EVS Notes, Unit-2, B.Tech-RU PDF

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES FOR B.
TECH
UNIT-2
Environmental pollution, degradation & Waste management
Environmental Pollution – Definition, sources and types, Pollutant-Definition & classification,

Concepts of air pollution, water pollution, Soil pollution, Automobile Pollution-Causes, Effects &
control measures. 3Hr
Self-study: Case studies of London smog, Bhopal gas tragedy, marine pollutions and study of different waste water
treatment processes.
Environmental degradation – Introduction, Global warming and greenhouse effect,

Acid rain-formation & effects, Ozone depletion in stratosphere and its effect. 2 Hr
Solid Waste management – Municipal solid waste, Biomedical waste, Industrial solid waste and
Electronic waste (E-Waste). 2 Hr
Self-study: Disaster management, early warning systems-bio indicators for Tsunami and other natural disasters.
The word pollution is derived from Latin word “Polutionem/polluere” means make
dirty/spoil (defile).
Definition: Pollution is an undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of

water, air and land (soil) which may cause potential health hazard of any living being or species or
loss of cultural and natural assets.
Pollutant: Pollutant is a substance which causes pollution. Pollution is caused by the addition of
substances by human activity to the environment.
“Pollutant” is defined as ‘any liquid, solid or gaseous substance present in such a concentration as
may be or tend to be injurious to the environment.
Sources of pollution:
The sources of pollution are broadly classified into two groups.
a) Natural sources: Here the pollution originates from the natural calamities and processes
such as volcanic eruptions, earth quakes, forest fire, dust storm, cysts and bacteria, decay of
organic matter etc.
b) Man-made or Anthropogenic sources: The sources originates due to the activities of
humans which include deforestation, agriculture, automobiles, industrialization, nuclear
explosions, over population, quarrying and mining, construction activities, wars etc.
The sources of pollution can also be classified in one more way as follows:
a) Point source: The points of entry of pollutants are easily identifiable. Example
chimneys/outlets of factory, domestic and industrial sewage outlet, and automobile exhaust
etc.
Prepared by SCHOOL OF CHEMICAL SCIENCE, REVA UNIVERSITY Page 1

b) Non-point source: Non point sources are not easily identifiable as the pollutants are
dispersed. Here the pollutants are generated from a broad group of human activities and by
natural processes. Example: Run off that enters ground water from fields that are fertilized
or treated with pesticides or pollutants from industrial discharge etc.
Classification of pollutants:
Pollutants are classified as follows,
a) Based on the origin/form they exist,
i) Primary pollutant: These substances add directly from an identifiable source. These substance
exist as such in the environment. i.e, they persist in the same form in which they are released.
Example; CO2, CH4, SO2 etc.
ii)SecondaryPollutant:These are the pollutants derived by the primary pollutants due to
chemical/photochemical reaction in the environment.
Example: PAN(Nitrogen oxide reacts in the presence of sunlight to form Peroxy Acetyl
Nitrate(PAN)), Formation of Photochemical smog, Formation of Ozone, Formation of Acid
rain etc.
b) Based on Biological degradability:

i)Biodegradable Pollutant: These are food and domestic waste etc. Which can be decomposed by
the microorganisms under natural conditions.
ii)Non-biodegradable pollutant: These substances either do not degrade or degrade at very slow rate.
These pollutants are chemicals, pesticides, papers, metals, textiles, glasses, cardboards,
radioactive wastes etc.
c) Based on their existance:

i)Quantitative pollutants: These are the substances that normally occuring in the environment and
aquire the status of pollutant when their concentration increased due to the activities of
humans. Example; CO2, CH4, SO2, H2O vapour etc.
ii)Qualitative Pollutants: These are substances which do not exist in nature, bur are added due to
unmindful human activities. Ex; Pesticides, CFC etc.
Types of Environmental Pollution:

Pollution can be classified according to the medium in which it is added or occurs. The major 5
types of pollution are
i) Air pollution
ii) Water pollution
iii) Soil/Land pollution
iv) Noise pollution
v) Radioactive pollution.
Air Pollution:
Definition: Air Pollution refers to any contamination of atmosphere that causes damage to living
organisms and the environment.
Air Pollutants are of the following two types:
i) Primary Pollutants: Poisonous gases or substances which cause pollution when injected
directly into the air are known as primary air pollutants. Some examples are soot
released from incomplete combustion of fuel, SO2, benzopyrene (Cigarette smoke), NH3,
CO, lead oxides etc.
ii) Secondary air pollutants: Some of the primary air pollutants react together in the
presence of sunlight and form more powerful pollutants called Secondary air pollutants.
Some examples are O3 (Ozone), PAN, H2SO4, HNO3, aldehydes etc.
Major Air Pollutants: Sources and Effects
Pollutants Sources Effects

Biological decomposition, Plants: Death of living tissues, decreased growth and
Sulphur
smelting of sulphide containing yield.
compounds
ores, combustion of sulphur Humans: Paralysis, damage to lungs, lowering of
including SOx,
containing fuels such as coal resistance to diseases such as pneumonia and influenza.
H2S.
Materials: Damage to materials, Corrosion.
Automobile engines, incomplete Plants: Inhibition of nitrogen fixation, premature ageing,
combustion of fuels in furnaces. inhibition of cellular respiration, initiation of roots etc.
CO Humans: Disorders of Central nervous system, combines
with the red blood cells and affects oxygen carrying
capacity.
Combustion of fossil fuels. This has an insulating effect; increase in concentration
CO2
leads to greenhouse effect.
Power generators, vehicles, Plants: Stunted growth
Nitrogen Oxides forest fires, Lightening during Humans: Nasal irritation, breathing discomfort,
rain, etc. pulmonary oedema, & in extreme cases death.
Vehicles, industries, refineries. Plants: Stunted growth.
Hydrocarbons Humans: Irritation of mucus of respiratory tract; may lead
to cancer
Lead particles from automobile Plants: Inhibits growth (the leaf is coverd with a layer of
exhaust, soot, fly ash from particles that inhibit light penetration thereby reducing
power stations, from asbestos, photosynthesis).
fluorides, aluminium metallic Humans: Interferes with maturation of red blood cells,
dusts, etc., and other natural disrupts functioning of cells and organs of the muscular,
Particulate
sources. circulatory & nervous systems by binding with cellular
matter
enzymes; lead damages liver, kidneys, and gastrointestinal
tract & induces abnormalities in fertility and pregnancy;
respiratory disorders; asbestos dust leads to lung
scarring(asbestosis); fluoride particles may affect teeth &
lead to calcification of bones.
Causes of Air Pollution: Principal causes of air pollution are categorized into the following two
types; i) Natural causes and ii) Man-made causes.
Natural Causes: Natural disasters such as cyclones, volcanic eruptions and earth quakes cause
suspension of dust particles and ash in air and cause air pollution. It may also be caused by other
natural factors such as forest fires, pollen grains, microbes, etc. Various gases are also released into
the atmosphere as a result of natural processes; for example, methane has is released in natural grass
fields (marshy lands) due to decay of organic matter, radon gas is released due to radioactive decay
within the Earth’s crust, and smoke and CO are emitted during forest fires.
Man-made causes: Human beings are the major contributors to air pollution. Some of the
man-made causes of air pollution are;
i) Industrial wastes: The increasing number of industries contributes heavily to air

pollution. Ex; Petroleum refineries emit hydrocarbons & PM and industries such as iron
& steel mills, paper mills, chemical plants, cement plants release vast amounts of
different types of particulates into the atmosphere.
ii) Automobiles: Automobiles emit dangerous pollutants such as CO, CO2, SO2, NOx, HC,
O3, Particulates, lead and CFC.
iii) Thermal Power stations: To meet the increasing demand for electricity by human beings
for a variety of purposes, a large number of thermal power stations have been set up. The
pollutants generated by them are coal ash, fly ash, CO2, SO2, HC & other gases.
iv) Nuclear Explosions: A nuclear explosion causes severe air pollution across a large area.
It releases huge amounts of pollutants including many hazardous chemicals and dust
particles into the atmosphere.
v) Nuclear Power plants: Nuclear power plants damage the environment owing to Uranium
mining, radioactive effluent emissions, and generation of waste heat etc.
vi) Agricultural activities: The excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides for increasing the
productivity of crops causes severe environmental damage. According to a study, only 10
to 15 percent of the pesticides reach the source when sprayed, remaining 85 to 90% drifts
away to areas as far as 20 miles. Burning of fields, hydrocarbons released by plants etc.,
are also responsible for air pollution.
vii) Disposal of garbage: All types of biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste materials
produce smoke and soot when burnt and hence case air pollution.
Effects of Air pollution:
i) Effect of human health: Air pollution has long term as well as short term term effects on
human health. Some of the adverse effects of some pollutants are listed below;
a) CO combines with haemoglobin present in the blood and forms a compound called
carboxyhaemoglobin. As a result, the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood declines.
Severe deficiency of oxygen in the body may ultimately lead to death.
b) SO2 causes burning sensation in eyes and irritation in the respiratory tracts. SO2
causes significant bronchoconstriction in asthma patients even at relatively low
concentrations.
c) Inhalation of a high concentration of NO2 for long periods of time results in
inflammation of lungs and oedema.

d) Metal particulates cause damage to the respiratory system, blood vascular systems
and excretory system.
ii) Effect on Plants: Air pollution is considered to be a major factor in the decline of forests
in the heavily polluted areas of the world. In plants, air pollution affects stomata
movements, photosynthesis and growth. Some adverse effects of air pollution in plants
are described as follows;
a) At high concentration of SO2, the amount of chlorophyll declines causing chlorosis of
leaves. Avery high concentration leads to the death of leaves, prolonged exposure to
SO2 causes bleaching of the leaf pigment.
b) High concentration of NO2 leads to the development of necrotic spots. The
productivity of leaf also declines.
c) Low concentration of CO has no adverse effect on plants, but high concentration
leads to premature falling of leaves, smaller leaf size, curling, etc.
iii) Effect of Climate: The presence of pollutants in the atmosphere my impact the climate
of an area. Increase in air pollution may result in changes in climatic conditions and
weather patterns. Some of the effects are listed below;
a) Green house effect and global warming
b) Acid rain.
c) c) Depletion of Ozone layer.
Control of Air Pollution:

1) The emission of exhaust from automobiles can be reduced by using devices such as a
positive crankcase ventilation valve or a catalytic converter.
2) Electrostatic precipitators can be used to minimize smoke and dust from industries.
3) Gaseous pollutants arising from industries can be removed by using the method of
differential solubility of gases in water.
4) Removal of pollutants from the emitted exhaust can be done using a fine spray of water. A
device called wet scrubber is used for this purpose.
5) Certain gases can be removed by filtration or absorption through activated carbon.
6) Application of chemical pesticides should be replaced by using alternative bio-pesticides,
which are environment friendly.
7) Radioactive waste should be buried safely under the earth.
8) Growth in population should be regulated.
9) Emphasis should be laid on environment friendly engines in automobiles.
10) At the government level, pollution can be controlled by formulating different laws and
legislations.
Water pollution:
Water pollution is the contamination of water by foreign matters such as physical, chemical and
biological and other wastes.
Types of water pollution: Water pollution can be classified into the following 3 categories.
i) Physical pollution of water
ii) Chemical pollution of water
iii) Biological pollution of water.
Sources of water pollution:
1. Industrial Waste : I norganic and organic effluents, poisons etc
2. Domestic source: Sewage, detergents
3. Agricultural Source : Pesticides, insecticides, fungicides
4. Oil Leakage: from automobiles, tankers
5. Physical pollutants : Radioactive compounds, wastes from nuclear power plant
6. Various leakage : Landfill sites leakage, drainage leakage,
Sources of water pollution are classified into two types.
i) Non-point or natural source: Non point source is also called diffuse source of pollution. The
point of entry of pollutant is not identifiable. Here the pollutants generated from a broad group of
human activities and by natural processes. Ex; Ground water contamination.
ii) Point or artificial source: The pollutants are added at a known point. The pollutants are
collected and discharge at a single point. The sources are sewage, industrial waste, urban solid
waste, radioactive waste, mining etc.
Causes of water pollution:
Urbanization : As population has grown, so has the demand for housing, food and cloth. As more
cities and towns are developed, they have resulted in increased use of fertilizers to produce more
food, soil erosion due to d eforestation, increase in construction activities, inadequate sewer collection
and treatment, landfills as more garbage is produced, increase in chemicals from industries to
produce more materials.
Deforestation: Clearing land for agriculture and urban growth often leads to water pollution. When
soil is stripped of its protective vegetation it becomes prone to soil erosion. It can block fish gills,
increase turbidity.
Destruction of wetlands: Wetlands are nature’s way of cleaning water as well as damming water
(they hold back water in summer and release it in winter. Destructions of wetland destroys the
habitat of many birds and fish, removes natural filters capable of storing and degrading many
pollutants.
Industrial activities: When manufacturers and factories are simply allowed to pour toxic chemicals
into water bodies before treatment, the water becomes polluted. The oxygen levels in the water also
decreases. The toxic chemicals include: lead, sulphuric acid, mercury and used oil.
Agricultural activities: By a process known as leaching, agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers
and pesticides can wash into rivers and lakes, poisoning them.
Various types of leakages: Oil spill pose a huge concern as large amount of oil enters into the sea
and does not dissolve with water; there by opens problem for local marine wildlife such as fish, birds

and sea otters. Likewise landfills may leak and the leaking landfills can pollute the underground
water with large variety of contaminants.
Domestic wastages and sewages: Domestic wastes when mixed in water sources directly or
indirectly causes water pollution. They consume oxygen presence in water affecting BOD of aquatic
organisms.
Global Warming: Global warming causes increased water temperature which may kill aquatic
animals and ultimately leading to water pollution.
Mining activities: Mining is the process of crushing the rock and extracting coal and other minerals
from underground. These elements when extracted in the raw form contain harmful chemicals and
can increase the amount of toxic elements when mixed up with water which may result in health
problems. Mining activities emit several metal waste and sulphides from the rocks and is harmful for
the water.
Burning of fossil fuels: Fossil fuels like coal and oil when burnt produce substantial amount of ash in
the atmosphere. The particles which contain toxic chemicals when mixed with water vapor result
in a cid rain. Also, carbon dioxide is released from b urning of fossil fuels which result in global
warming.
Major water pollutants:

The following are the common types of water pollutants:
1. Disease causing agents: Bacteria, virus, protozoa and parasitic warms that enter water from
domestic sewage and animal wastes.
2. Oxygen demanding wastes: Oxygen demanding pollutants are substances that oxidize in the
receiving body of water, reducing the amount of dissolved oxygen available. Without oxygen
in sufficient quantity, fishes other oxygen consuming forms of aquatic life die.The saturated
value of dissolved oxygen is in the order of 8 to 15mg/l, depending on temperature and
salinity.
These biodegradable organic wastes come from municipal sewage, food processing industry
effluents and paper production industry effluents.
3. Water soluble inorganic chemicals: Acids, Salts and compounds of toxic metals such as
lead and mercury. Such dissolved solids make water unfit for drinking, harm fish and other
aquatic life, decrease crop yield and accelerates corrosion of equipments that use water.
4. Inorganic plant nutrients: Water soluble nitrate and phosphate compounds that can cause
excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants, which then die and decay, depleting water
of dissolved oxygen and killing fish. (Eutrophication)
5. Organic Chemicals: Oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergents and
many other soluble and insoluble chemicals that threaten human health and harm fish and
other aquatic life.

6. Radioactive substances: Radioisotopes that are water soluble or capable of being
biologically amplified to higher concentrations as they pass through food chains and food
webs.
Ionizing radiation from such isotopes can cause birth defects, cancer and genetic damage.
7. Thermal pollution of water(Heat): Large quantity of water is heated when it is used in

cooling towers of thermal power plants. When this hot water is discharged into near by
water bodies it causes increase in temperature. This increase in water temperature lowers
dissolved oxygen content and makes aquatic organism more vulnerable to disease, parasites
and toxic chemicals.
Effects of water pollution:
Human health effects: Wastes that are discharged into water contain pathogenic organisms that are
capable of causing human diseases. For example, Some bacteria causes cholera, typhoid fever,
bacillary dysentery and gastroenteritis. The infective egg and larval stages of some animal parasites
also occur in water eg. Ascaris lumbricoides, (Round worm), the beef and pork tapeworm and
Echinococcus Species. All these types of organisms occur in faeces, and so are present in sewage
and farm slurry.
Contaminated drinking water: Drinking water eventually gets polluted from water source which
increases risk of spreading water borne diseases, effects fresh water living organisms.
Ecological dead zone: The entrance of pollutants into waterways can have a wide range of impacts.
It is possible for the pollutants to raise the temperature of the water enough to force fish out in search
of cooler waters. This can itself create an ecological dead zone.
Increase in algal blooms (Eutrophication): Water pollution can also significantly increase the rate
of algal blooms. These blooms create massive fish die-offs as the oxygen in the water gets depleted
and the fish suffocate. Fish can also be killed when excessive algae get caught in their gills.
Death of aquatic animals: The main problem caused by water pollution is that it kills organisms
that depend on these water bodies. Dead fish, crabs, birds and sea gulls, dolphins, and many other
animals often wind up on beaches, killed by pollutants in their habitat (living environment).
Disruption of food chains: Pollution disrupts the natural food chain as well. Pollutants such as lead
and cadmium are eaten by tiny animals. Later, these animals are consumed by fish and shellfish, and
the food chain continues to be disrupted at all higher levels.
Destruction of ecosystem: Ecosystems (the interaction of living things in a place, depending on

each other for life) can be severely changed or destroyed by water pollution. Many areas are now
being affected by careless human pollution, and this pollution is coming back to hurt humans in
many ways.

Increased mercury level risks: Increased mercury level cause loss of peripheral vision, weakened
muscles, impairment of hearing and speech, and deteriorated movement coordination. Infants and
developing children face even more serious health risks because mercury exposure inhibits proper
brain and nervous system development, damaging memory, cognitive thinking, language abilities,
attention, and fine motor skills. Animals exhibit extremely strange behaviors and high mortality rates
after consuming contaminated seafood or absorbing mercury from the seawater.
Remedial/Control measures of water pollution:
1. Strict adherence to water laws: Laws, standards and practices should be established to
prevent water pollution and these laws should be modified from time to time based on
current requirements and technological advancements. Administration of water pollution
control should be in the hands of state or central government.
2. Waste water treatment: Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps
prevent disposal of wastes into natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.
Scientific techniques should be adopted for environmental control of catchment areas of
rivers, ponds or streams
3. Avoiding waste disposal in water sources: No type of waste (treated, partially treated or
untreated) should be discharged into any natural water body. Industries should develop
closed loop water supply schemes and domestic sewage must be used for irrigation.
4. Qualified and experienced people must be consulted from time to time for effective control
of water pollution.
5. Public awareness must be initiated regarding adverse effects of water pollution using the
media. Plants, trees and forests control pollution as they act as natural air conditioners. Trees
are capable of reducing sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide pollutants and hence more trees
should be planted.
6. Basic and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.
7. Minimize pesticides use: Adopting less use of fertilizers, pesticides in agricultural activities
helps to reduce water problem. Pesticide deteriorates water quality as they are accumulated in
water source from agricultural fields.
Soil Pollution:
Soil pollution (soil contamination) refers to the degradation of soil quality either due to human
activities or due to natural phenomenon leading to:
● decreased agricultural output,

● deterioration in crop quality,
● exposure to harmful and toxic chemicals
● health risks of people living on it,
● health threats to animals,
● contamination of underground water further resulting in polluted water supply,
● Imbalance of the soil ecosystem.
The top most layer of soil is composed of minerals of various sizes and organic matters along with
pores filled with air and water. Soil is said to be contaminated when there is the presence of excess
chemicals such as nitrate, ammonia, petroleum hydrocarbons, lead, naphthalene, mercury, pesticides,
etc.

It is chiefly the lack of human awareness that makes land lose its fertility simultaneously increasing
its alkalescency and acidity. As a result, the surface of the soil erodes. This erosion is called soil
pollution.
Types of soil pollution:

Soil pollution tends to come from human activity. The key types of soil pollution are enumerated
below.
1. Acidification of the soil: The acids found in rainwater such as carbonic acid and in
decomposing organic material such as humic and fulvic acids, etc., can stimulate leaching by
dissociating into H+ ions and their component anions which then displace or attract base
cations from the soil exchange complex.
2. Salinization of the soil: It refers to an increase in salt content in the soil. It may lead to soil
erosion and may affect the crop output. Although salinization occurs naturally in semi-arid
and arid environments, it is often exacerbated as a result of human activity. In India, an
extensive portion of desert region in Rajasthan consists of saline soil. In parts of southwest
Australia, for example, removal of indigenous eucalyptus forest has resulted in extensive
salinization of soils. This has occurred because the deeply rooted trees have been replaced by
shallow-rooted grasses and crops, which are less effective in lowering the ground-water
level. Capillary action is most intense, and salinity is greatest in soils where the water table is
within about 2 meter of the surface.
3. Agro-chemical pollution: In recent decades, the use of inorganic fertilizers has increased
dramatically at the expense of more traditional organic nutrient treatments. Chemical runoff
from pesticides and fertilizers can degrade soil quality, whilst animal manure can change its
chemical composition. Inorganic fertilizers are used in preference to organic treatments
because the nutrients are in a more readily available form and are released rapidly after
applications. Fertilizers are based on compounds of plant macro-nutrients (e.g. nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium) and micro-nutrients (e.g., Zinc, copper, boron and molybdenum).
4. Industrial soil pollution: Industrial development has been associated with both physical
degradation and chemical contamination of soils. Problems of physical degradation include
erosion, compaction and structural damage resulting from construction activities and
opencast mineral extraction. The industry is also responsible for dumping industrial
chemicals and heavy metals (such as mercury) onto soil and thus polluting it.
5. Urban soil pollution: Human urban activities such as dumping waste, disposing of sewage
poorly and emitting greenhouse gases which dissolve into the rain and seep into the soil are
some of the main types of urban soil pollution. Chemical problems result from waste disposal
activities, discharge and spillage of liquid effluents and atmospheric emission including acid
deposition.
Causes of soil pollution:

As is evident from the list below, soil pollution is almost always down to human activity such as
agriculture and heavy industry.
1. Industrial Pollution: Improper disposal of chemical wastes from industries causes soil
contamination. The main human made causes of acidification include certain heavy metals,
industrial waste, oil and fuel dumping, toxic chemicals, and acid deposition resulting from
industrial pollution.

2. Needle-leaf afforestation: Needle-leaf afforestation has been associated with the
acidification of soils and surface waters for a number of reasons. First, needle-leaf trees
produce litter which is very acidic in comparison with most broad-leaf species. Second,
because of their high canopy surface area, needle-leaf trees are able to ‘scavenge’ acid
pollutants from the atmosphere, later releasing them into the soil via through fall and stem
flow.
3. Use of Inorganic fertilizers: Excessive use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers in agricultural
systems has also been associated with soil acidification, partly through the process of
nitrification. This also results in agrichemicals pollution.
4. Poor irrigation practice: An important cause of soil salinity is poor irrigation practice.
Over-watering leads to a rise in the water table which, in turn, causes enhanced capillary
action. Similarly, poor maintenance of irrigation channels and canals results in leakage of
water into adjacent agricultural land. Further, intensive farming and the lack of crop rotation
have an adverse effect on the quality of soil over time.
5. Urban activities: Urban activities such as improper waste disposal and building
constructions pollute the soil by preventing proper drainage and increasing surface run-off.
Some of the wastes include chemical wastes from residential areas and leaking sewerage
systems. Human sewage and animal manure can pollute soil by changing its chemical
composition.
6. Solid waste: Plastics, cans and other solids count as soil pollution, too. Batteries and
electrical goods can be particularly harmful as they contain chemicals such as lithium that
leach into the soil.
7. Burning fossil fuels: Air pollution can become soil pollution when greenhouse gases such as
CO, SO, nitrous oxide and CO2 dissolve into the rain and then fall onto the soil,
contaminating it with sulfides and nitrates.
Effects of soil pollution:

Soil pollution is a very serious problem throughout the world. Soil contamination has several
negative impacts on the soil and the environment. These are some of the effects soil pollution:
1. Poor crop output: Increased use of inorganic fertilizers, chemical fertilizers, as well as
pesticides, eventually decreases the soil fertility at a faster rate. It also alter the soil
structure. Reduced soil quality will lead to poor crop output. Soil can become less productive
for growing crops in when it is heavily polluted.
2. Unstable chemical composition: Different soil types naturally have different chemical
compositions that are carefully balanced. The introduction of pollutants such as mercury or
sulfides can destabilize this balance.
3. Effect on ecosystem and biodiversity: Soil pollution can lead to the lack of biodiversity in
an ecosystem. The life of bird, insect, mammal and reptile species who live in the soil can get
affected by pollution. The soil is an important habitat.
4. Effect on Human health: Living, playing or working on polluted soil can cause skin
complaints, respiratory issues and other ailments. Drinking contaminated water as a result of
surface run-off can also cause health problems.
5. Contamination of water sources: When it rains, surface run-off carries contaminated soil
into water sources causing water pollution. The contaminated water is thus unfit for both
animal and human consumption. It will also affect aquatic life since the organisms that live in
these water bodies will find their habitats inhabitable.

Preventative/Controlling measures:
Soil pollution can have a devastating impact on plant and animal life, and as such it should be halted.
If we act now, we can prevent soil pollution from taking hold. Some useful preventative measures
that we can take to this end are listed below.
1. Go organic: Organic agriculture uses much fewer chemical fertilizers and pesticides,
preventing chemicals from seeping into the soil.
2. Proper farming methods: Finding alternatives to chemical fertilizers and pesticides is an
ideal way to avoid soil erosion. Rotational and mixed farming are also encouraged.
3. Dispose of household waste responsibly: Recycling waste and not dumping it in landfill
will keep the soil free of pollution. Not throwing batteries and electrical items into household
waste bins will help to keep the soil free of dangerous chemicals.
4. Prevent or Manage industrial waste: Properly managing industrial and domestic waste can
help prevent soil erosion. Solid waste treatment is also a good preventive measure. Regular
health and safety checks and adequate waste disposal methods will ensure that industrial
chemicals and other waste are not allowed to contaminate our precious soil.
5. Community Awareness: Creating awareness about the effects of soil pollution can help
prevent its occurrence.
6. Burn fewer fossil fuels: Cleaner air makes it easier for us to have cleaner soil. Fresh, pure
rain will keep the soil free of pollutants.
Conclusion:
Thus, we find that soil pollution is caused almost exclusively by human activity. Humans carelessly
drop waste (which in itself tends to be a result of over-consumption: buying things that we do not
need) and use harmful agricultural chemicals (such as pesticides and fertilizers) which can very
easily (for instance as a result of rain or rivers flowing) soak into areas of land where they can cause
harm to biodiversity.
Conserving the environment is important. Preventing soil erosion will contribute to a cleaner and
healthier planet for this generation and those to come. It is vital for both businesses and private
individuals to act now in order to prevent the phenomenon of soil pollution from driving beautiful
plant and animal species to extinction and putting our supplies of food in jeopardy.
Automobile pollution:
The automobiles are the symbol of modern science and technology and development of a country.
They play a major role in transporting people and goods.
Vehicles addition in selected countries - Source: World motor vehicle data (2015-2017):
Rank Country No. of vehicles/1000 population

1 San Marino 1263
2 USA 910
3 Monaco 899
7 Australia 740
15 Japan 591
39 UK 519
54 Russia 324
73 China 154
134 India 50
Causes of automobile/vehicle pollution:

Unknown to many people, automobile pollution is one of the biggest contributors to greenhouse
emissions in the atmosphere. Vehicle pollution is mainly caused by these factors:
(i) The release of burnt fuel byproducts into the atmosphere.
Vehicles burn fuel, that is petrol, diesel or alternative energy, to power their engines and move. This
is a process that yields harmful greenhouse gases that are very dangerous to the environment. The
emission of these pollutants has several far-reaching effects. The type of fuel will actually determine
the amount of harmful byproduct that is let into the ecosystem. Different cars have varying emission
levels and the regulatory bodies try to have a maximum amount allowed for every vehicle.
(ii) Use of Non-Eco Friendly Vehicles
Vehicle pollution varies because of different reasons. Vehicles that use diesel are more harmful to
the environment as compared to the ones that use petrol. This can easily be seen through the amount
of ”smoke” released by these two types of cars. The quality of the fuel used also plays an important
role. Poor quality fuel will lead to the release of more pollutants into the atmosphere. Old vehicles
and those that are larger in size also tend to be bigger polluters and are not eco-friendly. The larger
vehicles use up more fuel while the old ones are not efficient and release a lot of pollutants into the
ecosystem.
(iii) Particulate matter
When you look at the exhaust of a car, you’ll notice some black substance. Sometimes a lot of it
accumulates such that when the car moves, the soot is spread on the ground. This particulate matter
is harmful to people’s health as well as the environment. It’s much worse when the matter is fine and
can easily be carried away by moving air.
(iv) Evaporation of fuel
Sometimes when it’s hot, fuel evaporates from the fuel tank and into the atmosphere. The smell
alone is irritating, not to mention what it really does to the environment. Petrol and diesel are largely
hydrocarbons. They are very harmful to the ecosystem in many ways.
(v) Lack of Vehicle Maintenance
A car, being a machine, must be in good condition if it is to function properly. Badly maintained cars
pollute the environment more than those that are well maintained. They load more greenhouse gases
and unburnt fuel into the environment than the smaller cars.
(vi) Un-burnt Hydrocarbons
Unburnt hydrocarbons are also released by vehicles into the environment and this leads to pollution.
They mainly pollute the air at the ground level since they are not light enough to rise into the higher
atmosphere.
(vii) Noise from moving vehicles

Noise is also a pollutant because it upsets the peace of the surrounding. Living next to the main road,
or having an office near a busy highway can be very frustrating. One can develop a migraine due to
the frequent noise from cars. This happens when a vehicle hoots or hits a bump and the resulting
sound interferes with the serenity of the environment.
Effects of automobile/vehicle pollution:

There is a reason why pollution is considered to be a bad thing. Its effects are bad to the ecosystem.
These are some of the consequences of pollution:
(i) Global warming
Emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere leads to depletion of the ozone layer and this
causes global warming. The result of this is adverse weather that more often than not results in loss
of life and property. Global warming is a concern for many major world governments and deliberate
efforts have been made to reduce it. With the ozone layer depleted, the harmful ultraviolet rays of
the sun can reach the lower surface of the earth and harm humans and other living organisms on the
planet.
(ii) Poor quality of air
There are countries where the quality of air is so poor that people wear masks to reduce the amounts
of harmful substances inhaled. This is not something to smile about because aside from the fact that
you have to walk around with a mask all day, which is not comfortable, there is also the possibility
of health complications. Countries that have a high number of old vehicles generally have a problem
when it comes to this. It’s the reason why many governments have also banned the importation of
vehicles older than a certain number of years.
(iii) International reputation
Cleaning up the atmosphere is a serious concern globally. This is the reason why so many climate
summits are held annually to make agreements on the responsibility of each nation in cutting down
greenhouse emissions. A country that has a high level of vehicle pollution risks damaging its
reputation and standing on the world stage.
(iv) Health
These pollutants can lead to lung infection and cancer. As we know, hydrocarbons are not very good
for human health. They can cause heart disease, aggravate asthma, damage the central nervous
system and make breathing difficult. Fuel spillage can also affect the health of plants and marine life.
When left unchecked, these health conditions can cause death. Treating diseases such as cancer
requires a lot of money. When the population of a country is mostly unwell, the economy stalls
because growth is usually pegged on the ability of people to work and earn income.
(v) Tourism
Most people would not willingly go to visit countries that they know are bad for their health. This
will, in turn, result in a reduction in the number of tourists to those countries and subsequently loss
of foreign exchange income.
(vi) Smog and acidic rain

Nitrogen oxides contribute to the formation of highly corrosive smog that speeds up rusting of
vehicles. When nitrogen oxide dissolves in rain, acidic rain is formed. Water harvested from this
type of rain cannot be fit for human, plant or animal consumption.
These bad effects of vehicle pollution are the reasons why it should be every person’s responsibility
to reduce or eliminate environmental pollution. The actions of a small group can put a bigger
demographic in harms way.
Control of automobile/vehicle pollution:

Even if vehicle pollution cannot be completely eliminated, it can still be reduced to manageable
levels. What are some of the things that individuals, governments, and organizations can engage in
to reduce the effects of pollution caused by transportation? Here are some actionable pointers:
(i) Civic education
Ignorance is not bliss and education is definitely the key to success. Many people do not care about
the effects of pollution because they are not aware of them. One cannot fight to protect what he or
she values without knowing that there is an impending danger. Carrying out civic education by
government departments and non-governmental organizations can play a great role in awakening the
society to the realities of pollution and how reducing it can make the world a much better place to
live in. This can be done through community organizers or by having it taught in schools as part of
the curriculum. It would be counter-productive to keep on talking about the need to reduce vehicle
pollution without making people understand why that is necessary. A sense of responsibility should
be cultivated in everyone so that there is a desire and willingness to do what is right.
(ii) Progressive policies
Creating good regulations that anticipate the challenges of the modern world when it comes to
reducing vehicle pollution can be very helpful in mitigating it. Lawmakers should draft legislations
that will make people do the necessary as far as bringing down the levels of vehicle pollution is
concerned. Such laws can include placing a cap on the age of vehicles that can be imported, setting
out guidelines on the conditions of roadworthy vehicles, and creating agencies that will look into
alternative fuels such as green energy. On the global front, world leaders should come together and
agree on standard practices for eliminating or reducing pollution. These should be adopted so that
every nation does its part in achieving the desired results. Citizens should also hold their leaders to
account and push them to have strategies to reduce environmental pollution in their campaign
manifestos.
(iii) Vehicle maintenance
This is more of a personal responsibility than it is universal. One should ensure that his or her car is
in good condition and does not release a lot of harmful substances into the atmosphere. Regular car
maintenance can help in repairing or replacing worn out parts. When this is done, the vehicle
performs optimally and less amount of pollutants are released into the air. Things like replacing oil
filters, changing the engine oil and greasing the moving parts should be done on a regular basis.
Carelessness is the reason why some vehicles release dark harmful smoke while they are moving on
the roads. This is especially harmful to those outside because they inhale the smoke and the
dangerous matter.
(iv) Discard old vehicles

Old vehicles should be discarded or returned to the manufacturing company so that new ones can be
acquired. They contribute highly to environmental pollution and can also cause accidents on the
roads. Getting rid of them would be a double win. Unfortunately many people attach sentimental
value to such cars without knowing what that does to the ecosystem. A change in thinking would
lead to better practices.
(v) Carpooling
People from the same neighborhood and who work in the same area should consider carpooling.
This would reduce traffic jams, save money used on car fuel and maintenance and contribute
towards having a clean earth. That is what would really make sense. On the flip side, neighbors
would also have more time to bond. This enhances unity and harmony within the society.
(vi) Alternative means of transport
It wouldn’t hurt to use alternative means of transport even if you have a car. One can ride a bike,
train or bus to work. Walking is also an option when your workplace is not that far off from your
place of residence. Riding bikes, as well as walking, provide great exercising and fitness regimen
options. Many people leave work when they are already tired and don’t have time for fitness routines
so this would make a fun option for staying healthy. It’s also cheaper as compared to using your car
which would still need fuelling, maintenance and set you back a couple of bucks in parking fees.
Using these alternative means of transport is the smart choice.
(v) Protective wear
In order to reduce the amount of pollutant inhaled, a person can consider putting on pollution masks.
In countries where pollution is high and the quality of air is very poor, this is a common practice.
Since you can’t reduce or eliminate pollution and its effects all by yourself, it would be wise to
protect your health. Pollution masks help in filtering the air you breathe so that you don’t inhale a lot
of impurities. The responsibility for your health starts with you.
Environmental degradation:
Key factor for the success of sustainable development lies in the identification of the causes of
environmental degradation.
The five key factors responsible for environmental degradation are:
1.Rapid population growth.
2.Unsustainable resource use
3.Poverty
4.Non-inclusion of environmental cost in market price.
5.Management of nature with inadequate knowledge.
Global warming/Green house effect:
The green house effect is caused by atmospheric gases such as CO2, CH4,chlorofluro carbons (CFC),
Ozone (O3),nitrous oxide (N2O), Water vapour (H2O) that trap infrared (IR) waves radiate from the
earth’s surface. Collectively, these gases are called as greenhouse gases.
Green house gases act like a glass plate of a greenhouse. They allow light, IR radiation and
UV radiation from the sun to pass through the troposphere and fall on the earth. Earth’s surface
absorbs much of this solar energy and radiate back longer wave infrared radiation in the form of heat

into the outer space (troposphere). However when concentration of green house gases (especially
CO2) in the atmosphere increased, the thick envelop (layer) of these gases prevents the heat
re-radiated out. Some of this heat is absorbed by the molecules of green house gases and some
escapes into space and some radiated back toward the earth’s surface. This process continues and
the air gets warming up. This process of trapping of heat in the troposphere is called the green house
effect or global warming. (Increase in global temperature).
Addition of green house gases to the atmosphere is increased due to human activities such as;
● Burning of fossil fuels emits CO2
● Growing paddy or live stock (animals such as cow, ox, goat, sheep, horse etc) release
methane
● Use of air conditioning equipments, refrigerators and aerosol sprays release CFC’s into the
atmosphere
● Consumption of fossil fuels to run automobiles, generate power, industries etc resulted in
increase of 20% of CO2 in the atmosphere. Power plants contribute for the 98% of CO2
emissions.
● Water vapour is the primary heat trapping gas.
The contribution of each gas to the green house effect depends on three factors:
i) Atmospheric concentration: Rate of increase of concentration of these gases in to the
atmosphere.
ii) Warming potential: It is also called global warming potential (GWP). It is a relative
measure of how effectively the gas can prevent the passage of IR radiation (heat).
Example: GWP OF CO2 is 1, GWP of CH4 is 11, GWP of CFC is 1500,N2O is 310.
iii) Atmospheric life time: The number of years the gas remains active in the atmosphere.
CO2 has the time horizon of about 100 years, time horizon of CH4 is 11 years, CFC is
having the time horizon of more than 100 years, N2O is 114 year, HCFC is 12 years.
Different types of human activities contribute for global warming (Fig. 1) & the relative
contributions of Green house gases to greenhouse effect (Fig. 2) can be represented graphically as
follows;
Figure 1
Different types of human activities: Fig. 1

Energy use (Automobiles, domestic etc) = 49%, Agricultural activities = 13%,
Deforestation = 14%, Industrial activity = 24%.
Relative contributions of Green house gases:
CO2 = 50%, CH4 = 19%, CFC = 17%, Ozone = 8%, N2O = 4%, H2O vapour = 2%.
Effects of Global warming:

Most likely effects of global warming on the environment are effect on ecology, sea level rise, water
resources, agriculture, air quality, health and electricity demand.
Some potential effects of global warming are listed below:

Climate change: Climate is the average long term weather of an area. Climate is a region’s general
pattern of atmospheric or weather conditions, seasonal variation and weather extremes (such as rain,
prolonged drought or hurricanes) averaged over a period of 30 years.
The common things that the models predicted are;
i) There will be a warming of earth’s surface at lower atmosphere and cooling at

stratosphere.
ii) The warming of the earth’s surface is varied. Warming in tropics is smaller than the
global mean by about 2.3oC depending on seasonal change.
iii) Precipitation pattern will change. Some part will be more wetted and some are dryer.
iv) Soil moisture regimes will be changed due to change in precipitation
v) Wind direction and wind stress over the sea surface will change, which will alter the
ocean current.
Rise in sea level: It is due to melting of glaciers, Himalayan Snow Mountains, polar tropics etc. It is
estimated that sea level will rise by 10 to 30 cm by the year 2030 and 30 to 80 cm by 2100. The
direct effects are recession of shore lines and threat to small islands such as Maldives, Srilanka,
Andaman, nicobar and many others.
Because of rise in sea level, “New moor” island in ‘Sundarban’ which was a issue between India and
Bangladesh is submerged recently as on 25th March 2010 news edition.
Water resources: The main consequence of climatic changes on water resources are changes in the
global amount of water resources and its distribution, changes in extreme phenomena related to
floods, droughts, changes in soil moisture, water quality.
Vegetation: Global warming exhibits direct and indirect geographical effects on vegetation. Direct
effects occurs through changes in the length of the growing seasons, the frequency of heat waves and
altered pattern of rainfall while indirect effects result from changes in topsoil management practices
i.e. soil erosion, infiltration etc.
Human health: Human health effects are manifested by changes in morbidity (prevalence of
disease) and increase in mortality.
Human settlements and society: Due to rise in sea water levels, millions of people living in the
coastal, plain, islands and wetland areas would be displaced by the low laying areas. This leads to
more concentrated population in urban areas and causes social problems.
Control of global warming process:

Global warming process can be controlled by reduction of green house gases.
Some of the solutions to prevent global warming are;
Adopt clean electricity technologies, wind energy, solar energy, hydrogen fuel cell etc. By
improvement of these technologies, these energy systems become more efficient, economical
and capable of competing with polluting fossil fuel base power plants.
Bio fuels such as biodiesel and ethanol could substantially cut down the CO2 emission from
automobiles.
Conservation of energy and improving the energy efficiency will prevent the expansion and
building of new power plants.
Planting more trees around the world and conservation of forest helps in reducing CO2 level
in atmosphere
Phasing out the production of CFCs.
Acid Rain:
The term ‘acid rain’ was first used by a Scotland chemist “Robert Angus Smith” in 1872. It means
the presence of more acid in rain water. He was famous for his research in Air pollution in 1852. He
is also referred as “Father of acid rain concept”. He published the book called “AIR & RAIN” in
1872.
Theoretically rain water as it falls should be neither acidic nor basic. It should be neutral in pH.
But in reality (practical) it is not so, because of the dissolution of atmospheric CO2 in rain water to
yield H2CO3 (Carbonic acid). Its pH is 5.7 . Therefore, rain water having pH lower than 5.7 is
called Acid Rain.
Sources of acids in rain water:
Entry of acids into atmosphere takes place through

1. Direct emissions of acid fumes/mists of sulphuric acid, nitric acid and hydrochloric acid due
to industrial activities.
2. Release of precursors of acids such as SO2 (through burning of coal), H2S and Nitrogen
oxides (NOx), which become acids by secondary activities.
3. Automobile engines exhaust NOx&SOx which may leads to the formation of acid rain.
4. Forest fire releases NOx&SOxthat also causes acid rain.
5. Lightening during thunder storm releasesNOx , which combines with rainwater and forms
acid rain.
Formation of acid in the atmosphere:
Formation of sulphuric acid from Sulphur Gases:

1. SO2 + 1/2O2 + m → SO3 + m where ‘m’ is any molecule - Slow reaction,
because it requires simultaneous collision of SO2, O and m which serves to carry off excess
energy.
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4. - Fast/rapid reaction
2. SO2 + Oxidant → SO3 (Oxidants such as Photochemical smog,Ozone, Hydrogen

peroxide, organic peroxides, PAN etc.)
SO3 +
H2O → H2SO4
The oxidizing property of smog makes the reaction rapid in polluted atmosphere and quickly forms
H2SO4.
3. H2S + O / O2 /O3 → SO2

SO2 +½ O2 + m → SO3 + m
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
Some quantity of sulphurous acid (H2SO3) can also contribute to the acid built up in the atmosphere.
However, these reactions get catalyzed due to the presence of metal salts such as iron and
manganese commonly found in fly ash produced by combustion of coal.
Formation of nitric acid form Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) :

1. 2 NO + O2 → 2NO2
2NO2 + H2O ↔ HNO3 + HNO2
3HNO2 → HNO3 + 2NO + H2O
2. Reacion of NO2 with Ozone:
NO2 + O3 → NO3 +O2
NO3 + NO2 → N2O5
N2O5 + H2O → 2 HNO3
Formation of Hydrochloric acid from HCl gas:
HCl gas dissolved in water Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Acid rain in Asia:

In asian countries the situation is about to reach alarming proportions. China and India are having
substantial reserve of coal. India is releasing maximum pollutants into the atmosphere after
China. Total sulphur emissions are increased from 4400 kilo tonnes (1990) to 6500 kilo tonnes
(2000) and to 10900 kilo tones in 2010 and expected to increase upto 18500 kilo tones by 2020.
Low pH level in the rain water have been reported from Delhi, UP, Maharashtra, MP, TN and
many other states in India.
Effects of Acid Rain:

1. Effect on vegetation (effect on trees): Plant life decreases and crops are damaged.
In highly industrialized regions forests are virtually killed. A survey reports that
about 25% of the forest wealth of Europe is damaged due to acid rain. Acid rain
rduces plant ability to produce oxygen.
2. Effect on water resources: Acidification of water resources, both surface and
underground water is a very critical outfall of acid rain. PH of water drastically
reduces which has deleterious effect on aquatic lives.
Other effects are i) water treatment cost increase
ii) water storage structures are damaged very soon.
It is reported that due to acidity there are thousands (4000 to 5000) of lakes in Norway
and Sweden that do not contain any fish.
3. Reduction in Soil PH: Low soil pH diminishes the bacterial activity in soil, which
has a serious repercussion (draw back) on nutrient fixation.
4. Damage to structures and property: Buildings deteriorate due to acid rain.
Monuments especially those structured out of marble such as Taj Mahal in India are
disfigured.
CaCO3 + H2SO4 Ca2+ + SO42- + H2O + CO2
5. Effect on human health: Skin irritation and aggrevation of respiratory diseases are
frequently reported from acid rain affected areas.
Ozone layer Depletion:

Ozone is one of the naturally occurring trace gases that make up our atmosphere. Ozone is a
poisonous gas made up of molecules consisting of three oxygen atom. Ozone is a rare gas and
represent just 3 out 10 million molecules in the atmosphere.
Ozone layer is in stratosphere, which is responsible for absorbing a large proportions of the sun’s
ultraviolet radiations which is very harmful to life on earth.
Effects of UV Radiation:
1. Causes skin cancer by altering the DNA Structure of human beings or animals.
2. Effect on eyes: Leads to Cataract and ultimate blindness if not treated well in time.
3. Excess UV radiations may also reduce immune efficiency of human body, making it
susceptible to infectious disease.
4. UV radiations can interfere with the photosynthesis process leading to lower crop yields.
5. One particular wavelength of UV radiations, called UV-B(270 to 315nm) can penetrate
several kilometers into the depth of oceans killing Phytoplanktons and sensitive fishes, thus
affecting the ocean food chain which decreases the production of marine food.
6. Exposure of pregnant women to UV rays can cause irreparable damage to the foetus.

Ozone formation:
Under normal conditions, stratospheric ozone is formed by a photochemical reaction between
oxygen molecules, oxygen atom and solar radiation.
According to Chapman the following reactions are responsible for the ozone formation.
Reactions responsible for the formation of ozone,

O2 + hγ → 2 ‘O’
O + O2 + m → O3 + m
Reactions responsible for destroy of ozone,
O3+ hγ → O + O2
O + O3 → 2O2
The oxygen molecules photo dissociates to form oxygen atom. The ‘O’ atom in turn react with O2 to
form O3. The O3 produced
is subsequently disassociated by both UV and visible light. Under this
natural equilibrium, the rate of ozone destroy is equal to rate of formation. Therefore the
concentration of ozone is fairly constant in the stratosphere. However, a slow & steady decline of
about 3% per decade in total amount of ozone in the earth’s stratosphere is observed during the past
two decades. A much larger variation as high as 10% is also observed over the earth’s polar regions
during the same period. (This phenomenon is commonly referred to as “Ozone hole”).
For Example: Antarctic ozone hole in South Polar Region. So there is serious problem in the
countries nearer to Antarctic region such as Australia, New Zealand and Argentina. A similar
situation, but to a lesser degree, is being felt in the north polar region countries such as northernmost
part of Europe, Russia, Canada and so on.
Depletion of Ozone layer:

It has been observed, particularly since 1985, that the ozone layer is getting depleted in the
stratosphere due to its chemical action with chlorine atoms being released by the dissociation of
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) particularly in the presence of sunlight.
CFC’s are the major chemicals responsible for ozone depletion and are referred by trade names such
as Freon-12 (C Cl2 F2, dichlorodifluoromethane)
and
Freon-11 (C Cl3F ,Trichlorofluoromethane).
They are largely used and subsequently released into the atmosphere, by the following activities:
Refrigeration
Air Conditioning
Extinguishing fires
As cleaning solvents in Industries
As blowing agents in plastic industries
As solvent in Paint industry.
CFC’s are inert under normal atmospheric conditions in the lower atmosphere and hence rise several
kilometers up into the stratosphere where they release chlorine atom in the presence of sunlight.
Cl + O3 → Clo (Chlorine monoxide) + O2
(chlorine atom released from CFC’s)
The ClO so formed then reacts with another Oxygen atom to form a new oxygen molecule and a
Chlorine atom:
ClO + O → Cl + O2
These chlorine atoms thus formed break apart the ozone molecule in a drastic way leading to large
scale ozone depletion.
Each chlorine atom is estimated to destroy up to One lakh ozone molecules at much faster rate than
that is formed (replenished) naturally.
Other ozone depleting substances are CCl4, Halon (haloalkanes), and Methyl Bromide.
The polar regions are more prone (disposed/inclined) to ozone depletion because of the formation of
the polar vortex ( a huge air mass, trapped for a long time, due to blowing winds in a circular pattern
at polar region), which collects dust particles, CFC’s and other components. The cold environment
forms tiny ice crystals and these crystals get accumulated, as very cold temperatures build up due to
long nights. The CFC’s brought from lower levels/regions get attached to the tiny ice crystals. The
CFC’s may also breakdown into Chlorine monoxide (ClO).
[Vortex= whirlpool, Inkannada it is called ‘Suli’]
Finally when the sun rises after a long night (days of night period), its light triggers a massive
demolition of ozone. This vast depletion of ozone at that level in the stratosphere makes the ozone
layer very thin. This is called formation of “Ozone holes”. The ozone holes permit a large quantity
of UV radiation to pass through them and reach the earth’s surface.
Solid Waste management:

Muncipal waste management:
Various types of solid waste are produced from various anthropogenic activities and normally
discarded as useless or unwanted. Solid waste includes plastic containers, glass material, polythene,
scrape, rubber, metals, hospital waste, paints, crop residues etc. Developed countries like USA,
Canada, Japan, England, Germany and France are the main solid waste producers. The problem is
increasing day by day due to urbanization and industrialization.
Causes of Solid Wastes/Sources:
1.The increase in solid waste is due to overpopulation, affluence and technological advancement.
2.Increase in hospital waste including glass bottles, plastic, metal syringe, etc., also increases solid
waste.
3.A major part of solid waste is released from the urban centres (domestic & Commercial, mining,
Industry, and agricultural sectors.
4.Municipal waste mainly contains domestic waste like metals, plastic, glass and other solid
materials.
Effects of Solid Waste:
1.Unhygienic environment causes diseases like diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid, cholera, plague, etc.

2.Solid waste modifies the physiochemical and biological properties of plants and soil.
3.Groundwater gets contaminated.
4.It enhances air and water pollution.
5.Open breeding sites of insects and infectious organisms are produced.
Solid Waste Management / Disposal Methods (Control Measures of Urban & Industrial
Wastes):
Solid waste is required to be displaced or recycled safely. The solid waste management system
includes proper collection, transportation, disposal and recycling of waste. Solid waste can be
minimized by the following methods.
1. Sanitary landfill: After collection of waste, sanitary landfill is the safest method of solid waste
treatment. In this solid waste (garbage) is dumped into a natural or constructed pit and left to
decompose slowly. However in urban areas such dumping sites pose serious threats.
2. Composting: Composting refers to the biochemical degradation of organic material to yield a

sanitary soil supplement. This is a useful and eco-friendly technique that may be utilized for use of
wastes rich in organic materials. The major drawback of this method is the necessity to separate
organic materials from other wastes. It is a very common practice in rural areas to produce biogas
and manure from agriculture waste, dung, domestic waste, animal excreta, etc.
3. Incineration: In the method of incineration, combustible waste is burnt at a high temperature

such that all combustible substances are reduced to ash and other noncombustible materials. Using
this process, the volume of waste is decreased by 75% to 95%. This is the most convenient method
of disposal especially in densely populated areas. Burning of solid waste and utilization of its heat is
a common practice at several places. The major drawback of this method is that it leads to air
pollution and to the generation of toxic ash.
4. Recycling: As a part of waste management, efforts are now being made to recycle materials like
glass, old paper, cans, newspapers, tin, plastic, rubber, etc.
5. Avoiding Ocean dumping of solid wastes which affect the marine ecosystem and the best possible
technique for the management of waste would be reduction at the source.
Biomedical Waste:
Introduction:
Biomedical waste is waste that is either putrescible or potentially infectious. Biomedical waste may
also include waste associated with the generation of biomedical waste that visually appears to be of
medical or laboratory origin (e.g., packaging, unused bandages, infusion kits, etc.), as well research
laboratory waste containing biomolecules or organisms that are restricted from environmental
release. As detailed below, discarded sharps are considered biomedical waste whether they are
contaminated or not, due to the possibility of being contaminated with blood and their propensity to
cause injury when not properly contained and disposed of. Biomedical waste is a type of biowaste.
Biomedical waste may be solid or liquid. Examples of infectious waste include discarded blood,
sharps, unwanted microbiological cultures and stocks, identifiable body parts, other human or animal
tissue, used bandages and dressings, discarded gloves, other medical supplies that may have been in
contact with blood and body fluids, and laboratory waste that exhibits the characteristics described
above. Waste sharps include potentially contaminated used (and unused discarded) needles, scalpels,
lancets and other devices capable of penetrating skin.
Sources of Bio-Medical Waste:

While urban solid waste has attracted the attention of town planners, environmental activists and
civic administrators, there is yet lack of concern for some special sources of waste and its
management. One such waste is bio-medical waste generated primarily from health care
establishments, including hospitals, nursing homes, veterinary hospitals, clinics and general
practitioners, dispensaries, blood banks, animal houses and research institutes.
The other sources of biomedical waste are the following:
Households, Industries, education institutes and research centres, Blood banks and clinical
laboratories, Health care establishments (for humans and animals)
The sector generates all the types of waste listed under the bio-medical waste are shown in Figure 1
Categories of Biomedical wastes:

Category Source of waste Treatment/Disposal
1 Human Anatomical Waste (human tissues, or gans, body Incineration /deep burial
parts)
2 Animal Waste (animal tissues, organs, body parts, Incineration /deep burial
carcasses, bleeding parts, fluid, blood and experimental
animals used in research, waste generated by veterinary
hospitals, colleges, disc harge from hospitals, animal
houses)
3 Microbiology & Biotechnology Waste (w astes from Local autoclaving / microwaving
laboratory cultures, stocks or specimens of incineration
micro-organisms live or attenuated vaccines, human and
animal cell culture used in research and industrial

laboratories, wastes from production of biological, toxins,
dishes and devices used for transfer of cultures)
4 Waste Sharps(needles, syringes, scalpels, blades, glass, Disinfection (chemical treatment
etc. that may cause puncture and unused sharps) /autoclaving/ microwaving and
mutilation/Shredding.
5 Discarded Medicines & Cytotoxic drugs (wastes Incineration /destruction and
comprising of outdated, contaminated and discarded drugs disposal in secured landfills
medicines)
6 Soiled Waste (items contaminated with blood and body Incineration autoclaving/
fluids including cotton, dressings, soiled plaster casts, microwaving
lines, beddi
ngs, other material contaminated with blood.
7 Solid Waste (wastes generated from disposable items Disinfection by chemical
other than waste sharps such as tabbing, catheters, treatment autoclaving/
intravenous sets etc.) microwaving and mutilation/
shredding”
8 Liquid Waste(waste generated from laboratory and Disinfection by chemical
washing, cleaning, house- keeping and disinfecting treatment and discharge into
activities) drains
9 Incineration Ash (ash from incineration of any Disposal in municipal landfill

bio-medical waste)
10 Chemical Waste (chemicals used in production of Chemical treatment and
biological, discharge into drains for
chemicals used in disinfection, as insecticides, etc.) liquids and secured landfill
for solids.
Disposal methods:
Different methods are used for the disposal of bio medical waste and are discussed below:
Incineration:
It is a controlled combustion process where waste is completely oxidized and harmful
microorganisms present in it are destroyed/denatured under high temperature. An article regarding
plasma pyrolysis of medical waste was reported by Neema and Gareshprasad (2002). The authors
stated that the operating cost of the system would be Indian Rupees 13 per
kilogramme (kg), and the energy recovered would cost Indian Rupees 8 per kg; thus the net cost
would be Rs 7 per kg. Amount and composition of hospital waste generated are in Table 5.
Incineration is popular in countries such as Japan where land is a scarce resource, as they do not
consume as much area as a landfill. Sweden has been a leader in using the energy generated from
incineration over the past 20 years. Denmark also extensively uses waste-to-energy incineration in
localised combined heat and power facilities supporting district heating schemes.
Autoclaving:
Autoclaving is a low-heat thermal process where steam is brought into direct contact with waste in a
controlled manner and for sufficient duration to disinfect the wastes. For ease and safety in
operation, the system should be horizontal type and exclusively designed for the treatment of
bio-medical waste. For optimum results, pre-vacuum based system be preferred against the gravity
type system. It shall have tamper-proof control panel with efficient display and recording devices for
critical parameters such as time, temperature, pressure, date and batch number etc (N
Microwaving microbial inactivation occurs as a result of the thermal effect of electromagnetic
radiation spectrum lying between the frequencies 3
00 and 300,000 MHz. Microwave heating is an
inter-molecular heating process. The heating occurs
inside the waste material in the presence of steam
Hydroclavingis similar to that of autoclaving except that the waste is subjected to indirect heating
by applying steam in the outer jacket. The waste is continuously tumbled in the chamber during the
process.
Shredder:
Shredding is a process by which waste are deshaped or cut into smaller pieces so as to make the
wastes unrecognizable. It helps in prevention of reuse of bio-medical waste and also acts as identifier
that the wastes have been disinfected and are safe to dispose off. A shredder is to be used for
shredding in bio-medical waste with minimum requirements.
Conclusions
Proper management of Bio medical waste is a concern that has been recognized by both
government agencies and the Non government organizations. Several hazards and toxic materials
containing should be disposed off with proper take and care. Inadequate and inefficient segregation
and transportation system may cause severe problem to the society hence implementing of protective
measures, written policies all of these factors contribute to increased risk of exposure of staff,
patients and the community to biomedical hazards. In order to accelerate the rate at which proper
processing and management methods are designed, timely regulatory and legislative policies and
procedures are needed. To properly separate, process and isolation of wastes, they must be
well-characterized, which is challenging. Safe and effective management of bio medical waste is not
only a legal necessity but also a social responsibility. Lack of concern in persons working in that
area, less motivation, awareness and cost factor are some of the problems faced in the proper
hospital waste management. Proper surveys of waste management procedures in various practices
are needed. Clearly there is a need for education as to the hazards associated with improper waste
disposal. An effective communication strategy is imperative keeping in view the low awareness level
among different category of staff in the health care establishments regarding biomedical waste
management. One important direction for future research would be to project the flows of bio
medical waste worldwide and quantitatively and qualitatively assess.
Industrial solid waste:
Industrial solid waste is defined as waste that is generated by businesses from an industrial or
manufacturing process or waste generated from non-manufacturing activities that are managed as a
separate waste stream. Businesses that utilize manufacturing or industrial processes, or that are
service or commercial establishments, are likely producing industrial solid waste. This is a special
classification of non-hazardous, non-household waste that requires, by state law, special evaluation
to determine the proper disposal method.
Generators of industrial solid waste are responsible for evaluating the waste and demonstrating that
it is non-hazardous, either by documentation of the waste's characteristics and/or by laboratory
testing.

Nowadays, the industry produces an enormous amount of solid waste that has very negative
environmental effects. Owing to waste variety and its scattered sites of production, selecting the
most proper solid waste treatment is difficult. Simultaneously, social concern about environmental
sustainability rises every day and, as a consequence, improvement on waste treatment systems is
being demanded. However, when a waste treatment system is being designed, not only
environmental but also technical and economic issues should be considered.
E-Waste Management:
Introduction:
"E-waste" is a popular, informal name for electronic products nearing the end of their "useful life.
"E-wastes are considered dangerous, as certain components of some electronic products contain
materials that are hazardous, depending on their condition and density. The hazardous content of
these materials pose a threat to human health and environment. Discarded computers, televisions,
VCRs, stereos, copiers, fax machines, electric lamps, cell phones, audio equipment and batteries if
improperly disposed can leach lead and other substances into soil and groundwater. Many of these
products can be reused, refurbished, or recycled in an environmentally sound manner so that they are
less harmful to the ecosystem. This paper highlights the hazards of e-wastes, the need for its
appropriate management and options that can be implemented.

Industrial revolution followed by the advances in information technology during the last century has
radically changed people's lifestyle. Although this development has helped the human race,
mismanagement has led to new problems of contamination and pollution. The technical prowess
acquired during the last century has posed a new challenge in the management of wastes. For
example, personal computers (PCs) contain certain components, which are highly toxic, such as
chlorinated and brominated substances, toxic gases, toxic metals, biologically active materials, acids,
plastics and plastic additives. The hazardous content of these materials pose an environmental and
health threat. Thus proper management is necessary while disposing or recycling e-wastes.
Effects of E-Waste constituent on Health:
Source of e-wastes Constituent Health effects
Solder in printed circuit ● Damage to central and peripheral nervous

boards, glass panels and systems, blood systems and kidney
Lead (PB)
gaskets in computer damage.
monitors ● Affects brain development of children.
● Toxic irreversible effects on human health.

Chip resistors and ● Accumulates in kidney and liver.
Cadmium (CD)
semiconductors ● Causes neural damage.
● Teratogenic.
● Chronic damage to the brain.

Relays and switches, printed
Mercury (Hg) ● Respiratory and skin disorders due to
circuit boards
bioaccumulation in fishes.

Corrosion protection of
untreated and galvanized Hexavalent ● Asthmatic bronchitis.
steel plates, decorator or chromium (Cr) VI ● DNA damage.
hardner for steel housings
Burning produces dioxin. It causes
Cabling and computer Plastics including ● Reproductive and developmental

housing PVC problems;
● Immune system damage;
● Interfere with regulatory hormones
Plastic housing of electronic

Brominated flame
equipments and circuit ● Disrupts endocrine system functions
retardants (BFR)
boards.
Short term exposure causes:

Front panel of CRTs Barium (Ba)
● Muscle weakness;
● Damage to heart, liver and spleen.
● Carcinogenic (lung cancer)

● Inhalation of fumes and dust. Causes
Motherboard Beryllium (Be)
chronic beryllium disease or beryllicosis.
● Skin diseases such as warts.
MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTES
It is estimated that 75% of electronic items are stored due to uncertainty of how to manage it. These
electronic junks lie unattended in houses, offices, warehouses etc. and normally mixed with
household wastes, which are finally disposed off at landfills. This necessitates implementable
management measures.
In industries management of e-waste should begin at the point of generation. This can be done by
waste minimization techniques and by sustainable product design. Waste minimization in industries
involves adopting:
● inventory management,
● production-process modification,
● volume reduction,
● recovery and reuse.
Inventory management
Proper control over the materials used in the manufacturing process is an important way to reduce
waste generation (Freeman, 1989). By reducing both the quantity of hazardous materials used in the
process and the amount of excess raw materials in stock, the quantity of waste generated can be

reduced. This can be done in two ways i.e. establishing material-purchase review and control
procedures and inventory tracking system.
Developing review procedures for all material purchased is the first step in establishing an inventory
management program. Procedures should require that all materials be approved prior to purchase. In
the approval process all production materials are evaluated to examine if they contain hazardous
constituents and whether alternative non-hazardous materials are available.
Another inventory management procedure for waste reduction is to ensure that only the needed
quantity of a material is ordered. This will require the establishment of a strict inventory tracking
system. Purchase procedures must be implemented which ensure that materials are ordered only on
an as-needed basis and that only the amount needed for a specific period of time is ordered.
Production-process modification
Changes can be made in the production process, which will reduce waste generation. This reduction
can be accomplished by changing the materials used to make the product or by the more efficient use
of input materials in the production process or both. Potential waste minimization techniques can be
broken down into three categories:
i) Improved operating and maintenance procedures,

ii) Material change and
iii)Process-equipment modification.
Improvements in the operation and maintenance of process equipment can result in significant waste
reduction. This can be accomplished by reviewing current operational procedures or lack of
procedures and examination of the production process for ways to improve its efficiency. Instituting
standard operation procedures can optimise the use of raw materials in the production process and
reduce the potential for materials to be lost through leaks and spills. A strict maintenance program,
which stresses corrective maintenance, can reduce waste generation caused by equipment failure. An
employee-training program is a key element of any waste reduction program. Training should
include correct operating and handling procedures, proper equipment use, recommended
maintenance and inspection schedules, correct process control specifications and proper
management of waste materials.
Hazardous materials used in either a product formulation or a production process may be replaced
with a less hazardous or non-hazardous material. This is a very widely used technique and is
applicable to most manufacturing processes. Implementation of this waste reduction technique may
require only some minor process adjustments or it may require extensive new process equipment.
For example, a circuit board manufacturer can replace solvent-based product with water-based flux
and simultaneously replace solventvapor degreaser with detergent parts washer.
Installing more efficient process equipment or modifying existing equipment to take advantage of
better production techniques can significantly reduce waste generation. New or updated equipment
can use process materials more efficiently producing less waste. Additionally such efficiency
reduces the number of rejected or off-specification products, thereby reducing the amount of
material which has to be reworked or disposed of. Modifying existing process equipment can be a
very cost-effective method of reducing waste generation. In many cases the modification can just be

relatively simple changes in the way the materials are handled within the process to ensure that they
are not wasted. For example, in many electronic manufacturing operations, which involve coating a
product, such as electroplating or painting, chemicals are used to strip off coating from rejected
products so that they can be recoated. These chemicals, which can include acids, caustics, cyanides
etc are often a hazardous waste and must be properly managed. By reducing the number of parts that
have to be reworked, the quantity of waste can be significantly reduced.
Volume reduction
Volume reduction includes those techniques that remove the hazardous portion of a waste from a
non-hazardous portion. These techniques are usually to reduce the volume, and thus the cost of
disposing of a waste material. The techniques that can be used to reduce waste-stream volume can be
divided into 2 general categories: source segregation and waste concentration. Segregation of wastes
is in many cases a simple and economical technique for waste reduction. Wastes containing different
types of metals can be treated separately so that the metal value in the sludge can be recovered.
Concentration of a waste stream may increase the likelihood that the material can be recycled or
reused. Methods include gravity and vacuum filtration, ultra filtration, reverse osmosis, freeze
vaporization etc.
For example, an electronic component manufacturer can use compaction equipments to reduce
volume of waste cathode ray-tube.
Recovery and reuse
This technique could eliminate waste disposal costs, reduce raw material costs and provide income
from a salable waste. Waste can be recovered on-site, or at an off-site recovery facility, or through
inter industry exchange. A number of physical and chemical techniques are available to reclaim a
waste material such as reverse osmosis, electrolysis, condensation, electrolytic recovery, filtration,
centrifugation etc. For example, a printed-circuit board manufacturer can use electrolytic recovery to
reclaim metals from copper and tin-lead plating bath.
However recycling of hazardous products has little environmental benefit if it simply moves the
hazards into secondary products that eventually have to be disposed of. Unless the goal is to redesign
the product to use nonhazardous materials, such recycling is a false solution.
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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES FOR B.

Environmental Pollution – Definition, sources and types, Pollutant-Definition & classification,

Environmental degradation – Introduction, Global warming and greenhouse effect,

Definition: Pollution is an undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of

The sources of pollution are broadly classified into two groups.

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b) Based on Biological degradability:

c) Based on their existance:

Types of Environmental Pollution:

Major Air Pollutants: Sources and Effects

Pollutants Sources Effects

i) Industrial wastes: The increasing number of industries contributes heavily to air

Effects of Air pollution:

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Control of Air Pollution:

Sources of water pollution are classified into two types.

Causes of water pollution:

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Major water pollutants:

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7. Thermal pollution of water(Heat): Large quantity of water is heated when it is used in

Effects of water pollution:

Destruction of ecosystem: ​Ecosystems (the interaction of living things in a place, depending on

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​Remedial/Control measures of water pollution:

● decreased agricultural output,

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Types of soil pollution:

Causes of soil pollution:

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Effects of soil pollution:

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Rank Country No. of vehicles/1000 population

Causes of automobile/vehicle pollution:

(i) The release of burnt fuel byproducts into the atmosphere.

(ii) Use of Non-Eco Friendly Vehicles

(iii) Particulate matter

(iv) Evaporation of fuel

(v) Lack of Vehicle Maintenance

(vi) Un-burnt Hydrocarbons

(vii) Noise from moving vehicles

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Effects of automobile/vehicle pollution:

(i) Global warming

(ii) Poor quality of air

(iii) International reputation

(vi) Smog and acidic rain

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Control of automobile/vehicle pollution:

(i) Civic education

(ii) Progressive policies

(iii) Vehicle maintenance

(iv) Discard old vehicles

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(vi) Alternative means of transport

(v) Protective wear

Global warming/Green house effect:

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Different types of human activities: Fig. 1

Effects of Global warming:

Some potential effects of global warming are listed below:

The common things that the models predicted are;

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Destruction of ecosystem: Ecosystems (the interaction of living things in a place, depending on

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Remedial/Control measures of water pollution:

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2. SO2 + Oxidant → SO3 (Oxidants such as Photochemical smog,Ozone, Hydrogen

3. H2S + O / O2 /O3 → SO2

Formation of nitric acid form Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) :

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2. Composting: Composting refers to the biochemical degradation of organic material to yield a

3. Incineration: In the method of incineration, combustible waste is burnt at a high temperature

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