Spring Cylinder Model:

-Simple model which presents time-dependent deformation

-It is filled with saturated soil and has a frictionless watertight piston and valve

Fundamentals of -Variations in a clay layer drained at the top

and bottom as the result of an added stress:

Consolidation
CE 422

Spring Cylinder Model: Laboratory Consolidation Test:

-(ASTM D2435 / D2435M - 11 ) Standard Test Methods for One-Dimensional
Consolidation Properties of Soils Using Incremental Loading
-Equipment/apparatus:
- Consolidometer (oedometer)

Performed on an undisturbed sample of a cohesive soil

to determine its compressibility characteristics
(represents a soil layer in the ground)

Conducted over a number of load increments

(load increments expected to experience due to the
proposed construction)
Laboratory Consolidation Test:
Process:
1. Place sample in the ring
2. Apply load
3. Measure height of change
4. Repeat for new load (usually doubling the
previous increment)
Laboratory Consolidation Test:
= =
= − ∆ =
()
Laboratory Consolidation Test:
Assumptions:
-Load distribution is uniform
-Stress distribution (in diff. height) - the same
-No lateral deformation
-The area of the sample section – unchangeable
-Soil solid component - uncompressible
Void – Ratio Pressure Plots:
a. Determine the height of solids (Hs) of
the specimen in the mold
b. Determine the height of the voids (Hv)
c. Determine the initial void ratio
d. Determine the change in height (ΔH)
and compute change in void ratio (Δe1)
Determine the initial and final specimen
height, (Ht,(I and f))
e. Calculate the new void ratio
f. Repeat process d and e
− ∆ = −∆
( ) ∆ =
General Shape of the Deformation Curve: Compressibility Parameters:
Three Distinct Stages :
1. Compression Index, Cc
Stage 1: Initial Compression: caused mostly - slope of virgin consolidation curve
Stage 1 by preloading
sample:
Stage 2: Primary Consolidation: excess water
=
pressure is gradually transferred into
Stage 2 effective stress because of the expulsion of 2. Swelling Index, Cs
pore water
- slope of rebound curve
Stage 3: Secondary Consolidation: occurs
after complete dissipation of the excess pore sample:
water pressure, caused by plastic =
Stage 3
readjustment of soil fabric

Compressibility Parameters: Compressibility Parameters:

Process of determining preconsolidation pressure
*Normally Consolidated Clay – present effective overburden pressure (vertical
(Casagrande’s Method):
effective stress) is the maximum pressure that the soil was subjected to in the
past 1. By visual observation, establish point a, at which
the e-log σ’plot has a minimum radius of
*Overconsolidated – present effective overburden pressure is less than that
curvature.
which the soil experienced in the past
2. Draw a horizontal line ab.
3. Draw the line ac tangent at a.
3. Preconsolidation Pressure
4. Draw the line ad, which is the bisector of the
- maximum effective past pressure
angle bac.
5. Project the straight-line portion gh of the e-log
σ’ plot back to intersect line ad at f. The abscissa
of point f is the preconsolidation pressure, σc’
Compressibility Parameters: Problem:
The following are the results of a consolidation test on a sample of a clayey soil:
Overconsolidation Ration, OCR:
=

where:
= preconsolidation pressure
= present overburden pressure (vertical effective stress)

OCR for Overconsolidated Soil > 1 a. Plot the e – log σ’ curve

most OC soil have fairly high shear strength b. Using Casagrande’s method, determine the preconsolidation pressure.
OCR cannot have a value less than 1 c. Calculate the compression index, Cc

Correlations for Compression Index (CC): Correlations for Compression Index (CC):
Empirical expression of Skempton (1944): Park and Koumoto (2004):
= 0.009 − 10 where:
Rendon-Herrero (1983): = = , ℎ : =
371.747 − 4.275
1+
. =
= 0.141 . =
=
Nagaraj and Murty (1985):
%
= 0.2343
100
Cam Clay Model of Wroth and Wood (1978):
%
≈ 0.5
100
Kulhawy and Mayne (1990):
≈
74
 Correlations for Swell Index (CS): Primary Consolidation(SC):
CS is smaller in magnitude than CC: Normally Consolidated Clay: where:
1 1 C H σ + ∆σ = initial void ratio of the clay layer
≈ , S = log
5 10 1+e σ H = thickness of the clay layer
ℎ : =
= overburden pressure (vertical effective
Overconsolidated Clay: stress) at the middle of the clay layer
Nagaraj and Murty (1985): For: σ + ∆σ ≤ σ ∆ = uniformly distributed load at the
% CH σ + ∆σ ground surface
= 0.0463 S = log
100 1+e σ = preconsolidation pressure
= compression index
Cam Clay Model of Wroth and Wood (1978): For: σ + ∆σ > σ = swell index
≈ CH σ C H σ + ∆σ
370 S = log + log
1+e σ 1+e σ

Consider the soil profile shown in the figure

subjected to the uniformly distributed load,
Δσ, on the ground surface. Given Δσ = 26
kN/m2; H1 = 1.83m; H2 = 3.66m; and H3 =
5.5m. Soil characteristics are as follows:
*Sand: γd = 17.9 kN/m3; γsat = 18.5 kN/m3
*Clay: γsat = 18.3 kN/m3; LL = 38%; e = 0.73; Cs
= (1/5) Cc
Estimate the primary consolidation settlement
in the clay if:
a. The clay is normally consolidated
b. The preconsolidation pressure,
kN/m2
Problem: Secondary Consolidation(SS):
-After primary consolidation (complete
dissipation of excess pore water pressure)
-Settlement is observed that is due to
plastic adjustment of soil fabrics
-At this stage, the plot of deformation vs.
the log of time is practically linear
•Secondary Compression Index (C ):
∆e ∆e Where:
C = =
logt − logt t ∆e = change of void ratio
= 105 log
t t1 and t2 = sample time from the graph
Secondary Consolidation(SS): Consider the profile of a normally consolidated
soil shown in the figure subjected to the
Problem:
where: uniformly distributed load, Δσ, on the ground
Secondary Consolidation: e = void ratio at the end of the primary consolidation surface. Given Δσ = 85 kN/m2; H1 = 2m; H2 = 4m;
H = thickness of the clay layer and H3 = 6m. Soil characteristics are as follows:
= t1 = time for completion of primary settlement
t2 = time after completion of the primary settlement,
*Sand: e = 0.65; Gs = 2.66
where settlement is required *Clay: e = 0.98; LL = 54%; Gs = 2.74
and: For ep (from primary consolidation e.g NCC): Assume: Cα = 0.02
C H σ + ∆σ ∆eH
= S = log = Estimate the total settlement of the clay layer five
1+ 1+e σ 1+e
years after the completion of the primary
Thus
σ + ∆σ
settlement. (note: time for completion of
∆e = C log primary consolidation settlement is about 2
σ
years)
and
e = e − ∆e

Seatwork: Time Rate of Consolidation

A normally consolidated clay layer, 3m thick, has the following properties: Assumptions:
Initial void ration, eo = 0.8 1. The clay–water system is homogeneous.
Compression Index, Cc = 0.25 2. Saturation is complete.
3. Compressibility of water is negligible.
Average effective pressure, σ’o = 120 kPa
4. Compressibility of soil grains is negligible (but soil grains rearrange).
Expected pressure increase due to loading on ground surface = 40kPa
5. The flow of water is in one direction only (that is, in the direction of
Secondary compression index, Cα = 0.02 compression).
Time for completion of primary settlement = 1.5 years 6. Darcy’s law is valid.
What is the total settlement of the clay layer five years after the completion of
primary consolidation settlement?
Time Rate of Consolidation Time Rate of Consolidation
Time Factor, Tv: where: Approximately:
H = average drainage path during
= consolidation * for U = 0 to 60%
= for specimens drained at both top and %
Degree of Consolidation (U) at a distance z: bottom, equals one-half the average height =
4 100
of the specimen during consolidation
Any time t: * for U > 60%
cv = coefficient of consolidation
=1− t = time = 1.781 − 0.933 log (100 − U%)
uz = excess pore water pressure at time t
Average degree of consolidation at any time: ( ) = settlement of the layer at time t
or for variations, use Table 11.7
( ) = ultimate settlement of the layer from
= primary consolidation

Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation

Methods in determining cv:
* Logarithm-of-Time Method
* Square-Root-of-Time Method
* Hyperbola Method
Calculation of Consolidation Settlement under a Foundation Refer to the figure. A square footing, 2 x 2
m in size, supports a column load of 300
kN. The soil characteristics are given in
Assumption: the figure. Field monitoring indicated that
- pressure increase parabolically the foundation settlement was 19 mm
during the first 12 months.
Simpson’s Rule to estimate ∆ (weighted average method): a. Estimate the average stress increase in
∆ + 4∆ + ∆ the clay layer due to the applied load.
∆ =
6 b. Estimate the primary consolidation
settlement.
where: c. What is the degree of consolidation
∆ , ∆ , and ∆ = increase in the effective pressure at the top, middle and bottom of after 12 months?
the layer
d. Estimate the coefficient of
consolidation for the pressure range.

Problem

Differential Settlement:

S1 θ S2
ΔS
L

∆
= ≤ 0.002 ( )
Note: if > 0.002, then provide tie beam