Vision IAS Mains 2020 Test 11 English Solution

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APPROACH – ANSWER: G. S. MAINS MOCK TEST - 1401 (2020)
1. Give an account of the contributions made by Indians to the field of mathematics in ancient and
medieval times. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Introduce by mentioning about scientific traditions in India.
• Discuss the major contributions made by the Indians to the field of mathematics in ancient and
medieval times.
• Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
As one of the oldest civilizations of the world, Indian civilization has a strong tradition of science
and technology, particularly mathematics. Many of the theories of modern day mathematics were
actually not only known to ancient Indians, they also discovered them.
Following are the major contributions made by Indians in ancient and medieval times
• Baudhayan (800 BC- 740 BC): It was Baudhayan who first calculated the value of pi. Pi is
useful in calculating the area and circumference of a circle. Pythagoras theorem was
mentioned in Baudhayan’s Sulva Sutra, several years before the age of Pythagoras.
• Pingala (around 500 BC): Gave binary numeral system and arithmetical triangle.
• Aryabhata (476-550 CE): He wrote Aryabhattiya, which is a summary of mathematics of his
time. The book includes topics from number theory, geometry, trigonometry and Beejganita
(algebra). Aryabhata showed that zero was not a numeral only but also a symbol and a concept.
Discovery of zero enabled Aryabhata to find out the exact distance between the earth and the
moon. Aryabhata also worked on the approximation of the value of pi.
• Brahmagupta (598-670 CE): He introduced negative numbers and operations on zero into
mathematics. He wrote Brahm Sputa Siddhantika through which the Arabs came to know
about Indian mathematical system.
• Mahavira (9th Century): He wrote Ganit Sara Sangraha in 850 A.D., which is the first textbook
on arithmetic in present day form. The current method of solving Least Common Multiple (LCM)
of given numbers was also described by him.
• Bhaskar Acharya (1114-1185): He introduced Chakrawat Method or the Cyclic Method to
solve algebraic equations. This method was rediscovered six centuries later by European
mathematicians, who called it inverse cycle. His book Siddanta Shirmoni is divided into 4
sections: Lilavati (Arithmetic), Beejaganit (Algebra), Goladhyaya (Sphere) and Grahaganit
(mathematics of planets).
• Madhava of Sangamagrama (1340-1350 CE): Discovery of power series expansions of
trigonometric sine, cosine etc.
• Jyesthadeva (1530-1610): He gave proof of Pythagoras theorem in his book Yuktibhasa in the
16th Century.
While these contributions were immense, they were not well-documented and disseminated
compared to their counterparts in the modern western world.
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2. Female poet-saints played a significant role in the bhakti movement. Discuss. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Introduce by giving a brief background of the Bhakti movement.
• Discuss the significant role played by some prominent female bhakti saints in spreading the
movement.
• Conclude appropriately.
Answer:
The Bhakti movement started in the 6th-7th century AD from the Southern part of the country. The
movement grew as a result of the rigid caste system, complicated ritualism that constituted the
practice of worship and the inherent need to move to a more fulfilling method of worship and
salvation. In this context, the bhakti movement advocated for a personal connection to God through
devotion and surrender. This movement also included woman saints who played a significant role
in propagating the idea of Bhakti through their poems, as mentioned below:
• Andal: She was an 8th century Tamil Vaishnavite saint and the only woman among the twelve
Alwars. Her work - Thiruppavai - has been included in the sacred Divya Prabandham, the Tamil
Veda.
• Akka Mahadevi: She was a 12th century poet-saint of Veer-Saiva sect from Karnataka. She gave
up her societal position and domestic security for the company of Shiva. Through her ‘vachanas’
she fought to prove that every soul, irrespective of gender, has a right to explore and reach the
divine.
• Lal Ded or Lalleshwari: She was a 14th century mystic of the Kashmiri Shaivite sect. The
dominant theme of her poems called the ‘vakhs’ was the rejection of rituals in favour of
meditative devotion, questioning the secondary status of women and advocating equality for all.
• Janabai: She was a 14th century Marathi religious poet and devotee of Lord Vitthoba. Her
‘Abhangas’ are included in collections of the work of the bhakti saint Namdev. She gave a
message that despite being a woman, one can achieve the love of God.
• Meerabai: She was a 16th century traveling-saint and devotee of Lord Krishna from Mewar
region. Her ‘bhajans’ show intense devotion towards Krishna and her defiance of patriarchal
norms associated with powerful institutions of family, marriage, caste, clan, royalty, etc. of that
time. Even Gandhiji considered Meerabai as an exemplar of non-violent resistance.
• Bahinabai: She was a poet-saint from 17th century Maharashtra and devotee of Lord Vitthoba.
Despite her high caste status, she defied all conventions and chose the path of devotion of the
low-caste poet-saint Tukaram. Abhangas written by her shows that unlike other female bhakti-
saints who renounced their married life for God, Bahinabai chose a middle path and questioned
patriarchy and the caste system without upsetting them as a whole.
The contribution of the female poet-saints to the bhakti movement has been immense. Their
writings not only mention the social conditions of the times but also depict their devotional fervour
and metaphysical depth.
3. Give an account of Jain architecture that developed in various parts of the country during
different periods. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Give brief introduction about evolution of Jain Architecture in India.
• Give some examples of Jain architecture found in various parts of India.
• Highlight key features of Jain architecture and give an appropriate conclusion.
Answer:
Jainism arose around 6th century BC and has influenced the architecture of the time. Early Jain
architecture is less easy to differentiate as it imitated Buddhist and Hindu styles. However, it later
developed certain distinct features of its own such as Maru-Gurajara architecture.
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Initially, Jain temples were made next to Buddhist temples following the Buddhist rock-cut style.
The use of bricks in these temples was almost negligible. For example- Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves
in Odisha were used as monasteries by Jain monks. Jain Ellora caves in Maharashtra imitated the
floor plan of Kailasa temple. The Jain Viharas have small and plain cells and do not have assembly or
prayer halls surrounded by cells unlike their Buddhist counterparts or had small and plain cells.
However, in the later years, Jains employed the concept of mountains of immortality and deviated
from Hindu and Buddhist sites and started building temple cities on hills, such as Dilwara Temple
(Mount Abu). These holy hills were ornamented with a crown of eternal Arhat chaityas (tabernacles
of saints) shining with the splendor of jewels.
Such Jain architecture developed in various parts of India such as:
• Rajasthan hosts some prominent examples including Dilwara temples at Mount Abu (11th-
13th century), Temple of Adinatha at Ranakpur (15th century), Nasiyan Jain Temple in
Ajmer (19th Century).
• Maharashtra: The change in architectural type and material in construction of Jain temples can
be seen here from the development of Ellora caves (9-10th Century) and Anjaneri temples to
recently constructed Digamber Jain temple in Shirdi.
• Madhya Pradesh: Bawangaja is known for the world's largest megalithic statue of Lord
Adinatha. Adinatha temple located at Khajuraho is part of UNESCO World Heritage Site along
with other temples in Khajuraho Group of Monuments.
• Karnataka: The famous statue of Gomateshwara at Shravanabelagola is an example of rich
heritage of Jain architecture. Various temples are found in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu as
well.
• Gujarat: Palitana temples (9th-10th Century) located on Shetrunjaya hills in Palitana have a
unique architectural style. The ornamentation is such that in sunlight their appear to have been
made up of ivory.
Jain architecture, especially Jain temples have certain key features which can be described as
follows:
• Dedicated to Tirthankaras: Jainism preferred to situate images of the tirthankaras within the
precincts of the temple. All of the Jain temples are dedicated to one of the 24 Tirthankaras.
• Chaumukh design: In Jain temple, Chaumukh design is seen frequently. In this, the image of a
Tirthankar faces four cardinal directions and entry into these temples is also from four doors
that face the cardinal directions.
• Use of pillars: Jain temples have numerous pillars having a well designed structure, forming
squares which contains the image of a deity. From the pillars, a false arch/bracket springs about
two thirds of the way up.
• Domed roofs: Domes or shikharas are usually more curved than the ones found in Hindu
temples, which gives to Jain temple cities a very distinct skyline of multiple dome points
reaching toward the sky.
• Ornamentation: The pillars as well as the domed roof are richly decorated with intricate
carvings.
Thus, Jain architecture starting from its nascent stage evolved to immensely contribute to the
diversity of Indian architecture.
4. Curzon's domestic and foreign policies were motivated by the urge to further strengthen the
British position in India. Discuss. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• In the introduction briefly mention the timeline of Curzon’s reign in India and its objectives.
• Discuss how Curzon's foreign and domestic policies were motivated by the urge to further
strengthen the British position in India.
• Conclude by briefly stating the consequences of his repressive policies in India.
Answer:
Lord Curzon was the Viceroy of India from 1899 - 1905. His policies were aimed at strengthening
British position in India, although, they caused great resentment among the Indians.
Curzon's domestic policies:
• Partition of Bengal: He believed that Bengal was the nerve-center of Indian nationalism.
Partition of Bengal on communal lines into East and West Bengal was meant to halt the
nationalist movement.
• Disfavoured consolidation of any region: For example, he was averse to incorporating Berar
into the province of Bombay, as it might lead to solidarity of the Maratha community.
• Calcutta Corporation Act of 1899: It reduced the strength of elected members from India, thus
giving English members majority in Calcutta Corporation.
• Indian Universities Act of 1904. The Act aimed to curb rising nationalism in the universities.
• Sedition Act and the Official Secrets Act (1904): One of the main purposes of the Act was to
muzzle the voice of nationalist publications. It curtailed the freedom of the press.
• Critical approach towards Congress: He adopted harsh and repressive measures to deal with
the nationalist leaders of Congress. In 1900, he declared that one of his great ambitions was to
ensure the demise of Congress.
His key foreign policies and actions were:
• British military expedition to Tibet: The British expedition to Tibet under Major
Younghusband was intended to counter Russia's perceived ambitions in the East and possible
invasion of British India. The Anglo-Tibetan Treaty of Lhasa (1904) prohibited Tibet to have no
relations with any other foreign powers, effectively converting Tibet into a British protectorate.
• British military expedition to Persian Gulf: Curzon subdued the growth of any power that
could challenge the British supremacy in Persian Gulf. Curzon sent military expedition to Persia
and brought them under control.
• Curzon’s policy of ‘buffer zones’: Curzon advocated ‘buffer zones’ between rival and
competing empires. For example, Thailand was to buffer the expanding the French empire,
similarly Afghanistan for the Russian empire, and Tibet for the Chinese empire.
• Curzon’s frontier policies: Curzon recognized the impracticality of administering the turbulent
frontier region. For example, in 1901 he created a new North-West Frontier Province (Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa) under a British Chief Commissioner responsible directly to the Viceroy. By
instituting a policy of regular payments to frontier tribes, the new province reduced border
conflicts.
These policies adopted by Lord Curzon further fuelled nationalism in India. Partition of Bengal led
to the beginning of the Swadeshi movement Government repression and frustration caused by the
failure of the political struggle ultimately resulted in revolutionary terrorism.
5. The Communal Award was seen not only as an attack on national unity but also inimical to the
interests of the depressed classes. Discuss. Also, highlight how the Poona Pact sought to
address some concerns in this regard. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Give a brief background of the Communal Award and mention its key features.
• Explain how it was an attack on national unity and was not in the interests of depressed classes.
• Discuss how Poona Pact addressed the concerns arising from the communal award.
Answer:
In the 1920s, the British attempted to make the government more representative and broad based
but there were divergent views on representation for the depressed classes. One section demanded
reservation within joint electorates and another section demanded separate electorate for the
depressed classes.
In this regard, the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award in
1932 which introduced a separate electorate for the Depressed Classes. The award also provided
certain statutory safeguards to the depressed classes:
• Depressed classes were declared as a minority community similar to Muslims, Sikhs,
Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans.
• The award gave the depressed classes voting rights along with caste Hindus in the general
constituencies and also an extra vote in the special Depressed Classes constituencies.
This Award was seen as an attack on national unity and was considered harmful to the interests of
the depressed classes because:
• A separate electorate could have resulted in permanent segregation of the depressed classes
from the Hindu community. This was seen as a prospective ‘divide and rule’ strategy of British.
• The aim of British government was to detach depressed class people of the province from the
freedom struggle movement and get them interested in social reforms instead.
• The Communal Award could have made any future agreement among Indians more difficult
with multiple viewpoints and no consensus.
• As per Gandhiji, separate electorate would ensure that the Untouchables remained
‘Untouchables in perpetuity’ since the caste Hindus would not consider it as their moral
responsibility to strive for the eradication of untouchability anymore.
• The seats allocated were few and disproportionate to the population of the depressed classes.
Also, there was no clarity over their representation in the Central Assembly.
Gandhiji strongly opposed separate electorates for the depressed classes and sat on fast unto death
in Yeravada jail. This forced the representatives of caste Hindus (such as Madan Mohan Malviya, C.
Rajagopalachari) and the depressed classes (such as B.R. Ambedkar, M.C. Rajah) to sign a pact,
known as Poona Pact. The idea of separate electorate for depressed classes was abandoned and
some of their concerns were resolved through the pact:
• The seats reserved for the depressed classes were increased to 147 in the Provincial
Legislatures and 18% in the Central Legislature. This system of representation of depressed
classes through reserved seats in the Provincial and Central Legislatures was to stay until
terminated by mutual agreement between the communities.
• Depressed classes would not be deprived of election to local bodies or appointment to public
services on the basis of their birth.
• To provide educational facilities to the members of depressed classes, every province would
earmark an adequate amount out of the educational grant they receive.
Poona Pact is significant due to the fact that it initiated a pattern of political compromise between
“caste” Hindus and the depressed classes in the allocation of legislative representation and
government jobs. It led to the passage of resolution that no one shall be regarded as untouchables
amongst Hindus and they will have the same rights in all the social institutions as the other Hindus.
6. Given the important role played by the press in the formation and propagation of nationalist
ideology, the British sought to curb the freedom of the press at various points during the
freedom movement. Elaborate. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Briefly introduce by explaining the emergence of press and its purpose in India.
• Discuss the role played by the press in formation and propagation of nationalist ideology.
• Discuss various Acts which were brought to curb the freedom of the Press.
• Conclude by briefly explaining their outcomes/consequences.
Answer:
The British had introduced the printing press in India and thus initiated the development of the
modern press. Educated Indians recognised that the press could play a great role in educating
public opinion and in influencing government policies through criticism and censure. Several
nationalist leaders played an important part in starting newspapers and making them a powerful
political force e.g. Dada Bhai Naorojee (Voice of India), Surendra Nath Banerjee (The Bengalee), Bal
Gangadhar Tilak (Kesari and Mahratta). The press gradually became a major weapon of the
nationalist movement. It played the following role:
• It formed an important tool on political propaganda and education, formation and propagation
of nationalist ideology which was the main political task in the early phase of the nationalist
movement.
• Nationalist leaders used the press as a tool to arouse, train, mobilize and consolidate public
opinion. The Indian National Congress in its early days relied solely on the press to propagate its
resolutions and proceedings.
• Newspapers had a wide reach and stimulated a library movement. Not just cities but also in
remote villages, each news item and editorial would be read and thoroughly discussed in the
local libraries which would gather around a single newspaper. Thus, newspapers served the
purpose of not only political education but also political participation.
• By putting government acts and policies to critical scrutiny common newspapers acted as an
institution of opposition to government. With the help of press the true nature of British rule
was brought forward to the masses.
The role of the press in transmitting the message of freedom to the masses of India and raising the
public conscience invited aggressive policy of the British to curb freedom of the Press from the very
beginning. Some of the early regulations include Censorship of the Press Act (1799), Licensing
Act (1857) and Registration Act (1867). License was required to start a press, name of the
printer/publisher had to be mentioned on every newspaper/book published and copy of the book
had to be submitted to the local government. More regulations were imposed as the freedom
struggle strengthened:
• Section 124 A of the IPC: Words, signs or visible representations which could excite
disaffection towards the British government was to be considered ‘Seditious’ and made a
criminal offence in 1870.
• Vernacular Press Act, 1878: Nicknamed as ‘the gagging Act’, it was brought to control
vernacular press. The District Magistrate was given extensive powers such as:
o Censor any reports and editorial which he considered seditious.
o Ask a publisher/printer to enter into a bond with the government that they would not cause
disaffection.
o Forfeit the security deposited by the publisher and could confiscate press equipment.
• Newspaper (Incitement to offences) Act, 1908: To curb militant revolutionary activities,
Magistrates were empowered to confiscate press property which published materials which in
their opinion could incite act of violence.
• Indian Press Act, 1910: It revived the worst features of VPA, 1878, imposed exorbitant
security deposit (up to Rs 10,000) and made it compulsory for the publishers to submit two
copies of each issue free of charge to the local government.
• Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931: This act was brought to suppress political
propaganda during the Civil Disobedience Movement and was further strengthened by the
Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1932. Pre-censorship was imposed under Official Secrets Act,
1923 and even publishing of a passage from a newspaper, book or other document which the
government had forfeited was made a criminal offence.
• Press Regulating Act, 1942: Under this Act, registration of journalists was made mandatory,
limitations were imposed on the messages regarding civil disturbances, prohibition of news was
imposed regarding acts of sabotage and the government had the authority on arbitrary
censorship as well.
At one point of time, even Congress was declared illegal and publishing about its activities was also
banned. Several journalists (such as S. N. Banerjee and Tilak) had to face jail time for writing against
government. However, even the curbing of freedom of Press helped in propagation of national
sentiments and ideology. Therefore, soon after India got independence, Freedom of Speech and
Press was enshrined in the Constitution as Fundamental Rights of people.
7. The peasant awakening seen in 1930s in India was largely a result of the combination of
particular economic and political developments of that period. Discuss. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• In the introduction, briefly discuss about the new phase of struggle during the 1930s.
• Discuss the political and economic developments in the 1930s that contributed to nation-wide
awakening of Indian peasants,
• Conclude by writing the key objectives and achievements of these new peasants’ awakenings.
Answer:
Peasant movements have a long history that can be traced to the numerous uprisings at different
stages. But the 1930s witnessed a new and nation-wide awakening of Indian peasants to their own
strength and capacity to improve their living conditions.
Political developments in 1930s that contributed to peasant awakening:
• The Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM): Peasants, emboldened by the recent success of the
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928), joined the protest in large numbers. It soon took the form of a no-tax
and no-rent campaign.
• Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS): It started in Bihar under the leadership of Swami
Sahajanand Saraswati to mobilize peasant grievances against the zamindari attacks on their
occupancy rights.
• All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS): With the formation of the Congress Socialist Party in 1934, the
process of the consolidation of the Left forces received a significant push forward and gradually
the peasant movement intensified and spread across the rest of India. These developments
culminated in the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) in 1936 with Swami Sahajanand
Saraswati elected as its first President.
• The Kisan Manifesto which was finalized at the All-India Kisan Committee session in Bombay
included demands for fifty per cent reduction in land revenue and rent, a moratorium on debts,
the abolition of feudal levies, security of tenure for tenants, and the recognition of peasant
unions.
• Faizpur Resolutions: At the Faizpur Session of the Congress (1936) resolutions were related to
peasant welfare, minimum wage for landless agriculture labor which emboldened peasant’s
movement.
• Formation of Congress Ministries: Majority of the provinces in early 1937 marked the
beginning of a new phase in the growth of the peasant movement. Different ministries
introduced varying kinds of agrarian legislation which provided an impetus for the mobilization
of the peasantry either in support of proposed legislation or for asking for changes in its
content.
Economic developments in 1930s that contributed to peasant awakening:
• The Great Depression that began to hit India from 1929-30: Crashing down of the
agricultural prices to half or less of their normal levels dealt a severe blow to the already
impoverished peasants burdened with high taxes and rents.
• Movement against the economic policies of British adversely affected the Indian
peasants: The British Government used to protect the landlords and money-lenders and exploit
the peasants, which led to aggressive peasants’ revolt against this injustice on many occasions
during the 1930s in different parts of the country. For example, no revenue campaign in
Punjab and no rent campaign in Uttar Pradesh.
Peasant movements were not directed at overthrowing the agrarian structure but reforming its
oppressive parts. The economic and political developments since the 1930s created an awakening
and politicized the farmers, which then led to peasant struggles which necessitated the agrarian
reforms.
8. Though the upsurge by the ratings of the Royal Indian Navy was suppressed, it is seen as an
event which marked the end of British rule in India. Discuss. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Introduce by highlighting the events associated with RIN Mutiny.
• Discuss how it marked the end of British rule in India.
Answer:
On 18th February 1946, around 1100 naval ratings of HMIS Talwar went on a strike in Bombay to
protest against the treatment meted out to them such as racial discrimination, unpalatable food etc.
These demands also echoed the wider national concerns including the release of INA (Indian
National Army) personnel and other political prisoners, withdrawal of Indian troops from Indonesia
etc. The strike spread to other naval establishments around the country.
The second phase upsurges, when people in the city joined in, was marked by the virulent anti-
British mood and resulted in the virtual paralysis of the two cities of Calcutta and Bombay. The third
phase was characterized by a display of solidarity by people in other parts of the country. As news
reached other military establishments across India, immediate strikes began there as well.
Eventually it was suppressed but it marked the end of British rule in India due to the following
factors:
• Widespread resentment against the British rule: There was a was massive outpouring of
public support for the mutineers. The public transport network was brought to a halt, trains
were burnt, roadblocks were erected and commercial establishments were shut down.
• Fall of loyal patrons: It was the second major rebellion after the Sepoy mutiny of 1857, which
involved regular British Ratings defying the authority of the British. The armed forces were the
most important pillar in sustaining the British Empire in India.
• Naval paralysis: The British power was hugely dependent on its naval power to maintain its
offshore colonies.
• Broad scale participation: The revolt was not limited to some areas or sections of the
population. The labour classes also went on strike in solidarity with the ratings. It even got the
support of Communists and other Nationalists.
• Global recognition: The mutiny drew global attention towards India's causes and issues. In the
wake of emerging cold war, both America and Soviet Union noted this revolt.
• Conciliatory approach by the British: In the ensuing negotiations, the government accepted
most of the demands of rebels in principal like improvement in the quality of food and living
conditions of the ratings.
The Mutiny acted as a final nail in the coffin of the colonial government of India. Large-scale public
support made the British government believe that it is no longer easy to rule India now, which was
even admitted once by the former British Prime Minister Clement Atlee. It forced the British to send
Cabinet Mission Plan to India to draw a Constitution for free India.
9. The story of India's freedom struggle cannot be complete without recognizing the role that
many leaders of North East India played during the time. Discuss. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Briefly introduce the topic by outlining the start of the British rule in the North- East.
• Mention leaders from North-East India during the freedom struggle.
• Highlight the importance of these movements and contributions of these leaders.
Answer:
The East India Company’s rule in the North-East region began with the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826
which ended the First Anglo-Burmese War. However, soon after the British conquest, the people
from the region opposed the British rule. This opposition continued till Indian independence. Some
of the prominent freedom fighters from North-East India and their contributions are:
• Rani Gaidinliu, a Naga spiritual leader, rose against the British in Manipur in the 1930s. She
was arrested at the age of 16 and was released after independence.
• Tirot Singh led the Khasi uprising (1829- 1833) against the British who initiated a project of
road construction through the Khasi hills.
• Maniram Dewan was hanged for conspiring to restore the Ahom dynasty in Assam during the
1857 Sepoy Revolt.
• Shoorvir Pasaltha Khuangchera was the the first Mizo leader to fight the British in 1890 when
they invaded the Lushai hills.
• U Kiang Nangbah, a freedom fighter from Meghalaya led an uprising against the British and
was eventually hanged.
• Paona Brajbasi from Manipur chose death over treason at the Battle of Khongjom in April
1891.
• Matmur Jamoh from Arunachal Pradesh killed a British officer in 1911, as he was against
British interference in the day-to-day lives of the people.
• Kanaklata Barua and Bhogeswari Phuknani from Assam were shot dead by the Britishers
while trying to unfurl a tricolour flag during the Quit India Movement.
• Kushal Konwar from Assam was hanged in the last phase of the Quit India Movement (1942)
for his suspected role in derailment of a military train in which several British soldiers were
killed.
• Moje Riba from Arunachal Pradesh was arrested by the British for participating in the
independence struggle and distributing pamphlets during the Quit India Movement.
• Trilochan Pokhrel (Gandhi Pokhrel) from Sikkim participated in many Gandhian movements
like the Non-cooperation Movement, the Civil Disobedience Movement, and the Quit India
Movement. He played a vital role in propagating the concept of Swadeshi Movement of Mahatma
Gandhi among the Sikkimese peasantry.
Thus, freedom fighters of North East India played a significant role in the independence movement
and opposed the British rule through various means.
10. Giving an account of revolutionary activities carried outside India to get freedom from the
British colonial rule, highlight the limitations of such activities. (150 words) 10
Approach:
• Introduce by giving a brief account of the revolutionary freedom activities outside India.
• Discuss in brief the weaknesses of such activities.
• Support your arguments with appropriate examples.
• Conclude on the basis of the above points.
Answer:
One of the most prominent features of the Indian Independence movement was the prevalence of
revolutionary activities. They believed that only an armed struggle would deliver independence to
India from the British rule. These organisations/activities were not only confined within the
boundaries of India (like Anushilan Samiti, Hindustan Socialist Republican Association etc.), but its
echoes were also found in distant lands.
Revolutionary activities carried outside India:
• India House: It was an informal nationalist organization started by Shyamji Krishna Varma in
London (1905-1910). The network that the House laid was the key in the nationalist
revolutionary conspiracy in India during World War I.
• Ghadar party: It was formed by Lala Hardayal in 1913 in San Francisco, USA. It collaborated
with the revolutionaries inside India and helped them get arms and ammunition. After the
outbreak of World War I, its members returned to Punjab to agitate for freedom.
• Berlin Committee for Indian independence: It was established by Virendra Nath
Chattopadhya in 1915 under “Zimmerman Plan” with the backing of German foreign office. It
aimed at mobilising Indian revolutionaries abroad, inciting rebellion among Indian troops
stationed abroad, sending volunteers and arms to India etc.
• Paris Indian Society: The Paris Indian Society was founded in 1905 in Paris by Madam Bhikaji
Cama, M. B. Godrej and S. R. Rana. It was opened as a branch of the Indian Home Rule Society.
Madame Cama was popularly described as the Mother of Indian Revolution. She took an active
part in editing The Indian Sociologist and represented India at the Stuttgart conference of
socialists in 1907.
The major limitations of such activities were:
• The activities of these groups could not be sustained for longer time as it was not well
organized. The leaders underestimated the extent and amount of preparation at every level
- organizational, ideological, strategic, tactical and financial. For example, the Ghadar Movement
was sustained by the enthusiasm of the revolutionaries than by their effective organization.
• They failed to generate an effective and sustained leadership that was capable of
integrating the various aspects of the movement in the country. Due to the lack of any popular
support from mainstream parties in India, these movements could not gather wide support.
• These movements could gather support from few discontented immigrants only. They failed to
establish any contact or support amongst the lakhs of peasants, workers and soldiers in
India.
• One of the major limitations of these activities was the lack of coherence in ideology and lack
of consensus over alternate political structures. For instance- Har Dayal who led the Ghadar
movement did not have any structured ideology aand kept on shifting to various theories that
attracted him from time to time.
The task of freeing India which the revolutionaries from abroad tried to achieve was too great in
comparison to the odds faced by them. Despite all the limitations, they inspired many to join the
freedom struggle and helped them gain considerable sympathy and support from the people in
various countries.
11. The architecture of Pallava kingdom has a distinctive style comprising of cave temples,
monolithic temples and structural temples. Elaborate with examples. (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Give a brief introduction of the Pallava kingdom.
• Elaborate on the architectural style of the Pallava kingdom comprising of – cave temples,
monolithic temples and structural temples, with supporting examples.
Answer:
The Pallavas were pioneers of South Indian art and architecture, especially kings Mahendravarman
I (600-630 CE), Narsimhavarman I (630-668 CE), Narshimhavarman II Rajasimha (700-728 CE) and
Nandivarman II Pallavamalla (732 – 796 CE). The Pallava architecture can be broadly classified as:
Rock-cut cave temples
• Pallava rock-cut cave temples are also known as Mahendravarman style.
• Pallava cave shrines are smaller and less complex in plan than those at Ajanta and Ellora. The
relatively plain caves are represented by the Lakshitayatana temple at Mandgappattu,
Lalitankura cave at Tiruchirapalli.
• The massive pillars in these caves are square at the bottom and top and octagonal in
between.
• The sanctums are guarded by dvarpalas and dvarpalikas and contain images of Shiva, Vishnu
or Brahma.
• More elaborate Pallava period caves are located at the port city of Mamallapuram (named
after Pallava king Narsimhavarman I). The relief carving of such caves contain striking
mythological scenes such as Vishnu rescuing the earth, Gaja-Lakshmi and Durga (in the Adi-
Varaha cave) etc.
Monolithic rathas and temples:

• Rock cut monuments belong to the Mamalla group, named after King Narshimhavarman I. He
converted the port of Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) into a beautiful city of art and
architecture. During this period, free-standing monolithic shrines called rathas have been
constructed alongside pillared halls (mandapas).
• Some of the best examples of this style are the Pancha Pandava Rathas at Mamallapuram.
Each ratha or chariot is carved out of single rock and hence the name monolithic. Although these
shrines are located in close proximity, these display very different architectural features.
• An important feature of the Mamalla style of architecture is the Open Art Gallery. Several
miniature sculptures have been carved on the wall of a big rock. The fall of river Ganga from
the head of Shiva and Arjuna’s penance are notable among them.
• Mandapas or halls are carved out of a single rock and on the side walls, there are carvings of
beautiful sculptures depicting Puranic stories. For example, scene depicting Durga’s attack on
Mahishasura is seen in the Mahishasura Mardhini Mandapa.
Structural temples:
• The structural phase began when free-standing shrines were constructed with stone and
mortar. Monuments of this phase belong to two groups - Rajasimha and Nandivarman.
These temple structures were built with the use of granite slabs.
• The structural temples built during the reign of Rajasimha are:
o Shore Temple at Mamallapuram: Initiation of gopuram is seen with the Shore temple.
o Kailasanathar Temple (Rajasimheshvara) at Kanchipuram: Kailasanathar temple is
considered as the crown of Pallava architecture. Within a large rectangular enclosure is a
complex consisting of a main shrine and over 50 subsidiary shrines. It has a shikhara
typical of southern style and gopuram and is more heavily ornamented with sculptures.
• The best example of the Nandivarman group of monuments is the Vaikunta Perumal Temple
at Kanchipuram. During this period, Pallava architecture attained its full maturity and provided
the model upon which the massive Brihadeshvara Temple of the Cholas at Thanjavur and
Gangaikonda Cholapuram were constructed.
12. Though the contact between the Greeks and ancient Indians was for a brief period, its impact
was fairly wide in range. Elaborate. (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Start with a brief introduction about the contact between the Greeks and ancient Indians.
• Discuss its impact on various fronts with the help of suitable examples.
Answer:
The reference of Greeks as Yavanas can be found in the early Indian literature of Panini and
Katyayan. However, the contact between the Greeks and ancient Indians can be historically
ascertained after the Greek invasion of Achaemenid empire under Alexander in 326 BC.
Several principalities of north-western part of Indian subcontinent were annexed in this
invasion and were handed over to Seleucus Nicator, a Greek general. He later founded the
Seleucid Empire which covered parts of present-day Pakistan, Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. This
empire existed till 63 BC until its annexation by Rome.
Hence, the contact between the Greeks and ancient Indians remained for a brief period. However,
its impact was fairly wide viz.
Political impact:
• Greeks conquered the warring tribes of the north-western part of the Indian sub-continent and
helped in the political unification of the region.
• This further helped Chandragupta Maurya to bring the whole region up to Afghanistan under
his control by defeating Selucus Nicator. It also opened up lanes for entry of later Indo-Greeks,
Parthians, Shakas and Kushanas into India.
Economic impact:
• India came in close contact with Europe for the first time as sea and land routes were opened
between India and the West.
• Development of craftsmanship and brisk trade brought prosperity to India.
Impact on art and culture:
• Architecture: The influence of Greek art can be found in the development of Indian architecture
and sculpture as well. For instance, Gandhara School of art had combination of Indian and
Greek styles.
• Drama: The Greeks contributed to the development of the Indian theatre by the use of curtains,
known as Yavanika.
• Coinage: Art of making well-shaped and beautifully designed gold and silver coins, along
with the name and images of kings, is the legacy of the Greeks.
• Chronology: Dated records of Alexander’s campaign helped historians to frame the chronology
of ancient Indian history. Also, valuable information about the socio-economic condition of India
of that time is known from the Greek accounts left by Arrian, Nearchus, and Megasthenes.
• Astrology: The Greeks had some influence on Indian astrology as well. The concept of the
Zodiac has been taken from Greeks and the Greek term Horoscope has been converted to
Horashastra in Sanskrit.
• Military: The settlement of Greeks on North Western India led to exchange of warfare
techniques between the two. The Greeks also introduced the practice of military
governorship called strategos for maintaining the power of the new rulers over the
conquered people.
As Greeks influenced India at several fronts, the Indian philosophy and religion also influenced
Greeks. The Heliodorus pillar of Vidisha and the Milinda Panho written by Nagasena are examples
of such Indian influences over Greeks.
13. The subject of Indian folk art paintings is as diverse as the Indian cultural milieu itself.
Elucidate. (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Briefly explain Indian diversity and connect it with the diverse subjects of Indian folk-art
painting.
• Give examples of various folk art paintings from different regions of India and discuss their
subjects to show that they are as diverse as Indian cultural milieu.
• Conclude appropriately.
Answer:
India is a large country with diverse society where people of different faith, language, culture, caste,
and race live together in harmony. Just like its cultural diversity, each region in India presents its
own unique folk art painting.
Indian folk art paintings usually deal with pictorial depictions of popular Hindu deities as well as
secular features such as the sun, the moon and even some plants and flowers used in daily rituals,
such as tulsi (basil). Many paintings also depict daily village life, common customs and rituals, birds,
animals and the elements of nature. They have individual styles and deal with diverse subjects as
observed in:
• Madhubani Painting: This folk art painting has evolved in the Mithila region of Bihar and has
reference in Ramayana as well. These paintings mainly deal with the images of popular Hindu
deities, sacred symbols, celestial bodies, royal court scenes and various social events such as
thread ceremony, marriage, etc.
• Kalamkari Painting: It is an ancient style of painting whose history traces back to Mohenjo-
Daro times. It was patronised later by Golconda Sultanate, and is produced mainly in the
Andhra Pradesh region.
o One of its styles, Masulipatinam, has heavy Persian influence and therefore the most
commonly featuring designs here are flowers, trees, creepers, colourful leaf, etc.
o The other style, Srikalahasti, is influenced from Hindu mythology and uses the theme of
Ramayana, Puranas, etc.
• Phad Painting: This scroll painting from Rajasthan use vibrant colours in specific order from
orange-yellow to brown, bold green and blue, red and black to represent transcending time. The
main themes of these paintings depict major Hindu deities and legend of popular heroes as
Prithvi Raj Chauhan, Papuji Rathod, etc. The traditional singers, Bhopas use these paintings for
narration of their tales.
• Paata Painting or Pattachitra: Developed in Odisha, this type of folk art painting includes wall
paintings, palm-leaf etching, manuscript painting and painting on cloth, both cotton and silk.
This is a devotional art and the major theme centres on worship of Lord Jagannath, a
manifestation of Sri Krishna.
• Kalighat Painting: This folk art painting evolved in the 19th century in Kalighat, Kolkata
mainly to create awareness in society. The themes include the legend of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu,
wealthy zamindars ravishing wine, sloppy babus spending their day and night at questionable
locales, a priest or Vaishnav "Guru" living with unchaste women, etc. They had a moralizing
intent and would draw the caricatures in such a way as would repel ordinary people from such
activities.
• Warli Painting: These wall paintings from Maharashtra are traditionally done by Warli tribe.
They do not depict mythological characters or images of deities, but depict social life revolving
around hunting, fishing and farming; festivals and social functions; dances; and trees and
animals, etc. Human and animal bodies are represented in the form of stick figures, by way of
two triangles joined at the tip. Only white colour with occasional red and yellow dots is used in
these paintings.
• Pithora Painting: It is a ritual art form traditionally done on the walls by tribal communities
(Rathawa and Billala) of Gujarat to complete the vows taken for a boon from Baba Pithora. The
protagonists of the entire painting are horses of the gods and goddesses and ancestors in
vibrant colours.
Each of the aforementioned paintings used the imagery of well-established mythologies and
folklore, and adapted to the craft and sensitivities of the time. This diverse folk art is not just an
important part of our culture but also a link to India’s past and traditions.
14. The short-sightedness of Congress, Jinnah’s ambitions and British amorality – all played their
part in the partition of India. Discuss. (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Give a brief introduction of 1947 partition.
• Elaborate on all the three factors – errors of the Congress leadership, Jinnah’s ambitions and the
role played by British.
• Conclude appropriately based on the arguments given in the answer.
Answer:
The partition of India into two nations was not a spontaneous event. The seeds were planted long
ago through various events such as Partition of Bengal, formation of Muslim League, the
Government of India Act 1909 etc. Also, some internal factors played a prominent role along with
British policy of fueling communal hatred, such as-
Errors of the Congress leadership:
• Congress accepted separate electorate for Muslims in Lucknow Pact, 1916.
• Failure of ‘Muslim mass contact’ programme of Nehru to garner support among Muslims
helped the League to emerge as the representative of Muslims in India. In 1940’s with strong
Muslim support, Jinnah had no incentive to co-operate with Congress.
• Rejection of Congress to form a joint government in United Provinces in 1937 convinced
the League that Muslims being a minority would find it difficult to gain political power in united
India.
• Congressmen were active in Hindu Mahasabha till 1938. These helped League’s propaganda of
Congress being a party of Hindus.
• Following Quit India movement, imprisonment of Congress leaders (1942-45) left a political
vacuum which was filled by the League. This helped League win almost all Muslim seats in 1946
elections in contrast to 1937 elections.
• Rajagopalachari Formula and Desai-Liaqat Pact for Congress-League cooperation gave tacit
acceptance to League’s demand of Pakistan.
• During the Shimla Conference, Congress and League could not agree on the conditions under
which provinces would join or leave the Union.
Jinnah’s ambitions:
• Jinnah, once an ‘ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity’, began to support the two-nation theory
from late 1930s.
• In 1940, League under Jinnah demanded autonomy for Muslim majority areas of the
subcontinent.
• During Cabinet Mission, Jinnah was adamant that Congress could not nominate a muslim
representative.
• In 1946 provincial assembly elections, Jinnah sought a referendum on Pakistan, which further
led to increased demand of Pakistan.
• ‘Direct Action Day’ by Jinnah in 1946 led to riots in several parts of India lasting several days.
• In 1947, before execution of Mountbatten’s partition plan, Gandhiji in an attempt to avoid
partition, asked Jinnah to head the first government of free India, which he rejected.
British amorality:
• British policies of divide and rule deepened animosities between Hindus and Muslims and
helped consolidate its rule.
• Introduction of communal electorate in 1909 led to religious identities acquiring functional
use in political system.
• British during WWII offered future political safeguards to League in exchange for its
cooperation. August Offer (1940) gave it veto assurance, while Cripps Mission (1942)
provided a right to opt out of future Union.
• Clement Atlee’s declaration of 1947 to leave India by 1948 and its preponement by
Mountbatten to August 1947 did not provide enough time to both Congress and Muslim
League to reach an agreement which could stop partition of India.
British postponed the Punjab boundary award until the days of partition and when riots broke out,
deployment of troops were delayed. It highlights the amorality of British. Thus, the short
sightedness of Congress and ambitions of Jinnah along with amorality of the British all played a part
in partition of India.
15. Given the specific nature and character of the British colonial state, the Indian national
movement gradually evolved its strategy and tactics over the course of time. Analyse.
(250 words) 15
Approach:
• Briefly discuss about the nature and character of the British colonial state.
• Mention how strategy and tactics of Indian national movement evolved over the course of time
based on the understanding of the nature of British rule.
• Give a brief conclusion accordingly.
Answer:
The British rule in India was exploitative that used naked force to suppress the nationalist
movement. But it was semi hegemonic and semi authoritarian unlike Hitler’s Germany or Czarist
Russia. It was also based on creation of certain civil institutions such as elected assemblies, local
government institutions, courts, schools and colleges and rule of law. Even while suppressing
popular opposition; it observed certain rules of law and codes of administration.
Given the specific nature and characteristics of British colonial state, the basic strategy and tactics
of Indian national movement evolved over time. The national movement alternated between
phases of extra legal or law-breaking mass movements and functioning within four walls of
the law.
Strategy and tactics of national movement evolved over the course of time in following ways:
• The strategy of eroding the hegemony and ideological influence of the colonial rule was adopted
by early nationalists like Dada Bhai Naroji, Justice Ranade, RC Dutt etc. They exposed the
contradiction between the interest of the Indian people and colonialism.
• This moderate phase of the movement saw the leaders having faith in the British justice
system and therefore the strategy adopted was peaceful and constitutional methods to
demand and fulfil those demands. They followed 3P strategy – Prayers, Petition and Protest.
It involved only the educated sections and aimed at only self-government within British rule.
• The failure of moderates in getting any significant results and Partition of Bengal led to the
emergence of extremism. The extremists resorted to boycotts, strikes, etc. They promoted
Swadeshi and also burned foreign-made goods.
• The notion of invincibility of the British rule was broken by the mass movement post 1918.
This created fearlessness among people.
• In the Gandhian phase, it was believed that the effectiveness and validity of the nationalist
strategy lay in the active participation of mass in the movement. Satyagraha or non-violent
resistance became the prominent instrument.
• However, complete adherence to non-violence in Non-Cooperation Movement and its
sudden withdrawal due to one instance of violence, was not replicated by the Civil
Disobedience Movement where few instances of violence in certain pockets did not led to the
withdrawal of movement.
• The Nationalist strategy was to constantly expand semi democratic political space and to
prevent the colonial authorities from limiting the existing space within which legal activities
and peaceful mass struggles could be organized.
• In the Quit India Movement, the strategy adopted was an all-out strategy. Even after
various instances of violence, Gandhiji refused to condemn it. This change was due to the
much larger violence inflicted by the colonial state over time.
• Similarly, long drawn character of the movement led to adoption of strategy of struggle-truce-
struggle in place of a vigorous extra-legal movement. The struggle phase was used to wrestle
power and constitutional space from British government and truce phase was used by
nationalist to prepare masses for next phase of struggle through constructive works.
India’s struggle for freedom was a long drawn out struggle in which state power was not seized in a
single historical revolution but through a prolonged political process within which struggle for state
powers goes through stages, each stage marking a step forward over the previous one.
16. The foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 was not a sudden accident but the
culmination of a long process of political awakening. Comment. (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Briefly write about the foundation of the Indian National Congress.
• Mention various political events which helped in the process of political awakening.
• Discuss how these events helped build a national level consciousness.
Answer:
The foundation of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885 marked a turning point in India’s
freedom struggle. The INC was founded as an all India organization to facilitate the development of
national spirit and politics. But, its formation was not a sudden phenomenon.
Indian political consciousness had already started with Raja Rammohun Roy. His associates
established Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha in 1836 to attract British attention towards grievances of
the Indians. British India Society was formed in 1843 to create national awareness about the state
of governance and people’s rights. Similarly, Madras and Bombay Associations, formed in 1849 and
1852 respectively. Later, several major political associations emerged in various parts of the
country that spread political consciousness at national level. These include:
• East India Association (1866): It was organized by Dadabhai Naoroji and included members
from different provinces such as Bombay, Kolkata, Madras etc to influence people in England to
discuss the Indian question, promote Indian welfare and voice Indian grievances in the British
press.
• Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1867): It was a socio-political organization formed by M. G. Ranade,
which worked as a bridge between the government and people of India. It held elections on
modern democratic lines and organised lecture tours and meetings in order to foster national
pride among the Indians. It also organised relief work during famines.
• The Indian Association (1876): Founded by Surendranath Banerjea and Ananda Mohan
Bose, its objectives included creation of a strong body of public opinion in the country, unity of
Indian races and peoples on the basis of common political interests and aspirations, promotion
of friendly feeling between Hindus and Muslims etc.
• The Bombay Presidency Association (1885): It was formed by Pherozshah Mehta,
Badruddin Tayabji and K T Telang in opposition to the Ilbert Bill and Lytton’s other
reactionary policies. It used the local press to help bring pressure to bear on the authorities.
• Madras Mahajan Sabha: It was formed in 1884 by M. Viraraghavachari, B. Subramaniya
Aiyer and P. Ananda Charlu. Its members felt the necessity of creating an organization at an
all-India level to relieve and free the nation from the clutches of British rule and solve the
problems of Indians.
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, Bombay Presidency Association, Madras Mahajan Sabha and the Indian
Association, were considered to be the predecessors of the INC.
The above events contributed to the foundation of INC in following ways:
• The process of political awakening brought by these events sowed the seeds of INC formation by
helping Indians gain experience as well as confidence. For instance: They learnt the use of
constitutional agitations for redressal of grievances.
• These processes helped build a national level consciousness and thereby a national level
organization.
• These associations organised various campaigns on different issues such as Indianisation of
government services, against plantation labour and Inland Emigration Act, increasing the
maximum age for appearing in the Indian Civil Service etc.
• It brought to the notice of younger, more radical nationalist intellectuals who had entered
politics between 1875 and 1885 that these older associations were too narrowly conceived
in terms of their political activity as well as social bases.
Thus, INC became a logical conclusion given that the solid ground had been laid by these political
developments for formation of an all-India political organization.
17. Despite the Cripps' proposal being a step ahead of the August Offer, it was rejected by both the
Congress and the Muslim League albeit for different reasons. Discuss. (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Briefly stating the proposals of both, discuss how the Cripps’ proposals were a step ahead of the
August offer.
• Discuss the reasons for rejection of the Cripps’ proposal by the Congress and the Muslim
League.
• Conclude on the basis of the above points.
Answer:
Both August Offer (1940) and Cripps’ Mission (1942) were proposed by the British government to
draw Indian support in the 2nd World War.
The August Offer proposed dominion status as the objective for India, expansion of Viceroy’s
Executive Council, setting up of a Constituent Assembly after the war where mainly Indians
would decide the Constitution and it would not be adopted without the consent of the minorities.
The Congress rejected it, as the members were dissatisfied with the promise of dominion status.
The League welcomed the veto assurance given to them, however, it reiterated its position that
position that partition was the only solution to the deadlock.
In March 1942, a mission headed by Stafford Cripps was sent to India. The main proposals of the
Cripps’ Mission were an Indian Union with a dominion status and a Constituent Assembly to be
constituted after the war to frame a new Constitution with members to be partly elected by the
provincial assemblies through proportional representation and partly nominated by the princes.
Cripps’ Mission was a departure from the past and a step ahead of the August offer in the sense that:
• The making of the Constitution was to be solely in India hands.
• A concrete plan was provided for the Constituent Assembly.
• Option was available to any province to have a separate Constitution.
• Free India could withdraw from the Commonwealth.
• Indians were allowed a large share in the administration in the interim period.
However, Cripps’ Mission failed and was rejected by both Congress and the Muslim League.
The reasons for its rejection by the Congress were:
• The offer of dominion status instead of provision for complete independence.
• Representation of the princely states by nominees and not by elected representatives.
• Right to provinces to secede, as this went against national unity.
• Absence of any plan for immediate transfer of power and absence of any real share in defense.
The Muslim League rejected the proposals of Cripps Mission due to the following reasons:
• They were against the idea of a single Indian Union.
• They did not like the machinery for the creation of a Constituent Assembly and the procedure to
decide on the accession of provinces to the Union.
• They thought that the proposals denied the Muslims the right to self- determination and the
creation of Pakistan.
Cripps Mission was meant to supersede the August Offer and draw Indian support in the war, but
the inability of Cripps’ proposals to go beyond its initial Draft Declaration (on which the Mission
was based) while negotiating with Indian leaders and the adoption of a rigid attitude added to the
deadlock. Gandhiji described the Cripps’ scheme as a post-dated cheque. Further, the failure of the
Cripps Mission aggravated the frustration of the Indians.
18. Though India as a whole had been ruled by some emperors in the past, it was only in the 19th
century that the concept of national identity and national consciousness emerged. Examine.
(250 words) 15
Approach:
• Introduce by briefly substantiating the statement in the question.
• Elaborate upon the factors which led to the rise of national identity and consciousness in the
19th century.
• Conclude by explaining the consequences of this national consciousness.
Answer:
Emperors like Ashoka and Samudragupta in ancient times and Akbar to Aurangzeb in medieval
times ruled over a major part of the Indian subcontinent. But people identified themselves with
regions rather than India as a nation. It was only in the 19th Century that the concept of a national
identity and national consciousness emerged, due to the following factors:
• Intellectual awakening: 19th century philosophers such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Vivekananda brought social reforms in the society and brought to
light the past achievements of Indians in the field of science and technology, art, literature and
philosophy. This contributed to the awakening of national consciousness.
• Ruin of Indian economy by the British: Almost all sections of the Indian population were
suffering under the British rule. The land revenue policies were exploitative, cheap imports
ruined the handicraft and textile industries and artisans lost their patrons when kingdoms were
annexed. These conditions led the people to unite and react against British control over their
lives and resources.
• Unified system of administration: The establishment of a uniform currency system, common
administration, common laws and judicial structure contributed to India’s unification which
ultimately helped the rise of national consciousness.
• British policy of expansion: The British policy of annexing Indian states one after the other,
even if those states were not at war with the British such as those of Sind, Punjab, Awadh, Jhansi
etc. made the Indian rulers and subjects apprehensive of the British agenda and led to the revolt
of 1857.
• Communication network: To exploit the resources of the hinterland and to bring efficiency in
administration, communication network such as railway lines, post and telegraph services etc.
were started. This provided an opportunity to people living at distant places to interact and
connect with each other and understand the common suffering under the colonial rule.
• Printing press: The introduction of the printing press brought revolution in terms of spreading
the nationalist ideas. Almost all the big leaders and intellectuals of that time got attached with
newspapers and periodicals through which they communicated with the masses.
• New education system: The modern education system brought by the British to create a class
of loyal citizens familiarised the educated classes with the ideas of equality, liberty and
nationalism, in an atmosphere of growing disillusionment with the colonial rule. This made
them turn towards contemporary nationalist movements in Europe (like German unification,
Italian unification and nationalist movement against Turkish Empire).
• Racial discrimination: The attitude of racial superiority adopted by the English contributed to
the growth of nationalist sentiments. Social discrimination along with discrimination in
administrative and judicial matters (e.g. the testimony of a single European weighed more than
many Indians) sowed the seed of unity among Indians.
This consciousness culminated into coming together of several regional parties into the Indian
National Congress. It further helped in developing a nationalist approach through taking up secular
issues of different regions and holding national conference each year in different Indian provinces.
This rise of national identity united masses, zamindars, intellectuals etc. and gave rise to the
national freedom struggle.
19. The Marathas had the potential to develop into a new pan-India empire replacing the Mughals,
but that potential was never fully realized because of the nature of the Maratha polity itself.
Discuss. (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Introduce by mentioning the political condition when Mughal Empire was declining.
• Highlight the potential of Marathas to develop a pan-India empire.
• Discuss the issues with nature of Maratha polity.
Answer:
After the Mughal Empire started declining as the central authority in the beginning of the 18th
century, the Marathas tried to gain control over the erstwhile Mughal territories. Through their
repeated attacks on the declining Mughal Empire they further weakened it but failed to build a pan-
India Empire.
Potential of the Marathas to develop a new pan-India empire:
• Able leadership: Marathas had some brilliant commanders and statesmen to accomplish this
task. For instance, Chhatrapati Shivaji developed administrative efficiency by introducing
concept of Ashtapradhan (a cabinet of 8 ministers), with clearly defined roles.
• Military capability: Since they were militarily powerful, they had the potential to defend the
subcontinent against foreign invasions. Peshwas like Bajirao I and Nana Saheb, won various
battles in different geographies. Further, the Maratha navy was also successful in fending off
European navies with cannons for half a century.
• Diplomatic acumen: Some of their Peshwas excelled in diplomacy and won over several areas
to create a big empire. Example, Shivaji used his diplomatic skills to prevent his enemies from
uniting against him.
• Control over large area: By 1740, the Marathas had acquired control over large territories of
the Mughal Empire. A large portion of the Maratha empire was on the coast, which was secured
by the potent Maratha Navy under commanders such as Kanhoji Angre.
Issues with nature of Maratha polity:
• Lack of unity: Maratha chiefs lacked unity, which resulted in the formation of many power
centres (Maratha Confederacy) that frittered away their power due to infighting. Local revenue
officers i.e. deshmukhs and zamindars took advantage of this dynastic factionalism. After the
death of Madhab Rao, the Marathas were caught in mutual hostilities. They could not meet the
challenges posed by the English.
• No long-term vision: Maratha chiefs lacked long-term vision, rather preferred short-term
individual benefits and hence were ready to be played at the hands of external power. Maratha
Power was built up on the individual personalities and there was no well thought out policy
or plan to establish pan India Maratha kingdom.
• Administrative setup: They were more focused on conquering a state but failed to build a
sound administrative structure in them. E.g. the system of jagirdari (saranjams) created
several power centres.
• Resentment among the public: They relied on force rather than creating loyalty among the
public. Their conquest would seldom go beyond plunder and levying of chauth and
sardeshmukhi.
• Lack of political allies: The Marathas did not focus on forming alliances with other kingdoms,
which led to multiple kingdoms rallying with Maratha’s enemies such as the Rohillas, the Jats,
the Rajputs.
Thus, due to this nature of polity, which was shared among chiefs, sardars and deshmukhs,
Marathas could not build a pan-India empire. This led to their defeat in the Battle of Panipat and
later at the hands of British who divided the mutually warring Maratha chiefs and defeated them in
separate battles.
20. The Revolt of 1857 led not to the downfall but to the consolidation of British Empire in India. In
this context, bring out the changes in administrative structure and policies introduced by the
British post 1857. (250 words) 15
Approach:
• Briefly mention the consequences of the Revolt of 1857.
• Mention the changes in the administrative structure brought by British.
• Write about the policy decisions taken post revolt of 1857 that strengthened British position.
Answer:
Prior to 1857, the British through numerous wars, forced treaties, annexations and alliances with
various regional powers had established political command over India. Against this background, the
Revolt of 1857 exhibited glaring shortcomings in the East India Company’s administration and its
army. The revolt prompted them to rectify these shortcomings.
Changes in Administrative Structure
• Queen’s Proclamation abolished Company’s rule and the British Crown directly assumed
the power to govern India though the Government of India Act, 1858.
• Secretary of State-in-Council now had the authority over India in place of earlier practice of
Directors of the Company exercising these powers.
• The Governor General was given the title of Viceroy. An Executive Council was also created
whose members were to act as heads of different departments and as his official advisers.
• The Executive Council decided all the important matters through majority vote. However, the
Governor-General had the power to override decisions of the Council.
• The Indian Council Act, 1861 initiated legislative decentralization by restoring legislative
powers to provinces of Bombay and Madras. Legislative councils were set up in places like
Bengal, UP etc.
• The Government used the policy of divide and rule to promote provincial and communal
rivalry through methods like classifying ethnic groups into martial and non-martial races in the
army.
• To maintain the British supremacy, Britishers reserved all strategic posts for the Europeans
in the administration and the army. The proportion of Eurpoeans to Indians in the army was
raised and fixed at one to two in the Bengal Army and two to five in the Madras and Bombay
armies.
• Newspapers, journals and nationalist publications were prevented from reaching the soldiers to
isolate them from nationalist ideas.
Changes in Policy towards governing India
• Policy of Subordinate Union was followed ending the era of territorial annexations and
expansion. The native princes were henceforth required to recognise the paramountcy of the
British Crown which in return promised to respect the dignity and rights of these native princes.
• Conservative brand of liberalism i.e. complete non-interference in the traditional structure of
Indian society and freedom of religion without British interference were also promised. The aim
was to refrain from antagonizing the masses and attract unnecessary administrative issues such
as protests and picketing.
• ‘Drain of wealth’ from India took the form of exploitation through the policy of forced laissez-
faire.
• The maximum age limit for candidates to the I.C.S. examination was reduced phase-wise from
23 years to 19 years in 1878 to prevent Indians from entering into the services.
• The British, while being hostile to the forward looking educated Indians, turned for friendship
to the people who were rather powerful - the princes and the landlords.
These policies helped the British strengthen their administrative and political control over India
and ensured their reign in India till Indian independence in 1947.
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APPROACH – ANSWER: G. S. MAINS MOCK TEST - 1401 (2020)

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