Digital to Analog Converter

Six Main parameter should be considered when choosing DAC for Particular Project
• Reference Voltage
• Resolution
• Linearity (Relationship between output voltage and digital signal)
• Speed
• Settling Time
• Error
Most Digital to Analog Converter is in 12-18-bit range.

Types of DAC
There are three types of DAC
• N-bit Binary Weighted Resistor
• R-2R Ladder
• PWM DAC
Errors
(a) Gain Error – Slope deviation from ideal gain
(b) Offset Error
(c) Full Scale Error -combination of both gain and offset
(d) Non-Linearity Error - due to fact that resolution of converter is not constant
(e) Settling time and overshoot
(f) Resolution Error
 Analog to Digital Converter
Types of ADC
(a) Flash ADC
(b) Dual slope ADC
(c) Successive Approximation ADC
(d) Sigma Delta ADC

ADC Pros Cons

Dual Slope • Conversion result is insensitive to errors in the • Slow
A/D Converter component values. • Accuracy is dependent on the use of
• Fewer adverse effects from “noise” precision external components
• High Accuracy • Cost
Flash A/D • Very Fast (Fastest) • Expensive
Converter • Very simple operational theory Speed is only • Prone to produce glitches in the
limited by gate and comparator propagation output
delay • Each additional bit of resolution
requires twice the comparators
SIGMA- • High Resolution • Slow due to over sampling
DELTA A/D • No need for precision components • Only good for low bandwidth
Converter
Successive • Capable of high speed and reliable • Higher resolution Successive
Approximation • Medium accuracy compared to other ADC approximation ADC’s will be slower
A/D Converter types • Speed limited to ~5Msps
• Good tradeoff between speed and cost
• Capable of outputting the binary number in
serial (one bit at a time) format
ADC Errors and Parameters
Static Parameter: Gain Error, Offset Error, Full Scale Error, Linear Error
Dynamic Parameter: SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio), Total Harmonic Distortion, Effective
no of Bits
a) Input Voltage Range:
Analog Input Range from +Vref to -Vredf.
ADC Occupy both positive and negative called Bipolar
ADC Occupy only Positive is called Unipolar
b) Resolution
Three Bit ADC have resolution of Vref /8
c) Quantization
Max quantization error of 1LSB can be reduced to +/- 0.5LSB
d) Offset Error
Offset error is defined as shift of actual ADC transfer function from perfect
ADC transfer function at the point zero to transition measure in LSB
e) Gain Error
Gain Error is defined as deviation of last step midpoint of actual ADC from
last step midpoint of ideal ADC after compensation for offset error.
Measured and compensated by scaling output value
f) Full Scale Error
It is deviation of last transition (full scale transition) of actual ADC from the
last transition of perfect ADC measured in LSB or Volts
g) Non-Linearity Error
Non-Linearity ADC may cause actual curve to deviate slightly from perfect curve.
There are two types of non-linearity
• Differential Non-Linearity (DNL)
DNL is defined as Max and Min difference in step width between actual
transfer function and perfect transfer function. Non-Linearity produces
quantization step with varying width. Some are narrower, some wider DNL
= +/- 0.5LSB
• Integral Non-Linearity (INL)
defined as maximum vertical difference between actual and ideal curve
ADC Timing Parameter
a) Startup Time
b) Sample and Hold Time
c) Sample Rate
Over Sampling
Over Sampling is a process of sampling the analog input signal at a sampling rate
significantly higher than Nyquist Sample rate.
Advantages: Avoid Aliasing Problem
Increasing Resolution of ADC
Improve SNR
Open-Loop Voltage Gain.
Voltage gain is defined as the ratio of output voltage to an input signal voltage

Large Signal Voltage Gain

Ratio of the max allowable output voltage swing signal required to produce swing of ± V

Slew rate.
The slew rate is the maximum rate at which the output voltage of an opamp can change
and is measured in terms of voltage change per unit of time. It varies from 0.5 V/:s to 35
V/:s. Slew rate is usually measured in the unity gain noninverting amplifier configuration.

Common Mode Rejection Ratio.

A common mode voltage is one that is presented simultaneously to both inverting and
noninverting inputs. In an ideal opamp, the output signal due to the common mode input
voltage is zero, but it is nonzero in a practical device. The common mode rejection ratio
(CMRR) is the measure of the device's ability to reject common mode signals and is
expressed as the ratio of the differential gain to the common mode gain. The higher the
CMRR is, the better the device is deemed to be.

Input Offset Voltage.

The dc voltage that must be applied at the input terminal to force the dc output voltage to
zero. The output of an ideal opamp is zero when there is no input signal applied to it.

Power-supply rejection ratio.

PSRR is defined as the ratio of the change in supply voltage to the equivalent (differential)
output voltage it produces. Generally, express in dB. If the supply of an op amp changes,
its output should not.

Input Bias Current.

The average of the currents into the two input terminals with the output at zero volts.

Input Offset Current.

The difference between the currents into the two input terminals with the output held at
zero.
Differential Input Impedance.
The resistance between the inverting and the noninverting inputs. This value is typically
very high1 MS
Common-mode Input Impedance
The impedance between the ground and the input terminals, with the input terminals tied
together. This is a large value, of the order of several tens of MS

Output Impedance.
The output resistance is typically less than 100 Ohms.
Bandwidth, (BW)
An ideal operational amplifier has an infinite frequency response and can amplify any
frequency signal from DC to the highest AC frequencies, so it is therefore assumed to
have an infinite bandwidth. With real op-amps, the bandwidth is limited by the Gain-
Bandwidth product (GB), which is equal to the frequency where the amplifiers gain
becomes
Settling Time
Settling time is defined as time required for output voltage to settle within the specified
error band to final value with step change in input

Characteristics of Ideal Op-Amp

a) Infinite Input Impedance, no bias current
b) Zero Output Impedance
c) Arbitrarily large Input and Output Voltage Range
d) Small Supply current and Voltage
e) Infinite Operating Bandwidth
f) Infinite Open Loop Gain
g) Zero Input Offset Voltage and Current
h) Zero Noise Contribution
i) Absolute Insensitive to temp, power rail and common mode input fluctuations
j) Perfect Reliability
k) Infinite CMRR – Common Mode Rejection Ratio
l) Infinite PSRR – Power supply Rejection ratio
Operational Amplifier Selection Criteria
• High Freq Ac Amplifier will need max gain bandwidth product, but will not
interested in bias current or offset voltage
• Battery Powered Circuit will want best of all parameter but at min supply voltage
and current
• Consumer design will need to minimize the cost, but can sacrifices technical
performance
• Precision Instrumentation amplifier will need minimum offset and noise but can
sacrifice Speed and Cost
Qualities of Good Manager
Good Manager Totally Focus on the aims and strategic goals of the organization.
Competent enough, be willing to constantly evolve and develop and set good
example to team. Need to be professional, adaptable, decisive and good
communicator and listener, be firm when required. Fair Supportive, visionary
and be strategic in thinking

Motivate team Member

- Creating a Pleasant Environment for Team Members
- Giving Opportunities to the team members to learn new skills
- Encouraging the members by valuing their suggestions
- Making sure each team members is happy and working with a positive attitude
- Supporting the team member to try again If they have made a mistake

Conflict Management
Performance evaluation of underperformed reportee.
- Does the employee really understand my expectations?
- Is their something outside their control effecting the performance?
- Does employee know that they are not meeting expectations?
- Am I somehow contributing the problem?

What do you like about Managing People?

Everybody is different therefore as a manager we must adopt coaching and motivational
skills to suit each person within my team.
I enjoy carrying out regular appraisals with my staff to find their strength and weakness,
what they need to perform best of their abilities and holding them accountable.
I would also set deadlines and make my team stick to them. I feel that by applying
deadlines team will develop sprit to complete work in timelines
I also think it is very important to reward and praised staff when they work well.
For proper team management I like to focus on
- Identify the problem
- Resolve the Issue
- Motivate the team
- Focus on Priorities and Team Goal
- Minimize the Cost
- Maximize the team Efficiency
- Implement the company policies

Skill Set Check in interview

- Experiences related to current opening
- Communication skills, Reliable
- Teamwork, Problem Solver
- Flexibility, Competence
Tell me about a time when you made a quick decision with limited information
In a previous role, I was often required to make quick decision without much information
to hand. One situation involved a client requesting important changes to a project we
were working on and they needed an answer quickly.
Since were in Proto C Phase, so any changes will directly impact our complete
EMI/EMC Cycle. Then I took after considering all factor the top risk which may be
impacted and perform some quick simulation provided the feedback to customer along
with the impacts of changes.
Tell me about a time you handled a crisis?
In my previous organization, management asked me to travel to Mexico for Sample Built,
since the Technical lead not able to get VISA. I was handling other program, but I took
that as an opportunity and after two days Knowledge transfer. But when I received the
first Board for Board Bring up testing, I found the there are some functionalities are
misbehaving. Since I was new to that program, I was not sure whether there is issue in
Testing Script or actual hardware. I need to give approval related to whether to postpone
the assembly which is impact both cost and timeline. So, I dig down to component level
and worked along with my India team and US team, spend 2 days in plant itself. Finally,
we can figure out that there in issue in PCB Bare board, where internal track short by via.
I presented the Risk with our management team, that we can go with this built and inform
the customer accordingly the known issue in the board.
What do you dislike the most about leadership and management?
When I was new to my previous organization, one thinks I dislike that when the
completion of my task or project is dependent on external stakeholders. Even though I
completed everything on time, but it took lot of time for approval and my timeline got
delayed.
Later I have developed strong interpersonal skills and persuasion technique to get
external stakeholders and organizations to help me achieve my managerial aims and
objectives
If you are successful at interview today what the first thing you will do as newly
appointed manager?
If I am successful and I get to become, I plan three things within the first few weeks of
training. First and foremost, I will obtain a clear brief from my senior managers to
understand exactly how I can hep the company strategically meets its goals and targets.
Secondly, I will get to know my team inside out. I plan to carry out in-depth appraisals
with each member of staff to find out how thy contribute to the team and the wider
organizational objective within their role.
Finally, I will brief the team fully on my expectations in respect of the performance I expect
and reiterate the goals and targets we will be working towards. It will them be my task
to manager, lead and motivate the team.
Good Morning, Myself Ravinder Rajawat. I am Currently Located at Pune. I have done
my Master in Power Electronics in the year 2005

I was associated with Magneti Marelli, as a Hardware Manager leading hardware

development activity for Cluster, Body control Module for French and Italian OEM.
Prior to this I was associated with Cummins as a Technical Specialist Leading Hardware
development activities for Engine ECU, EV Inverter, OBC, DC-DC Converter and
Wireless Connectivity for US Customer.

I am having in total 15 Years of Hardware Design including 6 years of International

Experience

As a Hardware Leader I am responsible to manage all design, development and testing

activities right from concept till mass production as per company development cycle.

I perform all design activities, resource management, Hardware scheduling in MS project.

Issue and Risk tracking at JIRA Tool, coordinate with OEMs and cross functional team,

I perform analysis of system level requirement available at DOORS and prepared

Hardware Architecture diagram, Hardware Software Interface document, Schematic,
creating test plan for both functional as well as EMC and perform DFMEA

I do analyze Functional Safety Requirement FSR, Technical Safety requirement TSR and
implement then in design as per ISO26262. Perform FMEDA (Failure mode and
Diagnostics Analysis).

I also do analysis like Worst Case to analyze how variations in parameters influence
circuit performance using Mathcad tool, behavior Simulation using SPICE tool. Support
Thermal Engineer to simulate temperature rise of each component in that system.

I also perform all kind of review like Design Gate Review, PCB Layout Reviews,
Mechanical Constraint Review, DFM /DFA Review, Customer Review.

I perform all testing activities including Board Bring up, circuit Verification, EMI/EMC
certification testing and debugging failures, environmental testing and designing
Simulated Load Box for testing

I also perform Root Cause Analysis using 7Step process, Six Sigma DMAIC or 8D
Method, and perform Risk Analysis and Prepare mitigation plan accordingly.

I also perform BOM Optimization & Cost Reduction, component obsoletion management
by provide alternate component and support production and sourcing team.

I also Lead Benchmarking and VAVE activities (Value Analysis and Value Engineering)