Module 5:

UNIT 2: CROP WATER REQUIREMENT &CANAL SYSTEMS FOR IRRIGATION

ENGAGE
Farmers are far more experts than engineers in terms of knowing how much and how
often farms need watering. State what you think about how a farmer, compared to an
engineer, would estimate crop water requirement.

EXPLORE
Read: Module on crop water requirement

EXPLAIN

The water requirement of crops refers to the water they need in order to thrive. In the
previous unit, it was stated that most plants only utilize up to 5% of water that they
absorb and the 95% is transpired. Therefore, the rate of evapotranspiration becomes a
very conservative estimate of a crop’s water needs.

The water need of a crop is usually

expressed as mm/day, mm/month or
mm/season. Water need not be applied
each day. As illustrated in the figure, a
larger amount of water may be applied
once in a few days and it gets stored in
the crop root zone where the plant is
able to extract water. After irrigation, the
rate of water withdrawal decreases as
the soil moisture depletes until it is
irrigated again.

For each crop, we need to be able to measure its evapotranspiration rate in any of the
methods that were discussed in hydrology such as field measurements (lysimeters,
evaporation pans) and empirical formulas (Blanney-Criddle, Penman-Monteith
methods).

Since the same crop grown in different climatic variations have different water needs, it
has been accepted to evaluate the evapotranspiration rate for a standard or
reference crop and find out that of all other crops in terms of this reference. Grass has
been chosen as standard reference for this purpose. The evapotranspiration rate of this

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 standard grass is, therefore, called the reference crop evapotranspiration and is
denoted as ETO, which is a function of climatic variables.
ETO represents the maximum evapotranspiration rate that can occur however for each
crop, it may vary due to growth stage, leaf coverage, duration of crop period, etc.
which is why this is converted to ETC by multiplying ETO with crop coefficient KC.

Crop Coefficient KC for different crops

Browse through the table. What do

you observe?

This list does not include rice, even if it

is a very common crop due to its
peculiar need for water, that is,
abundant throughout its growth
stage.

The crop growth stage is divided into

four: initial, crop development, mid-
season and late season stages.
Depending on location, some crops
require a short duration and other
long duration of crop period.

Almost all crops, requires the most

amount of water during their mid-
season stage and least at their initial
growth stage.

Calculation of crop water need using the crop factor:

1. Estimate the duration of the various growth stages.

2. Indicate the ETO values at the various growth stages.
3. Estimate the crop coefficient/ factor KC for the various growth stages.
4. Estimate the crop water need on the specified time basis (daily, weekly, etc.)

Example. If we want to compute for the water requirement of potato during its initial
stage of growth given KC=0.45 and an ETO = 9mm/day.

𝐸𝑇 𝐾 𝐸𝑇 0.45 4.05 𝑚𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦 If for 25 days, 𝐸𝑇 101.25 𝑚𝑚

If the actual field area was, then we can determine the volume of water required for a
command area over the growth stage.

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 There is also a need to regulate how often to water crops so that it does not need to be
done every day. This is what we refer to as watering interval and is quite simple to do.

The Simple Calculation Method

 to determine the irrigation schedule/ interval

1. Use the tables below to determine where a particular crop belongs to. Identify
first whether it is shallow, medium or a deep rooting crop.
Approximate Root Depth of field crops (cm)
Shallow rooting crops Crucifers (cabbage, cauliflower), celery, lettuce, onions, lettuce,
(30 – 60 cm) pineapple, potatoes, spinach, etc.
Medium rooting crops Bananas, beans, beets, carrots, clover, cacao, cucumber,
(50 – 100 cm) groundnuts, palm trees, peas, pepper, soybeans, tobacco, tomatoes
Deep rooting crops Alfalfa, barley, citrus, cotton, dates, deciduous orchards, flax, grapes,
(90 – 150 cm) maize, melons, oats, olives, sweet potatoes, sugarcane

2. Estimate the net and gross irrigation depth in mm.

Approximate Net Irrigation depth, 𝒅𝑵𝑬𝑻 (mm)
Shallow rooting crops Medium rooting crops Deep rooting crops
Shallow and/or sandy soil 15 30 40
Loamy soil 20 40 60
Clayey soil 30 50 70

100 𝑥 𝑑
The gross depth of irrigation is computed by: 𝑑
𝑒
Field Application Efficiency, 𝐞𝐚

Surface irrigation 60%

Sprinkler irrigation 75%
Drip Irrigation 90%

The gross irrigation depth (d gross), in mm, takes into account the water loss
during the irrigation application

3. Calculate the irrigation water need (crop water requirement) in mm over the
total growing season.

4. Calculate the number of irrigation applications over the total growing season by
dividing the crop water requirement (for the total growth season) by the net
irrigation depth:
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑑

5. Calculate the irrigation interval in days by dividing the total number of growth
season in days by the answer in step 4.

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 Example. The table below gives the details on the growth period of tomatoes, grown on
loamy soil, and utilizes surface irrigation.

Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY

ETO (mm/day) 4.0 5.0 5.8 6.3 6.8 7.1 6.5
Duration of growing period = 150 days
Planting Date: Feb. 1 (direct sowing)
Planting Date Feb.1
Initial Stage (Kc = 0.45) Feb. 1 to Mar. 5
Crop Dev’t Stage (Kc = 0.75) Mar. 6 to Apr.15
Mid-season Stage (Kc = 1.15) Apr.16 to June 5
Late Season Stage (Kc = 0.80) June 6 to June 30
Last Day of Harvest June 30

Estimate the monthly crop water requirement and use the Simple Calculation Method
to determine the water interval required for tomatoes.

Following the step-by-step procedure,

1. Tomatoes are medium rooting crops

2. For medium-rooting crops in loamy soil, 𝑑 40 𝑚𝑚

𝑑 66.6667 𝑚𝑚
%

3. To estimate crop water requirement, we first tabulate the given data to visualize
𝐸𝑇 against growing period against crop coefficient. Take note that there is a
monthly reading of 𝐸𝑇 as these are regularly monitored hydrologic data similar
to rainfall readings, wind speeds, etc. in this manner we are able to see that
water requirement vary with growth stage and that certain days overlap the
next month where 𝐸𝑇 has changed. In order to use the formula for 𝐸𝑇 , the crop
coefficient 𝐾 should correspond to the monthly 𝐸𝑇 .

FEB MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE

𝐸𝑇 , mm/day 5.0 5.8 6.3 6.8 7.1
Growing period
35 days 40 days 50 days 25 days
𝐾 per growth stage Kc = 0.45 Kc = 0.75 Kc = 1.15 Kc = 0.80

To do this, we adjust 𝐾 by weighted average per month. The solution is

tabulated below:

*It is important to note that 𝐾 for the

FEB 𝐾 0.45*
months of February and May are
5 25 retained. This is because the whole
MAR 𝐾 0.45 0.75 0.70 month is inclusive of a specific growth
30 30

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 15 15 season whereas two growth seasons fall
APR 𝐾 0.75 1.15 0.95
30 30 on the other months.
MAY 𝐾 1.15* **Rounding off of the adjusted 𝐾 are
upon your discretion but for uniformity,
we will retain unitl 2 decimal places.
5 25 **Notice also that in the calculations, it
JUNE 𝐾 1.15 0.80 0.86
30 30 is assumed that each month of the year
is of 30 days.

In this new tabulation, we can apply the formula 𝐸𝑇𝐶 𝐾𝐶 𝐸𝑇𝑂 to estimate
the daily water requirement and then multiply this by 30 days to compute the
monthly water requirement. The sum of the monthly water 𝐸𝑇𝐶 is referred to as
the total water requirement over the crop period.

FEB MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE

𝐸𝑇 , mm/day 5.0 5.8 6.3 6.8 7.1
Adjusted 𝐾 per month  𝐾 0.45 𝐾 0.70 𝐾 0.95 𝐾 1.15 𝐾 0.86
𝐸𝑇 mm/ day 2.3 4.1 6.0 7.8 6. 1
𝐸𝑇 mm/ month 69 123 180 234 183
TOTAL 𝐸𝑇𝐶  mm for 150 days  789 mm

4. Number of applications
789 𝑚𝑚
𝑁 19.725 20 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
40 𝑚𝑚
5. So for the computed the number of applications, it means that in the 150-
day crop period, we should irrigate every
150 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
7.5 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
20 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

To be on the safe side, the interval days are usually rounded down.

In conclusion, tomatoes shall be watered at least 40mm of water every 7 days

throughout the 150-day growth period. This method is just a guide to regulate watering
activities so that farmers can allot their time in doing other activities other than tending
to the crops. Following a schedule also ensures that water is available for the plants at
all times. The number of days can also be readjusted depending on when the actual
cropping was done. If rain is already present, then the irrigation water requirement must
be reduced. Further, it is possible to obtain irrigation intervals that may cause under
irrigation in the peak period due to higher water demand in a crop’s later growth
stage. To ensure that the crop does not suffer from undue water shortage, it is possible
to refine the simple calculation solution by basing the interval on the peak period only
and combining this with the original solution. Say for the month of April and May, a
𝐾 1.15 may be more suitable to use since for half-the month of April, the adjusted
𝐾 0.95 but it requires a 𝐾 1.15.

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 Other general irrigation equations that are used are:

𝑪𝑰𝑹 𝑼𝑪 𝑷𝒆𝒇𝒇
Crop Irrigation Requirement, 𝑪𝑰𝑹
 Portion of the Consumptive Use Where: 𝑈 = consumptive use in m/yr
that must be supplied by irrigation 𝑃 = effective precipitation data (i.e. AAR)

𝑼𝑪 𝑷𝒆𝒇𝒇 𝑪𝑰𝑹
𝒒𝒇
Farm Delivery Requirements, 𝒒𝒇 𝟏 𝑳𝒇 𝟏 𝑳𝒇
 water required for irrigation in Where: 𝐿 = Farm Losses due to:
m/yr 1. deep seepage (less than 5%)
2. surface runoff (should not exceed 5%)
*percolation (15 to 50% of applied water)

𝑪𝑰𝑹
𝑪𝑰𝑹
Farm Irrigation Efficiency, 𝒒𝒇
𝒒𝒇
 Average efficiency ranges from 40 to 60%
 Under favorable conditions, above 80% is possible.
𝒒𝒇
𝑸𝑫 𝒒𝒔 + 𝒒𝒇
𝟏 𝑳𝑪
Diversion Requirement, 𝑸𝑫 Where:𝑞 = flow to supplement conveyance losses
 Total flow requirement 𝑞 = farm delivery requirement
𝐿 = conveyance losses in decimal percentage

Conveyance Losses*, 𝑳𝑪 1. Evaporation (in open conveyance system)

2. Transpiration (by vegetation along canal
*Total Losses range between 15 to banks)
30% and can be eliminated by 3. Seepage (in unlined conveyance system)
using a pipe system. Cost 4. Operational wastes (i.e. leakage, losses from
optimization should be overflow and breakage of canals)  should
considered. be less than 5%

Losses in irrigation affect its

efficiency in delivering water to
the command area. The figure
shows that for conventional
irrigation channels, much water
is lost through evaporation,
seepage and outflows during
high velocity flow. Generally,
only about 50% of the water
applied reaches the command
area.

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 A typical irrigation layout

Headworks

Main 
Channel

Branch 
Channels

Major 
DIstributaries

Minor 
Distributaries
 

Conventional canal layout of irrigation systems move water from the

• Headworks  At the diversion structure

• Main channel  No direct irrigation/ cultivation, feeder channel to branches

• Branch/ secondary channels  Carry a discharge higher than 5 cumecs, feeder

channel for distributaries

• Major and minor distributaries/ tertiary channels  Carry 0.25 to 5 cumecs, feeds
minor distributaries or water courses

• Minor distributaries  Carry less than 0.25 cumecs

Points to be noted on the layout of a canal

 As far as possible, curves should be avoided in the alignment of canals because

the curves lead to disturbance of flow and a tendency to silt on the inner bend
and scour the toe of the outer (concave) bend. However, if curves have to be
provided; they should be as gentle as possible.

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  Further, the permissible minimum radius of curvature for a channel curve is
shorter for lined canals than unlined ones and is shorter for small cross sections
than for large cross sections of canals.

 The alignment should be such that the cutting and filling of earth or rock should
be balanced, as far as possible.

 The alignment should be such that the canal crosses the natural stream at its
narrowest point in the vicinity.

In order to finalize the layout of canal network for an irrigation project, the alignment of
channels should be marked on topo-sheets, until an optimum is reached. This alignment
is then transferred to the field by fixing marking posts along the centerline of the canal.

Lining of Irrigation canals

1. Earth Linings
• Stabilized earth linings: Here, the sub-grade is stabilized using either clay
for granular sub-grade or by adding chemicals that compact the soil.
• Loose earth blankets: Fine grained soil is laid on the sub-grade and evenly
spread. However, this type of lining is prone to erosion, and requires a
flatter side slopes of canal.
• Compacted earth linings: Here the graded soil containing about 15
percent clay is spread over the sub-grade and compacted.
• Buried bentonite membranes: Bentonite is a special type of clay soil,
found naturally, which swell considerably when wetted. Buried bentonite
linings for canals are constructed by spreading soil-bentonite mixtures
over the sub-grade and covering it with gravel or compacted earth.
• Soil-cement lining: Here, cement and sandy soil are mixed and then
compacted at optimum moisture content or cement and soil is machine
mixed with water and then laid.

2. Concrete lining
• gives very satisfactory service, frequently high in
their initial cost, long life and minimum
maintenance make them economical.

• best suited for main canals which carry large

quantities of water at high velocities a firm
foundation is essential for avoiding any possibility of
cracking due to foundation settlement

• Expansive clay soils should be avoided and proper

moisture and density control of the sub grade soil should be maintained while
lining where the ground water table is likely to rise above the invert level of the

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 lining and cause undue uplift pressure, drains are laid below the lining to release
the water and relieve the pressure

• generally, a thickness of about 5 to 12 cm is generally adopted for larger canals

and stable side slopes are considered to be between 1.5H: 1V to 1.25H: 1V.

• Reinforcement to the extent of 0.1 to 0.4 percent of the area in longitudinal

direction and 0.1 to 0.2 percent of the area in the transverse direction reduces
width of the shrinkage cracks, thereby reducing seepage.

3. Shotcrete lining
• Shotcrete, that is, cement mortar in the ratio of
1 cement to 4 sand proportions through a
pump-pipe-nozzle system on the surface of the
channel.

• Wire mesh reinforcement is generally, though

not necessarily, is clamped to the channel
surface (as for a rocky excavation) before
applying shotcrete.

• Equipment units used for shotcrete construction are relatively small and easily
moved.

• convenient for lining small sections, for repair of old linings, and for placing linings
around curves or structures.

• Shotcrete linings are generally laid in a thickness of about 3.5cm

4. Brick or burnt clay tile lining precast concrete tile lining

• This type of lining is popular because of certain advantages like
non-requirement of skilled mason or rigid quality control.

• it is more labour intensive, it generates employment potential.

• Brick tiles can be plastered to increase the carrying capacity of

canal with same section and help in increasing the life span of
the lining

• a layer of tiles is laid over a layer of brick masonry. The top layer
is generally laid in 1:3 cement mortal over 15mm thick layer of
plaster in 1:3 cement plaster.

• The size of tiles is generally restricted to 30mm x 150mm x 53m. This type of lining is
stable even if there is settlement of foundation, since the mortar joint between

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 • bricks or tiles provides for numerous cracks so fine that seepage is insignificant.

5. Boulder Lining
• Also called dry stone lining or stone pitching, is used
for lining the earthen canal cross section, by proper
placement and packing of stones, either after
laying a filter layer over the soil surface or without
any such filter, depending upon the site
requirement.

• To reduce the resistance to flow, a 20 to 25mm

thick cement plaster is provided as a finishing surface. Stones are generally
placed on leveled sub-grade, and hand packed.

• This type of lining is of course suitable where stones of required specification are
available in abundance locally.

6. Others

Low density polyethylene lining Hot bitumen/ bituminous felt linings

Geoweb lining

Concrete canvas lining

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 Normal cultivation operations, such as tilling, ploughing, etc. cannot be easily carried
out in wet soils. In extreme cases, the free water may rise above the ground level
making agricultural operations impossible. This is called water logging Certain water
loving plants like grasses, weeds, etc. grow profusely and luxuriantly in water-logged
lands, thus affecting and interfering with the growth of the crops.

Water logging leads to a condition called salinity, which is caused when the capillary
fringe of the elevated water table rises within the root zone of plants. Since the roots of
the plants continuously draw water from this zone, there is a steady upward movement
of water which causes rise of salts, especially alkali salts, to come up to the ground
surface.

Design of Irrigation Channels

1. Select a suitable slope for the channel banks. These should be nearly equal to the
angle of repose of the natural soil in the subgrade so that no earth pressure is exerted
from behind on the lining.

2. Decide on the freeboard, which is the depth allowance by which the banks are
raised above the full supply level (FSL) of a canal. For channels of different discharge
carrying capacities, the values recommended for freeboard are given in the following
table:

3. Berms or horizontal strips of land provided at canal banks in deep cutting, have to be
incorporated in the section. The berms serve as a road for inspection vehicles and also
help to absorb any soil or
rock that may drop from the
cut-face of soil or rock of
the excavations. Berm width
may be kept at least 2m. If
vehicles are required to
move, then a width of at
least 5m may be provided.

4. For canal sections in filling, banks on either side have to be provided with sufficient
top width for movement of men or vehicles.

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 5. Assume a safe limiting velocity of flow, depending on the type of lining, as given
below:
• Cement concrete lining: 2.7 m/s
• Brick tile lining or burnt tile lining: 1.8 m/s
• Boulder lining: 1.5 m/s
6. Assume the appropriate values of flow friction coefficients

7. The longitudinal slope (S) of the canal may vary from reach to reach, depending
upon the alignment. The slope of each reach has to be evaluated from the alignment
of the canal drawn on the map of the region.

8. For the given discharge Q, permissible velocity V, longitudinal slope S, given side
slope , and Manning’s roughness coefficient, n, find out the cross section parameters of
the canal.
• Continuity equation: Q = A * V
• Dynamic equation: V = 1/n A R 2/3 S 1/2

ELABORATE
Try to work on the following problems:

1. Look up the data for onions in the table given above. Assume that onions
will be planted in sandy soil and water is applied by drip irrigation.
Determine the watering interval required for (a) a short duration crop
period and (b) a long duration crop period.

2. Assuming the annual consumptive use for cotton to be 2.6ft/yr and a

consumptive-use percentage of 18.3 in July, a farm efficiency of 53% and
conveyance loss of 22%, compute the monthly water requirement for a
160-acre farm. Assume the average monthly precipitation for July is 1.8
inches.

EVALUATE
After completing your problem set, exchange solutions with a classmate or two. Assess
each other’s work starting with the presentation. Comment on handwriting, format,
organization of your output and the basic quality of the output.

Is it complete? Did your classmate follow instructions? Next, go into the details of the
content. Was the problem copied completely? Is the sequence of the solution correct
or logical? Were the formulas effectively used in the solution?

Give your classmate a score out of 50. Make this activity constructive by giving your
classmate an honest assessment, and in the same way, respect their comments on your
work. Be kind… 

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