x + y )

it can be shown that instantaneous power is

Vm I m
p (t ) = {cos( θ v − θ i ) + cos( 2ω t + θ v + θ i )}
2
• Note that the instantaneous power contains a constant
term as well as a component that varies with time at
twice the input frequency.

Instantaneous Power Plot

Vm I m
p (t ) = {cos( θ v − θ i ) + cos( 2ω t + θ v + θ i )}
2

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 3

 Instantaneous Power - continued
Vm I m
p (t ) = {cos( θ v − θ i ) + cos( 2ω t + θ v + θ i )}
2

• The equation above can be further manipulated as follows:

cos(α + β ) = cosα cos β − sin α sin β

cos(2ωt +θv − θi ) = cos(θv − θi )cos(2ωt ) − sin(θv − θi )sin(2ωt )

p (t ) = V m I m cos(θv − θi ) + V m I m cos(θv − θi )cos(2ωt ) −V m I m sin(θv − θi )sin(2ωt )

2 2 2

• Note that the instantaneous power still contains a constant

term as well as components that vary with time at twice the
input frequency.

Instantaneous Power Plot

p (t ) = V m I m cos(θv − θi ) + V m I m cos(θv − θi )cos(2ωt ) −V m I m sin(θv − θi )sin(2ωt )
2 2 2

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 4

 Instantaneous vs. Average Power

• While instantaneous power is an interesting mathematical

development for AC circuits, it is not all that useful for
determining how much power a device, circuit, or system
generates or absorbs since it varies with time.
• Average Power is a better indicator of power in AC circuits.
Average power is sometimes called real power, because it
describes the power in a circuit that is transformed from
electric to nonelectric energy.

Average Power

The average power over an arbitrary interval from t1 to t2 is

where p(t) is the instantaneous power. When the power is

periodic with period T, the average power is calculated over any
one period:

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 5

 Average Power - continued

p (t ) = V m I m cos(θv − θi ) + V m I m cos(θv − θi )cos(2ωt ) −V m I m sin(θv − θi )sin(2ωt )

2 2 2

To calculate average power, note that the last two terms in the
equation above will integrate to zero since the average value of
sin and cosine signals over one period is zero. Therefore average
power in AC circuits is calculated as

Vm I m
PAVG = cos(θ v − θ i )
2

Average Power for Elements

Vm I m
PAVG = cos(θ v − θ i )
2
• Since the voltage and current are in phase across a resistor, the
average power absorbed by the resistor R is
1 Vm2
PR , AVG =
2 R

• The average power absorbed by a purely reactive element is

zero, since the current and voltage are 90 degrees out of phase:

PC , AVG = PL , AVG = 0

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 6

 Example: Power Calculations

Calculate the instantaneous and average power if

v (t) = 80cos(10t + 20º)V

i(t) = 15cos(10t + 60º)A

Pinst (t) = 459.6 + 600cos(20t + 80º)W

Pavg = 459.6W

Textbook P. 429 (Hayt 8th)

Find the average power absorbed by each element.

Answer: Pind=0 W Pres=25 W Pcap=0 W

Pleft=-50 W Pright=25 W

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 7

 Example: Average Power in a Resistor

Find the average power dissipated in a resistor R if the applied

voltage is v(t) = Asinθ.

The average power is found by integrating from 0 to 2π

v 2 A2 sin 2 θ
p= =
R R
2π
1 A2
P=
2π ∫ 0
R
sin 2 θ dθ

2 2π 2π
A A2 1 − cos 2θ
2πR ∫0 ∫
2
= sin θ d θ = dθ
2π 0
2
θ = 2π
A2  1 sin 2θ  A2
=  θ−  =
2πR  2 4 θ =0 2R

Example: Average Power

Calculate the average power absorbed by the resistor and inductor.

Find the average power supplied by the voltage source.

PR = 9.6W
PL = 0W
PSource = 9.6W

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 8

 Example: Average Power

Find the average power being delivered to an impedance ZL=

8 − j11 Ω by a current I= 5ej20° A.

Only the 8-Ω resistance enters the average-power calculation,

since the j11-Ω component will not absorb any average
power.

Thus,
P = (1/2)(52)8 = 100 W

Effective or RMS Value

• Sometimes using average power values can be confusing.

For instance, the average DC power absorbed by a resistor
is P = VM IM while the average AC power is P = VM IM /2
By introducing a new concept, called the effective value
of a periodic waveform, the formulas for the average
power absorbed by a resistor can be made the same for dc,
sinusoidal, or any general periodic waveform.
• The effective value of a periodic current or voltage is the
DC current or voltage that delivers the same average
power to a resistor as the periodic AC current or AC
voltage.

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 9

 Effective or RMS Value

For any periodic function x(t) in general, the effective or root

mean squared (rms) value, is given by:

1 T 2
T ∫0
X rms = x dt

Effective or RMS Value

• For example, the effective value of I = Imcosωt is

1 T 2
I rms = ∫
T 0
I m cos 2 ωtdt

I 2m T 1 I
I rms =
T ∫
0 2
(1 + cos 2ωt )dt = m
2
• Average power can then be written in two ways:

Vm I m
PAVG = cos(θ v − θ i )
2

PAVG = Vrms I rms cos(θ v − θ i )

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 10

 Circuit Elements - Resistors

• In an ideal resistor, V and I are in phase so θv = θi.

2
V I V I Veff
= (I eff ) R
2
PAVG = m m cos 0 0 = m m = Veff I eff =
2 2 R

• Since voltage and current in inductors and capacitors

are always 90°out of phase, average power is
dissipated only in resistive elements.

Effective Values of Common Waveforms

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 11

 Example: RMS Power

Determine the effective (rms) value of the current waveform

in the figure below. If the current is passed through a 2Ω
resistor, find the average power absorbed by the resistor.
i(t)

10

0
2 4 6 8 10 t

-10

Irms = 8.165A
P = 133.3W

Reactive Power

• The average power in capacitors and inductors = 0 because

voltage and current have a 90º phase difference.
• However, there is still voltage across, and current through,
inductors and capacitors so they are part of the overall
power picture. We now investigate the part that inductors
and capacitors play in the power picture for general
circuits, leading us to define a new category called
Complex power (S).
• First, we must define the components of complex power.

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 12

 Apparent Power

• The apparent power (S) is the magnitude of the product of

the rms voltage and current. It is measured in volt-amperes
(VA) to distinguish it from the other types of power.

PAVG = Vrms I rms cos(θ v − θ i )

PAVG = S cos(θ v − θ i )
S = Vrms I rms

• S is known as the apparent power with units of VA to

distinguish it from real power which is measured in Watts.
• cos(θV - θi) is know as the power factor.

Power Factor

• Power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between

voltage and current. It is also the cosine of the angle of the
load impedance (Ohm’s Law).

Power Factor = cos(θ v − θ i )

where θ v − θ i is the Power Factor Angle

• For a purely resistive load , PF=1.

• For a purely reactive load, PF=0.
• Generally, 0 ≤ PF ≤ 1

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 13

 Leading and Lagging Power Factor

• pf is lagging if the current lags the voltage (θV - θI is positive

like in an inductive load).
• pf is leading if the current leads the voltage (θV - θI is
negative like in a capacitive load).

Textbook P. 440 (Hayt 8th)

Find the average power delivered to each of the two loads, the
apparent power supplied by the source, and the power factor of
the combined loads.

Pavg2 = 288 W
Pavg1 = 144 W
Papp = S = 720 VA
PF = 0.6 (lagging)

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 14

 Apparent Power & Power Factor

Power factor can also be defined as:

average power Pavg

PF = =
apparent power Veff I eff

which leads us to a graphical depiction of Complex Power.

Complex Power

Complex power is the product of the rms voltage phasor and the
complex conjugate of the rms current phasor. As a complex
quantity, its real part is real power P (watts) and its imaginary
part is reactive power Q (vars).

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 15

 Complex Power

• The real part of S is P, the

average power.
• The imaginary part of S
is Q, the reactive power,
which represents the flow
of energy back and forth
from the source (utility
company) to the 1
inductors and capacitors S = P + jQ = VI * = Vrms I rms∠θv − θi
2
of the load (customer). *
= VrmsI rms
2
2 Vrms
S = I rms Z=
Z*

Complex Power Triangle

S IZI
Q X

θ θ
P R

Power triangle Impedance triangle

P R
pf = cos θ = =
S Z

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 16

 Complex Power - Summary
Real (Average) power:
P = Re(S) = S cos(θ v − θi ) Watts
Reactive power:
Q = Im(S) = S sin(θ v − θi ) VAR

Apparent power:
S = S = Vrms I rms = P 2 + Q 2 VA
Complex power:
S = P + jQ = VRMS I * RMS VA
• Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity power factor).
• Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading power factor).
• Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging power factor).

Example: Power Factor

Calculate the power factor of the circuit below as seen by the

source. What is the average power supplied by the source?

pf = 0.936 (lagging)
PAVG = 118W

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 17

 Example: Apparent Power and Power Factor
• A series connected RC load draws a current of
i (t ) = 4 cos(100πt + 10° ) A
when the applied voltage is
v(t ) = 120 cos(100πt − 20° )V
• Find the apparent power and the power factor of the load.
Determine the element values that form the load.

S = 240 V
pf = 0.866 (leading)
C = 212.2µF
R = 26.0Ω

Complex Power

Splitting the current phasor Ieff into in-phase and out-of-phase

components is another way of visualizing the complex power.

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 18

 Complex Power

Complex powers to loads add:

S = VI* = V(I1 + I2 )* = V(I1* + I*2 ) = S1 + S2

Power Factor Correction

• The process of increasing the power factor without
altering the voltage or current to the original load is known
as power factor correction.
• Most loads are inductive. The power factor of the load can
be improved (to make it closer to unity) by installing a
capacitor in parallel with an inductive load.

a) Original inductive load b) Inductive load with

improved power factor

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 19

 Power Factor Correction Capacitors

Power Factor Correction Capacitors

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 20

 Power Factor Correction by Power Triangle
The triangle below shows that the reactive power (Q1) in a
large inductive load can be reduced by an amount (QC) by
adding a capacitor in parallel to the load.

Q1 = Ptanθ1
Q2 = Ptanθ2
QC = Q1 – Q2
= P(tan θ1 – tan θ2)
P = S1cosθ1

Power Factor Correction by Power Triangle

• But QC is also the amount of reactive power the
capacitor must provide
2
Vrms 2
QC = = ωCVrms
XC
• The value of required shunt
capacitance is then:

QC P(tan θ1 − tan θ2 )
C= 2
= 2
ωVrms ωVrms

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 21

 Example: PF Correction #1

When connected to a 120 VRMS, 60Hz power line, a load

absorbs 4kW at a lagging power factor of 0.8. Find the value
of capacitance necessary to raise the pf to 0.95.

C = 310.4µF

Example: PF Correction #2

Find the value of parallel capacitance needed to correct a

load of 140kVAR at 0.85 lagging pf to unity pf. Assume that
the load is supplied by a 110VRMS, 60Hz line.

C = 30,691µF

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 22

 Textbook Problem 11.46 Hayt 7E

The load below draws 10 kVA at a PF = 0.8 lagging. If the

magnitude of the load current IL = 40ARMS, what must be the
value of C to cause the source to operate at a PF = 0.9 lagging?

C = 79.48µF

Textbook Problem 11.52 Hayt 7E

A source of 230 VRMS is supplying three loads in parallel:

1.2kVA at a lagging PF of 0.8, 1.6kVA at a lagging PF of 0.9,
and 900W at unity PF. Find
(a) The amplitude of the source current.
(b) The PF at which the source is operating.
(c) The complex power being furnished by the source.

(a) IS = 15.62 A rms

(b) PFS = 0.9188
(c) S = 3300 + j1417 VA

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 23

 Maximum Power Transfer

An independent voltage source in series with an impedance Zth

delivers a maximum average power to that load impedance ZL
when it is the conjugate of Zth.

ZL = Zth*

Maximum Power Transfer Derivation

First, solve for the load power:

| Vth |2 RL
1
2
=
(Rth + RL )2 + (X th + X L )2

Clearly, P is largest when XL+Xth=0.

Solving dP/dRL=0 will show that RL=Rth.

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 24

 Maximum Average Power Transfer

• In rectangular form, the Thevenin impedance and Load

impedance are:
Z Th = R Th + jX Th
Z L = R L + jX L

• For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance

ZL must be equal to the complex conjugate of the Thevenin
impedance ZTh.

Z L = R L + jX L = R Th − jX Th = Z*Th
Z L = Z*Th

Maximum Average Power Transfer

• When ZL = Z*TH, the maximum power delivered to the load

can be shown to be

V 2TH , RMS
Pmax =
4 RTh

• If the load is purely resistive, then the value of RL that

maximizes PL is the magnitude of the Thevenin impedance.
• Note that the 4 factor in the denominator above becomes 8 if
the voltage is expressed as an average or peak value.

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 25

 Example: Maximum Average Power #1

Determine the load impedance ZL that maximizes the average

power drawn from the circuit below. Calculate the maximum
average power.

Z L = Z *Th = 2.9333 − j 4.4667Ω

Pmax = 2.3675W

Example: Maximum Average Power #2

Find the load impedance ZL that absorbs the maximum

average power for the circuit shown below. Calculate the
maximum average power.

Z L = Z *Th = 3.415 − j 0.7317Ω

Pmax = 1.429W

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 26

 Chapter 10 Summary

• Understand the following ac power concepts, their

relationships to one another, and how to calculate them in
a circuit:
• Instantaneous power;
• Average (real) power;
• Root Mean Squared (RMS) value;
• Reactive power;
• Complex power;
• Power factor; and
• Power factor correction.
• Understand the condition for maximum real power
delivered to a load in an AC circuit and be able to
calculate the load impedance required to deliver maximum
real power to the load.

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Nilsson 9E 27