By, Dhayananth, Naveen & Sakthi 1

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 Properties of stone
 Uses of stone in building construction
 Deterioration of stone buildings
 Reasons for deterioration

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 Stone  Rock
› a natural, hard › the portion of the
substance formed earth’s crust having
from minerals and no definite shape
earth material and structure
which are present in
rocks.

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To qualify as a construction material, stone should have
the following qualities:

 Strength
› shear strength =1/10 of compressive strength
 Hardness
› flooring, paving, & stair treads
 Durability
› Resistance to weathering effects of rain, wind, heat, &
frost action
 Workability
› hardness & grain texture – allow to be quarried, cut &
shaped
 Density
› porosity affects ability to withstand frost action &
staining
 Appearance
› colour, grain, and texture
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 1. Talc, easily scratched with the thumb-nail
2. Gypsum, scratched by the thumb-nail
3. Calcite, not scratched by thumb-nail but easily cut by knife

Hardness
4. Fluorite, can be cut by knife with greater difficulty than calcite
5. Apatite, can be cut only with difficulty by knife
6. Orthoclase, can be cut w/ knife w/ great difficulty on thin edges
7. Quartz, not scratched by steel, scratches glass
8. Topaz
9. Sapphire
10. Diamond

 Porosity of Stones
› 24-hours Water Absorption of Stones by Volume
Density

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 Rubble  Flagstone  Crushed stone
› consists of rough › refers to flat stone › used as aggregate
fragments of slabs used for in concrete
broken stone that flooring and products
have at least one horizontal
good face for surfacing
exposure in a wall

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 Dimension stone
› quarried and squared
stone 2’ or more in
length and width and
of specified thickness,
used commonly for
wall panels, cornices,
copings, lintels and
flooring.

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 Argillite
 Granite
 Limestone
 Travertine
 Marble
 Serpentine
 Sandstone
 Slate Rock

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Type Argillite Granite
igneous origin, hard, strong, durable
formed from clay, dark blue and capable of taking high pressure
Nature
with faint shades of green polish. Red, pink, yellow, green, blue,
white and brown
• floor tile • Flooring
• stair threads • wall panelling
• coping stones • Column
Used for
• interior wall base • mullion facing
• interior window • stair threads
• stools of exterior window sill • flagstone

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 Type Limestone Travertine Marble
sedimentary rock like dolomite, sedimentary metamorphic rock, a
no cleavage lines, low in rock, pleasing re crystallized
Nature absorption, smooth, uniform in texture with small limestone forming
structure & composition. High natural pockets into carrara, parian,
compressive & tensile strength on a cut surface onyx and vermont

• interior • Flooring
Used
• wall & floor surfaces decorative • wall & column
for
stone facing

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Type Serpentine Sandstone Slate Rock
igneous with class of rock of cemented metamorphosis of clay
mineral silica grains with texture and shale deposited in
serpentine. ranging from very fine to layers. May be
Typically olive very coarse. Colours vary separated into thin,
Nature
green to greenish from buff, red and light tough sheets called
black but brown. Porous where as slates . Colours are
impurities may 30% of volume composed black, green red, grey,
colour the rock of pores or purple
• Flooring
• Only interiors
Used • window sills
due to
for
weathering • Stools
• stair treads & facing

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 Panelling - thin slabs of stone cut to dimension & thickness to
cover back up walls & provide finished exterior
› Running Bond
› Stack Bond
 Ashlars - work requires the use of cut stone that includes
broken ashlars, regularly/ irregularly coursed
› Coursed Ashlar
› Random Ashlar
 Rubblework – random & no attempt to produced an orderly
course either horizontal or vertical. Small spaces are filled with
smaller stones
› Coursed Rubble
› Fieldstone
 Trim - stones cut for specific purposes
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  a masonry bond
formed when all

Running Bond
units are laid in
stretcher position,
with a half-unit
overlap

 a masonry bond
formed when
there is no
Stack Bond

overlapping of all
units & all
horizontal &
vertical joints are
aligned
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  Ashlar masonry laid
out in courses of

Coursed Ashlar
equal height; blocks
of various sizes may
be combined to
make up the height
of the course

 Ashlar masonry laid

without regular
Random Ashlar

courses but with an

overall effect of
horizontal orientation

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  Fieldstone or
roughly dressed

Coursed Rubble
stone, with or
without mortar,
assembled to give
a effect of courses

 Stone found on the

ground (i.e., not
quarried) that is a
Fieldstone

suitable size &

shape for use as
drywall or rubble
masonry

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  Jambs

purposes like
 Sills

 Copings

 Cornices

 Lintels

 Steps

 arch stone
(voussoirs)
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  A term describing stone
masonry with a recessed cut
margin, so a channel is
Rusticated formed when the blocks are
aligned

 A stone finish that is granular

& moderately smooth,
varying with the
Sand Finish

characteristics of the
specific stone

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  A term describing stone
exhibiting the marks left by
the saw used to cut it
Sawn Face

 A stone finish with

emphasized face-plane
shifts & rough corners,
Rock Face

exaggerating the natural

look of the stone

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  A stone
finish
exhibiting
Split Face the natural
quarry
texture
resulting
from
splitting the
stone

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 Cobble stone - A  Durex Blocks -
stone used in paving. Roughly cubed,
It may be usually granite
rectangular, or blocks used for
naturally rounded paving

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 Blistering  Flaking
 Chipping  Friability
 Coving  Peeling
 Cracking  Pitting
 Crazing  Rising Damp
 Crumbling  Salt Fretting
 Delamination  Spalling
 Detachment  Sub florescence
 Efflorescence  Sugaring
 Erosion  Surface Crust / Surface
 Exfoliation Induration
 Weathering

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 Blistering Chipping Coving Cracking

Detachment
Crazing Crumbling
Delamination

Exfoliation
Erosion
Efflorescence

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 Flaking Friability Peeling Pitting

Historic-Masonry-Deterioration.pdf
Salt Fretting
Rising Damp Spalling

Sub florescence

Surface Crust /
Surface
Induration

Sugaring Weathering

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 Chemical  Extrinsic Problems
› Action of Water › Climate
› Atmospheric › Variation in
Pollution Temperature
› Salts
 Intrinsic Problems
 Physical
› Bio deterioration
› Differential Stress
 Organic /
Biological
› Bio deterioration

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 Separation of walls at corners &
T-junctions takes place even more
easily than in brick buildings due
to poorer connection between
the walls.
 Delamination & bulging of walls,
i.e., vertical separation of internal
wythe & external wythe through
the middle of wall thickness. This
occurs mainly due to the absence
of “through” or bond stones &
weak mortar filling between the
wythes. In half-dressed stone
masonry, the surface stones are
pyramidal in shape having more
or less an edge contact one over
the other, thus the stones have an
unstable equilibrium & easily
disturbed under shaking condition
 Crumbling & collapsing of
bulged wythes after delamination
under heavy weight of roofs/
floors, leading to collapse of roof
along with walls or causing large
gaps in walls.
 Outward overturning of stone
walls after separation at corners
due to inertia of roofs & floors &
their own inertia when the roofs
were incapable of acting as
horizontal diaphragms.
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 A Glossary of Historic Masonry Deterioration Problems and Preservation Treatments –
Anne E.Grimmer
 Research in Conservation : Stone Conservation; An Overview of Current Research – Eric
Doehne & Clifford A.Price 2010 (The Getty Conservation Institute)
 http://suite101.com/article/deterioration-of-building-materials-a191590
 Traditional Building Materials
 Stone Buildings – IAEE Manual – Chapter 5
 Stone Masonry Construction - Marjana Lutman, Slovenian National Building & Civil
Engineering Institute, Slovenia
 Old Buildings Restoration Technique - Dr-Ing JK Makunza University of Dar es Salaam,
18thMay 2011
 Guide to the Repair of natural Building stone – Edison Coatings Inc.,
 Identifying and Sourcing Stone for Historic Building Repair - An approach to determining
and obtaining compatible replacement stone - Technical advice note
 Repair, restoration and strengthening of buildings
 Construction Methods and Building Materials – Digital Karnak
 Repair and strengthening of historic masonry Buildings in seismic areas - D. Penazzi1, m.R.
Valluzzi2, a. Saisi1, l. Binda1, c. Modena
 A History of Architectural Conservation – Jukka Jokilehto
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