Training Book

(CE-Aung Ba)

Compiled & Edited by C .E . Aung Ba

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(Chapter 1)
THE DIESEL ENGINES

The diesel engine is a type of internal combustion engine, which ignites the fuel by injecting it into
hot & high-pressure air in a combustion chamber. The marine diesel engine is a type of diesel engine
used on ship.

The principle of its operation is as follows:

A charge of fresh air is drawn or pumped into the engine cylinder, and then compressed by the
moving piston to very high pressure. When the air is compress, its temperature rises so that it ignites the
fine spray of fuel injected into the cylinder. The burning of fuel adds more heat to the air charge, causing
it to expand and force the engine piston to work on the crankshaft, which in turn drives the ship‟s
propeller. In common with all internal combustion engines, the diesel engine operates with a fixed
sequence of events, which may be achieved either in four strokes or two stroke being the travel of the
piston between its extreme points. In four stroke diesel engine, the cycle requires four separate strokes of the
piston, i.e. Suction, Compression, Expansion and Exhaust. If we combine the Suction and Exhaust operations
with the compression and Expansion strokes, the four-stroke engine will be turned into a two stroke one.
The two-stroke cycle begins with the piston coming up from the bottom of its stroke, i.e. bottom dead
centre (BDC), with the air inlet ports or scavenge ports in the side of the cylinder being opened. The exhaust
ports are uncovered also. Pressurized fresh air charges into the cylinder, blowing out any residual exhaust
gases from the last stroke through the exhaust ports. As the piston moves about one fifth of the way up, it
closes the inlet ports and the exhaust ports. The air is then compressed as the piston moves up. When the
piston reaches the top of its stroke, i. e. the top dead centre (TDC), both the pressure and the temperature of
the air rise to very high values. The fuel injector injects a fine spray of fuel oil into the hot air and combustion
takes place, producing much higher pressure in the gases. The piston is forced downward as the high pressure
gases expand until it uncovers the exhaust ports. The burnt gases begin to exhaust and the piston continues
down until it opens the inlet ports. Then another cycle begins.
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In the two-stroke engine, each revolution of the crankshaft makes one power or working stroke, while in
the four-stroke engine, it takes two revolutions to make one power stroke. That is why a two-stroke cycle
engine will theoretically develop twice the power of a four-stroke engine of the same size. Inefficient
scavenging and other losses, however, reduce the power advantage to about 1.8.
Each type of engine has its application on board ship. The low speed (i.e. 90 to 120 rev/min) main
propulsion diesel operates on the two-stroke cycle. At this low speed the engine requires no reduction gearbox
between it and propeller. The four-stroke engine (usually rotating at medium speed, between 250 to 750
rev/min) is used for alternators and sometimes for main propulsion with a gearbox to provide a propeller
speed of between 90 to 120 rev/min.

WORKING CYCLES
A diesel engine may be designed to work on the two-stroke or on the four-stroke cycle. Both of them are
explained below

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The Four-Stroke Cycle
Figure shows diagrammatically the sequence of events throughout the typical fourstroke cycle of two
revolutions. It is usual to draw such diagrams starting at TDC (firing), but the explanation will start at TDC
(scavenge). Top dead centre is some times referred to as inner dead centre (IDC).
Proceeding clockwise round the diagram, both inlet (or suction) and exhaust valves are initially open. (All
modern four-stroke engines have poppet valves. ) If the engine is naturally aspirated, or is a small high-speed
type with a centrifugal turbocharger, the period of valve overlap, i. e. when both valves are open, will be short,
and the exhaust valve will close some 10° after top dead centre (ATDC).
Propulsion engines and the vast majority of auxiliary generator engines. running at speeds below 1,000
r/min will almost certainly be turbocharged and will be designed to allow a generous throughflow of scavenge
air at this point in order to control the turbine blade temperature. In this case the exhaust valve will remain
open until exhaust valve closure (EVC) at 50-60° ATDC. As the piston descends to outer or bottom dead
centre (BDC) on the suction stroke, it will inhale a fresh charge of air. To maximize this, balancing the
reduced opening as the valve seats against the slight ram or inertia effect of the incoming charge, the inlet
(suction) valve will normally be held open until about 25-35° ABTC (145-155° BTDC). This event is called
inlet valve closure (IVC). The charge is then compressed by the rising piston until it has attained a
temperature of some 550°C. At about 10-20° BTDC (firing), depending on the type and speed of the engine,
the injector admits finely atomized fuel which ignites within 2-7° (depending on the type again) and the fuel
burns over a period of 30-50°, while the piston begins to descend on the expansion stroke, the piston
movement usually helping to induce air movement to assist combustion. At about 120-150° ATDC the
exhaust valve opens (EVO). the timing being chosen to promote a very rapid blow-down of the cylinder gases
to exhaust. This is done: (a) to preserve as much energy as is practicable to drive the turbocharger, and (b) to
reduce the cylinder pressure to a minimum by BDC to reduce pumping work on the “exhaust” stroke. The
rising piston expels the remaining exhaust gas and at about 70-80° BTDC the inlet valve opens (IVO) so that
the inertia of the out-flowing gas, plus the positive pressure difference, which usually exists across the
cylinder by now, produces a through flow of air to the exhaust to “scavenge” the cylinder. If the engine is
naturally aspirated the IVO is about 10°BTDC. The cycle now repeats.

The Two-stroke Cycle.

The two-stroke cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or one revolution of the crankshaft.
In order to operate this cycle where each event is accomplished in a very short time, the engine requires a
number of special arrangements. First, the fresh air must be forced in under pressure. The incoming air is
used to clean out or scavenge the exhaust gases and then to fill or charge the space with fresh air. Instead of
valves ,‟ holes‟, known as „ports‟ are used which are opened and closed by the sides of the piston as it moves.
Consider the piston at the top of its stroke where fuel injection and combustion have just taken place.
The piston is forced down on its working stroke until it uncovers the exhaust port. The burnt gases
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then begin to exhaust and the piston continues down until it opens the inlet or scavenge port. Pressurized air
then enters and drives out the remaining exhaust gas. The piston, on its return stroke, closes the inlet and
exhaust ports. The air is then compressed as the piston moves to the top of its stroke to complete the cycle.
A timing diagram for a two-stroke engine is shown below.

Figure shows the sequence of events in a typical two-stroke cycle, which, as the name implies is
accomplished in one complete revolution of the crank. Two-stroke engines invariably have ports to admit air
when uncovered by the descending piston. The exhaust may be via ports adjacent to the air ports and
controlled by the same piston (loop scavenge) or via poppet exhaust valves at the other end of the cylinder
(uni-flow scavenge). Starting at TDC combustion is already under the way and the exhaust opens (EO) at 110-
120° ATDC to promote a rapid blow-down before the inlet opens (IO) about 20-30° later (130-150° ATDC). In
this way the inertia of the exhaust gases - moving at about the speed of sound - is contrived to encourage the
incoming air to flow quickly through the cylinder with a minimum of mixing, because any un-expelled
exhaust gas detract from the weight of air entrained for the next stroke. The exhaust should close before the
inlet on the compression stroke to maximize the charge, but the geometry of the engine may prevent this if the
two events are piston controlled. It can be done in an engine with exhaust valves.
At all events the inlet ports will be closed as many degrees ABCD as opened before it (i.e. again 130-150°
BTDC) and the exhaust in the same region. Injection commences at about 10-20° BTDC depending on speed
and combustion lasts 30-50‟ as with the four-stroke.
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Comparison of two-stroke and four-stroke cycles

The main difference between the two cycles is the power developed. The two-stroke cycle engine,
with one working or power stroke every revolution, will, theoretically, develop twice the power of a
four-stroke engine of the same swept volume. Inefficient scavenging however and other losses, reduce the
power advantage to about 1.8. For a particular engine power the two-stroke engine will be considerably
lighter-an important consideration for ships. Nor does the two-stroke engine require the complicated
valve operating mechanism of the four-stroke. The four-stroke engine however can operate efficiently at
high speeds which offsets its power disadvantage; it also consumes less lubricating oil.
Each type of engine has its applications, which on board ship have resulted in the slow speed (i.e.
80-100 rev/min) main propulsion diesel operating on the two-stroke cycle. At this low speed the engine
requires no reduction gearbox between it and the propeller. The four-stroke engine (usually rotating at
medium speed, between 250 and 750 rev/ min) is used for auxiliaries such as alternators and sometimes for
main propulsion with a gearbox to provide a propeller speed of between 80 and 100 rev/min.

The Gas Exchange Process

A basic part of the cycle of an internal combusting engine is the supply of fresh air and removal of
exhaust gas. This is called “Gas Exchange”.
Scavenging is the removal of exhaust gases from the cylinder by blowing in fresh air. Charging is
the filling of the engine cylinder with a supply or charge of fresh air ready for compression.
With Super Charging a larger mass of air is supplied to the cylinder by blowing it in under pressure.
Older engines were “naturally aspirated” taking fresh air only atmospheric pressure. Increasing the density
of the charge air by the use of a suitable compressor between the air intake and the Cylinder, the weight of air
induced per working stroke is increased. There by a greater weight of fuel can be burnt with a consequent
increase in the cylinder power output. This increase in charge air density is accomplished on most modern
diesel engine types by use of exhaust gas turbo-charging, in which a turbine wheel driven by exhaust from the
engine is rigidly coupled to a centrifugal type air compressor. Both four-stroke and two stroke cycle engines
may be pressure charged. It should be noted that supercharging is not simply a matter of adding equipment
to non-supercharged engines. The supercharged engine must be designed to withstand the increased pressures
and thermal load which results.
It is essential to the scavenging process that the air entering the cylinder is at a higher pressure than the
gas in the exhaust manifold. On two-stroke diesels an electrically driven auxiliary blower is usually provided
because the exhaust gas driven turbo-blower cannot provide enough air at low engine speeds. High pressure
supercharged engines use turbochargers in series. The pressurized air is usually cooled to increase the charge
air density. The turbo-blower or turbo-charger has on opposite ends of a single shaft an exhaust gas driven
turbine and an air compressor. The compressor and the turbine are sealed from each other.
It is essential that each cylinder should be adequately scavenged of gases before a fresh charge of air is
compressed, otherwise this fresh air charge is contaminated by residual exhaust gases from the previous cycle.
Further, the cycle temperature will be unnecessarily high if the air charge is heated by mixing with residual
gases and by contact with hot cylinder and pistons.
In the exhaust turbocharged engines the necessary scavenging is achieved by providing a satisfactory pressure
difference between the air manifold and the exhaust manifold. The air flow through the cylinder during the
exhaust/scavenge overlap period has a valuable cooling effect; it helps to increase the volumetric efficiency
and to ensure a low cycle temperature and also to obtain a relatively cooler exhaust imposed on the turbine
blades. In the four stroke cycle engine there is an adequate overlap. Between the air inlet valve opening and
the exhaust valve closing. With two-stroke cycle engines this overlap is limited by the engine design
characteristics, and some slight mixing of exhaust gases and incoming air does occur.
A number of different scavenging methods are in use in slow speed two-stroke engines. In each the fresh
air enters as the inlet port is opened by the downward movement of the piston and continues until the port is
closed by the upward moving piston. The flow path of the scavenge air is decided by the engine port shape
and design and the exhaust arrangements. Three basic systems are in common use: the cross flow, the loop
and the uni-flow. In cross (or transverse) scavenging the incoming air is directed upwards, pushing the
exhaust gases before it. The exhaust gases then travel down and out of the exhaust ports.

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In loop scavenging the incoming air passes over the piston crown then towards the cylinder head. The
exhaust gases are forced before the air passing down and out of exhaust ports located just above the inlet
ports.

With Uni-Flow scavenging the incoming air enters at the lower end of the cylinder and leaves at the top.
The outlet at the top of the cylinder may be ports (in the opposed piston engine) or a large valve (in the poppet
valve engine). Each of the systems has various advantages and disadvantages. Cross scavenging requires the
fitting of a piston skirt to prevent air or exhaust gas escape when the piston is at the top of the stroke. Loop
scavenge arrangements have low temperature air and high temperature exhaust gases passing through adjacent
ports, causing temperature differential problems for the liner material. Uni-flow is the most efficient
scavenging system but requires either an opposed piston arrangement or an exhaust valve in the cylinder head.
All three systems have the port angled to swirl the incoming air and direct it in the appropriate path. It should
be emphasized that opposed piston slow speed engines are no longer in production and poppet valves are used
in the majority of new designs.
There are two distinct turbo-charging methods in practical use, respectively termed the “constant
pressure” and “pulse” systems. It is the constant pressure system that is now used by all slow-speed two-
stroke engines.
At one time almost all four-stroke engines operated on the pulse system, though constant pressure turbo-
charging is now becoming more common as it provides greater fuel economy while considerably simplifying
the arrangement of exhaust piping.

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Scavenging air system

The scavenging air sucked in the turbocharger is compressed in turbocharger and cooled in the air,
cooler. The moisture produced in the above cooling is effectively separated by means of moisture separator.
The scavenging air thus compressed and cooled flows into the scavenging air trunk (1st chamber), passing
through the scavenging air valve, then enter in the scavenging air trunk (2nd chamber) where it stays. The
auxiliary blower is to be operated in the low load zone. The auxiliary blower inhales the scavenging air from
the scavenging trunk (1st chamber) compresses it, and sends to the scavenging air trunk (2nd chamber).
In that time, the scavenging air valve closes automatically by the differential pressure between the 1st
chamber and the 2nd chamber to stop the air reversing. The scavenging air in the scavenging air trunk (2nd
chamber) flows into the cylinder while the piston is lowered and the scavenging air port is open.
Pay attention to the scavenging air temperature which influences much the moisture generation damaging the
engine. Two auxiliary blowers are provided and operated stagger to reduce the peak power on starting time.
Exhaust gas system
The scavenging air sent into the cylinder is compressed by the piston , burns the fuel injected into the
cylinder, becomes high temperature and pressure gas to actuate the piston for the engine rotation. After the
work and expansion process, the gas is sent once to the exhaust reservoir from the exhaust valve passing
through the exhaust pipe and diffuser, then actuates the turbocharger and goes out from the exhaust gas
economizer and the spark arrester. The diffuser is provided for reducing the expansion loss.

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CHARGE AIR COOLER

The engine is equipped with a charge air cooler. The insert type charge air cooler is mounted in a
welded casing (air trunk). The trunk is bolted to the engine block. Standard is a two-stage cooler mounted.
The first stage, through which the charge air flows, is cooled with water from the HT cooling system and
cools the charge air till approx. 90-100`C. The second stage is supplied with water coming from the LT water
system and cools the charge air further till the required temperature of approx. 50`C. By controlling the water
flow through the LT cooler the charge air temperature can be kept constant at the requirement.

OPERATION
The circulating coolant water should always be under positive pressure and should be as clean as
possible. The operating air temperature should be maintained by controlling the coolant inlet temperature.
Whilst the engine is running the air and coolant temperatures and pressures at inlet and outlet should be
checked and logged periodically. Variations from normal indicate faults developing such as fouling of the film
plates or obstruction of the water tubes. Check daily, during operation of the engine, the working of the telltale
hole at the free end of the charge air receiver. The function of this hole is to inform the operator the presence
of water in the charge air receiver. Under normal condition only compressed air should escape from this hole.

OPERATION WITH DEFECTIVE OR REMOVED AIR COOLER(S)

If the water tubes of an air cooler are defective, cooling water can enter the cylinders. If water or water
mist flows out of a telltale hole, check whether it is cooling water or condensate. If condensate, increase the
charge air temperature a few degrees. If cooling water, stop the engine as soon as possible and plug off the
leaking tube. If cooler leakage cannot be remedied by tube plugging, exchange the cooler for a spare.
If no spare cooler is available, the following can be done as an emergency solution. Dismantle the cooler
for repair and blank off the opening in the charge air cooler trunk. Shut off water supply and return pipes.
If no time is left to remove the defective cooler for repair, shut off water supply and fit air ducts. When no
full cooling capacity of air cooler can be obtained the engine output must be limited to the range normal full
load exhaust temperature allowable. In case the turbocharger will surge before the permitted exhaust
temperatures are reached, the engine load must be further reduced to avoid continuous surging.

OPERATION WITH DEFECTIVE TURBO-CHARGER.

A defective turbocharger should be treated in accordance with instructions given in the turbocharger
instruction book. Permissible engine output with blocked turbocharger is approx. 20% o of full load. The
engine output must, however, be limited so that the normal full load exhaust temperatures are not exceeded.
Maximum permissible exhaust gas temperature after the cylinder at continuous operation with blocked
turbocharger is 500`C.

SCAVENGE FIRES.
Cylinder oil can collect in the scavenge space of an engine. Unburned fuel and carbon may also be
blown into the scavenge space as a result of defective piston rings, faulty timing, a defective injector, etc. A
build-up of this flammable mixture presents a danger as a blow past of hot gases from the cylinder may ignite
the mixture, and cause a scavenge fire.
A loss of engine power will result, with high exhaust temperatures at the affected cylinders. The
affected turbo-chargers may surge and sparks will be seen at the scavenge drains. Once a fire is detected the
engine should be slowed down, fuel shut off from the affected cylinders and cylinder lubrication increased.
All the scavenge drains should be closed. A small fire will quickly burn out, but where the fire persists the
engine must be stopped. A fire extinguishing medium should then be injected through the fittings provided in
the scavenge trunks. On no account should the scavenge trunks be opened up.
To avoid scavenge fires occurring the engine timing and equipment maintenance should be
correctly carried out. The scavenge trunks should be regularly inspected and cleaned if necessary. Where
carbon or oil build up is found in the scavenge, its source should be detected and the fault remedied.
Scavenge drains should be regularly blown and any oil discharges investigated at the first opportunity.

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(Chapter 2)
THE MARINE DIESEL ENGINES

THE FOUR STROKE MARINR DIESEL ENGINE.

A cross-section of a four-stroke cycle marine diesel engine is shown in Figure below. The engine is made
up of a piston which moves up and down in a cylinder which is covered at the top by a cylinder head. The
fuel injector, through which fuel enters the cylinder, is located in the cylinder head. The inlet and exhaust valves
are also housed in the cylinder head and held shut by springs. The piston is joined to the connecting rod by a
gudgeon pin. The bottom end or big end of the connecting rod is joined to the crankpin which forms part of
the crankshaft. With this assembly the linear up-and-down movement of the piston is converted into rotary
movement of the crankshaft. The crankshaft is arranged to drive through gears the camshaft, which either
directly or through pushrods operates rocker arms which open the inlet and exhaust valves. The camshaft
is 'timed' to open the valves at the correct point in the cycle. The crankshaft is surrounded by the crankcase and
the engine framework which supports the cylinders and houses the crankshaft bearings. The cylinder and
cylinder head are arranged with water-cooling passages around them.

YANMAR FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

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MAIN FEATURES.
YANMAR heavy-fuel-oil-burning engines have been designed with the latest technology and incorporate
extensive experience in the design of marine generator engines. Their main features are as follows.
(1) The same fuel oil used for the main propulsion engine can be burned.
(2) They can be started, stopped, or placed on standby with heavy fuel oil.
(3) High durability and reliability.
(4) They can be equipped with a boost air temperature two-stage control system (option) for low-load
operation (up to 15% of rated load).
(5) Easy maintenance and handling.
(6) Low maintenance cost.
(7) Low specific fuel consumption.

Basic design
The structure of our heavy-fuel-oil-burning engines ensures the following.
(1) Good combustion.
(2) Wear and corrosion resistance.
(3) Rigid design for reduced deformation.
(4) Optimum heat retention.

 The max. combustion pressure is set at 130-155 kg/cm2 to enhance the cycle efficiency of the engine, and
the basic structure is highly rigid.
 To improve fuel injection characteristics, an optimally designed fuel injection system with a durable
construction for the fuel cam-drive, a shortened fuel high-pressure pipe and a super-high pressure type
(1500 kg/cm2) fuel injection pump are used.
 To enhance firing and combustion performance, an optimal shape is used for the combustion chamber
together with a higher compression ratio.
 Combustion performance has been improved by the adoption of a high-performance turbocharger, and the
best possible design for the intake and exhaust ports and valves of the cylinder head.
 Pumping loss has been minimized by setting optimum timing of intake air and exhaust gas exchange.

Measures against high-temperature corrosion:

 The exhaust valve seat part has a forced cooling construction to lower the temperature of the exhaust valve
face part and prevent blow-by. The exhaust valve material has excellent heat and corrosion resistance.
Measures against combustion residue and low temperature corrosion:
 Low temperature corrosion of the cylinder liner is prevented by constant high-temperature cooling. Also,
special high-phosphor cast iron, with better wear resistance than conventional high-phosphor cast iron, is
used for the cylinder liner of 700 Cst/50°C heavy fuel oil burning engines.
 The fuel valves are protected against low-temperature corrosion by keeping the cooling oil or cooling water
temperature at the most suitable level.
A lubricating type stem seal is provided to lubricate the exhaust valve stem, and the inner surface of the
guide, and thus reduce corrosion and wear. The exhaust valve stem is also plated to prevent corrosion.
NIMONIC material is used for the exhaust valve in engines operated with 700 Cst/50°C heavy fuel oil.
Heat retention becomes an important factor, especially for the F.O. system, in low grade fuel operation. The
F.O. pump chamber uses special shielding and a heating and heat retaining structure to facilitate purging.

CONSTRUCTION OF ENGINE’S MAIN COMPONENTS.

Cylinder block.
The cylinder block has a highly rigid construction, and is more than strong enough to handle the
maximum internal cylinder pressure of 155kg/cm2. The thickness and rib shape of each part have been
optimized to reduce the risk of deformation. Being an oil pan type and suspension metal structure made of cast
iron, the cylinder block is so constructed to be the box type effective.
The cylinder block builds the boost air chamber, main cooling water passage and lubricating oil passage
in addition to the cam housing in itself to minimize the external piping.
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Crankshaft, main bearings & crank-pin metal.

It possesses safety strength sufficient to withstand the maximum combustion pressure of 135 to 155
kg/cm2, and is made to conform to rules of classification societies of the various nations. Make of carbon steel
forging and both the pin diameter and journal diameter made thicker, the crankshaft has been quenched and
polished. Besides, it is so constructed to enable taking off of the entire power also from its frontal part.
The main bearing housing has been firmly fixed to the cylinder block with two mounting bolts and two
side clamping bolts so that the rigidity of the main bearing area is further enhanced. Both the main bearings
and crank-pin bearing adopt three-layer metals having a fine strength to withstand surface pressure. Main
bearings can he easily disassembled and reassembled with use of an exclusive double-acting jack for lifting.

Piston.
The piston adopts a mono-block type made of ductile cast iron, Piston rings consist of three (chrome-
plated) compression rings including a gas tight ring and one (coil expander type) oil ring to optimize oil
control on the piston sliding surface.

Connecting rod
The connecting rod is a carbon steel forging. Its big end is so designed to be a diagonally split structure.
Having the serrated mating surface to provide a satisfactory rigidity. The small end adopts a lead bronze hush
with hack metal having excellent running-in property and durability.

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Cylinder liner
Made of a special cast iron having a fine wear resistance, the-cylinder liner satisfactorily withstands even
a high explosion pressure. Its thickness has been increased to prevent cavitations, and its inner surface has
been precision honing finished. Designed to he a thick structure having a high rigidity, its upper fitting part
adopts the collared bore cooling system so that the temperature of the combustion chamber inner wall is
properly controlled. Besides, the jacket outer periphery is so constructed to be cooled uniformly with swivel
water flow.
Cylinder head
The cylinder head is designed to be a well-balanced structure having a sufficient rigidity against an
increase in thermal load and mechanical load attended with high outputting and lowering of fuel consumption.
The combustion face is a structure having special drilled holes among suction and exhaust valves to collect
cooling water at the center in order to increase the cooling effect and thus to reduce the thermal stress.
Cylinder head bolts are four in number and so constructed to make disassembly and reassembly of a cylinder
head easy. The suction and exhaust valves are arranged in tandem and both the suction and exhaust ports are
provided on the non-maneuvering side.
Suction & exhaust valves
Suction and exhaust valves are of the 4-valve bridge type and equipped with valve rotators. A suction or
exhaust valve is made of heat resisting steel, and Stellite has been filled at the valve and valve seat area.
Besides, use of a material having a high corrosion resistance and adoption of a cooled exhaust valve seat can
he also coped with as depended on specification of fuel used.
The swing arm system is adopted for valve mechanism, and the sliding surface has been quenched and
polished.
Camshaft
The cam and camshaft is a mono-block so constructed to increase the rigidity. Besides, the camshaft is of
the 3-split type so constructed to make disassembly and reassembly easy. The fuel cam adopts the optimum
profile to promote lowering of fuel consumption by optimizing the injection characteristic.
Fuel injection pump & fuel injection valve
A high-pressure fuel injection pump has been adopted. The plunger barrel is of the top closed type as well
as of the hanger system to have a high pressure resisting strength. A two-way delivery valve (pressure
equalizing valve) is equipped at the delivery valve area to improve the injection characteristic by optimizing
of the fuel injection system. The fuel injection valve mounting hole is of the sleeve type to facilitate cooling.
Turbocharger
A high-performance VTR or MET Series turbocharger has been equipped by standard specification. By an
optional order, mounting of such a turbocharger on either the flywheel side or the anti-flywheel side is also
possible.
Air Cooler
The air cooler is designed to be a plate fin type box structure. and it is mounted on the anti-flywheel side
by standard specification to lessen the overall width of the engine.
Governor & maneuvering gear
A hydraulic governor having a high reliability is adopted. Control on engine rotational speed is sharp and
sure, and remote controlling is easy. Concentrating instruments, control handle and levers entirely on the
maneuvering side frontal part, they are so laid out for easy maneuvering.

Cooling water system

Two-line cooling system of the engine cooling line (for cylinders and cylinder heads) and the heat
exchanger cooling line (for lubrication oil cooler, air cooler and fresh water cooler) has been adopted. The
engine cooling line is equipped with an automatic temperature regulating valve for constantly high
temperature cooling to improve the combustion performance and durability.

Lubricating oil system

A sump inside the engine oil pan which jointly uses the hull fitted auxiliary tank (a wet sump) is equipped
by standard specification. By an optional order, a hull fitted sump (dry sump) can also he equipped. The valve
rocker arm area is so constructed to he lubricated with engine system oil.
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YANMAR 6N-260 L-N/V-(Saveten Engine).

IN THE CASE OF SAVETEN ENGINE.

The type using the high viscosity fuel oil is cooled with the cooling water running through the fuel
injection sleeve mounted on the cylinder head. A heat transfer bush (copper) is installed between the fuel
injection nozzle and the injection valve sleeve, thus indirectly cooling the injection nozzle. The engine using
the M.D. oil does not use the indirect-cooling system nor a heat transfer bush.
Piston
Catalyst particulate present in fuel oil and combustion residue causes abnormal wear of the piston sliding
part and piston ring groove part. Therefore, material with excellent wear resistance and corrosion resistance
solid type ductile cast iron is used for the piston. Moreover, the optimum cooling structure and piston ring
constitution, hardening of the piston ring groove part improve the wear resistance and corrosion resistance of
the piston. For low-diesel-index fuel oil, the shape of the combustion chamber has been optimized and
compression ratio has been set at higher ratio than with M.D.O. burning so as to enhance firing and
combustion performance.

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Fuel injection pump and high-pressure pipe

As fuel oil becomes highly viscose, a firing delay is apt to occur after injection of fuel oil and
detrimentally effects the combustion. For this reason, a pump designed for higher pressure 1500 kgf/cm2) than
the conventional high-pressure type (1200 kgf/cm2) is adopted for the fuel injection pump.
Injecting fuel oil at a high pressure to make spray particulate attains good combustion over the entire
region. Also, to improve the injection characteristics, the length of high-pressure pipe is shortened as much as
possible to reduce the volume of the fuel injection system.
Fuel oil that leaks from the plunger barrel is directed to the drain tank via a return circuit. Lubrication
for the sliding part below the fuel injection pump is provided by a pinion sleeve lubrication system that drips
lubricant diverted from the engine lubrication system onto the pinion sleeve. This ensures that leaked fuel oil
will not cause stickiness in the fuel oil control rack and incorrect operation of the fuel injection pump.

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Main fuel oil pipe

The main fuel oil pipe is constructed so as to circulate fuel oil in the fuel injection pump. In engines
operated with heavy fuel oil, it is necessary to heat viscous oil to bring it up to 11 to 14 Cst at the engine inlet.
In this case, to prevent vapor generation, there is a pressure control valve at the end of the fuel oil outlet main
pipe to maintain the pressure in the fuel oil line at the appropriate level.
Heating and heat retaining engine structure
As the heating temperature of fuel oil rises, heat dissipation is also apt to take place from the engine
internal piping. Also, if the temperature drops, fuel oil returned from the fuel injection valve and oil leaked
from the high-pressure fuel oil pipe will not flow. Therefore, the engine is covered by a heat retaining case,
the inside of which is heated by steam in the finned tube. The engine heat retaining structure is a hot box with
excellent heat retaining and heat shielding properties, which retains the heat of the fuel injection pump case,
high-pressure fuel oil pipe and fuel valve cooling oil and various leaked oil piping by keeping them warm
with steam.
Main bearing
The main bearing is constructed of thin three-layered kelmet metal which provides excellent pressure
resistance and durability. A special alloy plating on the surface improves resistance to corrosion. For some
models, an Aluminium alloy with excellent pressure resistance and durability is available as an option.
Turbocharger
A high-efficiency turbocharger is used. The shape of suction and exhaust manifolds have optimal
dimensions, and matching of the turbocharger is optimized at normal working range to improve the
supercharging efficiency. Special wear-and corrosion-resistance material is used for the turbine nozzles and
casings, and the turbine nozzles and casings are surface treated.

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YANMAR- 6N 280L ENGINE – SECTIONAL VIEW.

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THE TWO-STROKE ENGINE

A cross-section of a two-stroke cycle engine is shown in Figure below. The piston is solidly connected to a
piston rod which is attached to a crosshead bearing at the other end. The top end of the connecting rod is also
joined to the crosshead bearing. Ports are arranged in the cylinder liner for air inlet and a valve in the cylinder
head enables the release of exhaust gases. The incoming air is pressurized by a Turbo- Charger which is
driven by the outgoing exhaust gases. The crankshaft is supported within the engine bedplate by the main
bearings. A-frames are mounted on the bed-plate and house guides in which the crosshead travels up and down.
The Entablature is mounted above the Frames and is made up of the cylinders, cylinder heads and the
scavenge trunks.

MITSUBISHI UE DIESEL ENGINES

SPECIFICATION OF ENGINE.

TYPE. MITSUBISHI UE DIESEL ENGINE,

UNIFLOW SCAVENGING, EXHAUST GAS
TURBOCHARGED, TWO CYCLE, SINGLE
ACTING, CROSS-HEAD TYPE.

MODEL 7UEC45LA.

BORE. 450 mm.

STROKE. 1350 mm.

MAX. CONTINUOUS RATING. 6178 KW.

ENGINE SPEED. 158 Rpm.

B.M.E.P. 1.561 Mpa.

MAX.COMBUSTION PRESS: 12.7 Mpa.

MEAN PISTON SPEED. 7.11 m/s.

OVERLOAD CAPACITY. 10%.

DIRECTION OF ROTATION. CLOCKWISE.

(On Ahead Running Viewing From Aft).

TURBO-CHARGER MITSUBISHI-MET53SC.

CHARGING SYSTEM. CONSTANT PRESSURE.

MAX: SPEED. 17300 Rpm.

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MAJOR PARTS- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION.

BED PLATE.
The Bed Plate is made by Cast Steel and casting in two parts which are assembled by Bolts & Nuts at
flange Ends to form as Crankcase and Bearing Housing. The whole Bed Plate was seated on ship‟s structure
and firmly tightened by Foundation Bolts. Bed Plate is design to transmit the Propeller Thrust to Ship‟s Hull,
through Thrust Bearings which is installed on Bed Plate.
The Main Bearing consists of the upper metal , the lower metal and the bearing cap, which is
installed on the bed plate with four stud bolts.The white metal is casted on the surfaces of the metals and. these metals
are thin shell metal which becomes real round when tightened. Lubricating oil is supplied from the top of the center of the
main bearing cap. The Thrust Bearing is as fan-shaped bearing of Mitchel type consisting of 8 steel lined segments with
cast white metal in ahead and astern side and transmit the thrust force of the propeller to the thrust block. The pads
are kept from turning round by the thrust bearing support (Stoppers). At the-back of the pads, the adjust ring divided in three
in each ahead and astern side, for adjusting oil clearance are inserted. Lubricating oil is supplied to the thrust bearing
through a hole in the thrust bearing cover.

COLUMN
Column is casting in one piece and it forms as upper part of Crankcase. Column is sometimes named as
“A- Frame” and casting separate sections for larger engines. Crosshead Guides are casting together with
Column and machined to size, to form the guide ways for Crossheads. Vertical Guide Bars are fitted by
bolts for each units in order to control axial movement of Crosshead. Holes are provided for Telescopic Tube
which form as passage for Piston Cooling L.O and lubrication for Crosshead Bearings. Column is rested on
Bed Plate and are bolted together horizontally.

CYLINDER JACKET (FRAME).

The Cylinder Jacket is casting in one piece and the upper part of the cylinder Jacket forms part of the
cooling water space around the Cylinder Liners. The lower part of cylinder Jacket forms as the Scavenge Air
space. Bores in the bottom the cylinder Jacket enclose the Piston Rod Stuffing Boxes. On the Exhaust Side of
the Cylinder Jacket there is a opening leading into the Scavenge Air space around the Cylinder Liner, which
communicates with the longitudinal scavenge air receiver of the engine. There are Inlet Pipe Flanges for
Piston Cooling Oil and Jacket Cooling Water provided in the Cylinder Jacket. Inspection covers for Scavenge
Air space and Cooling Water space are provided at the Camshaft side. Studs for fastening of the Cylinder
Covers are mounted in the Cylinder Jacket. Tie rods are arranged in two rows, Cam side and Exhaust side,
and rigidly fasten the Cylinder jacket, the Column and the Bed Plate with the upper Nut and the lower Nut to form
as the engine body. For the vibration, the bush (in two halves) attached to the tie rod stem is supported by the
special bolts(Bracing Bolts) attached to the column.
Being an unit type, the Cylinder Liner forms the combustion chamber together with the Cylinder Cover
and the Piston. The Cylinder liner is upright cylindrical, made of special wear-resistant cast iron, and has 30
scavenging air ports of a special form at the lower part and six cylinder lubricating oil holes at the upper part. There
is a cooling water passage in its flange, and is cooled by fresh water led from the cylinder jacket in combination
with the water guide jacket. Fresh cooling water is led through the water guide jacket to the upper half of the
cylinder liner and to the cylinder cover through the four water guide jacket connecting pipes. The outer surface of
the upper half is cooled by fresh water and the lower half, the scavenging air ports area, is exposed in the
scavenging air chamber.
The Gasket (made by soft steel) is put on the contact surface with the cylinder cover to maintain
the gastight joint. The sudden change in temperature of cooling water shall be avoided for the protection of
cylinder liner. When the cylinder liner is renewed, it shall be faced up (running in) for a certain period, and the
cylinder lubrication is to be increased. The Engine load must be increased gradually for few hours.
The Stuffing Box is made of cast iron and split vertically. They house the Oil-Scraper Rings and,
Packing rings(Sealing Rings). Oil scraped by the Oil Scraper rings(the third rings from the bottom),falls
in the crankcase and Oil scraped by the fourth ring from the bottom is carried by the pipe to the outside
of Crankcase and drained in the stuffing box leak tank. Each ring is split to three segments which are
pressed against the piston rod from behind with springs.

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The Cylinder Cover is the one piece construction made of forged steel, and forms the combustion
chamber together with the cylinder liner and the piston. On the top and the side of the cylinder cover,
various valves required for engine operation are installed. On the top, one Exhaust Valve, two Fuel Injection
Valves, one cylinder Safety valve, and one Indicator valve are rigidly secured to the cylinder cover.
Furthermore, the Rocker Arm Stand and the Rocker Arm of the upper assembly of the exhaust valve driving
gear are installed. On the camshaft side, one Starting Air valve is installed. The Cylinder Cover is secured to the
Cylinder Liner with eight cover bolts, and the soft iron Gasket ring for gas tightness is put on the contact surface with
the cylinder liner. The cylinder cover which employs a "Bore Cooling" system is cooled inside by fresh
water passing through the cylinder liner collar and the water guide jacket, the fresh water is led from the cylinder
jacket cooling water chamber to the bore holes in the cylinder cover to cool the cylinder cover and flowed to the exhaust
valve. The sleeve on upper area and the water guide jacket on lower area of the cover are installed to form the
water chamber.
The Exhaust Valve is located in the center of each Cylinder Cover, in order to exhaust the burnt gas inside
the cylinder. In the Valve Housing, (made of cast iron), there are the Valve Stem, (made of a special heat-resistant
steel), the Valve Stem Guide, which supports the movement of the Valve Stem and Double Springs. The
Valve Seat, (made of a special steel) is installed at the bottom of the valve housing. The soft iron Gasket is
inserted between the valve seat and the cylinder cover to make a gastight joint. The Oil grooves are made on the
outer and inner sides of the valve stem guide, and lubricating oil is supplied to the oil grooves from the Lubricator
through the Distributing Valve and passage penetrating the valve housing. The contact surfaces of the valve stem
and the valve seat are reinforced with built-up welding of Stellite to withstand the high temperature of exhaust gas and
the impact by the closure of the valve. The valve housing is cooled by fresh water, which reaches the valve seat.
The rubber cover is installed on the valve housing for preventing dust entrance and lubricating oil splash.
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The Crankshaft is of semi-built-up type of forged steel. The crank pin and the crank arm, which are in a
piece, and its main shaft is shrunk into the crank arm.
The Thrustshaft is shrunk to the driving end crank arm, and the gear wheel attached to crank shaft for camshaft driving is
attached to the thrust collar at driving end side.
The Fly Wheel is installed at the driving end of the Thrustshaft. Cooling Oil diverged from the Crosshead Pin is
led to the Crank Pin through oil passage in the Connecting Rod and Crank Pin Bearing.

Crankshaft Axial Vibration Damper.

The axial vibration damper shall be installed a type of engine generating the axial vibration in the
operating speed range is provided with an axial vibration damper. The damper is attached to the free
end of the crankshaft.
The horizontally splittable casing and cover installed across the free end side Bed Plate and column
and the free end of the crankshaft are formed to a special shape for forming an oil chamber. The oil
chamber, inlet check valve, outlet orifice plate, etc. constitute a damper. System oil is filled in the oil
chamber via the check valve. The system oil is always re-circulated by returning the oil at a very
little rate through the gap between the crankshaft and casing. If the axial vibration takes place, the
crankshaft vibrates in the axial direction. The movement of the Crankshaft is damped by the system
oil in the oil chamber, minimizing the overall axial amplitude of the crankshaft. The flowing amount
of system oil is restricted by two orifices in the orifice plate located at the upper part of the casing.
The damping effect of the amplitude is dependent on the diameters of the Orifices.
The Connecting Rod receives via the piston and crosshead the driving gas pressure imparted by the
expanding gaseous product of combustion in the combustion chamber and transmits it to the Crankshaft to change the
reciprocating motion into rotary motion. The Crosshead supports the piston rod upright and moves up and down
in the guide bars of the column. The Connecting Rod is made of forged steel, and the crosshead pin bearings, on which
the white metal are cast, are attached by means of four bolts to its top. The other hand, at the bottom, the Crank Pin
Bearings, with cast white metal are attached by means of two bolts together with the crank pin bearing housings. The
Crank Pin Bearing metals are thin shell metal. The crosshead pin is provided with guide shoe holder and guide
shoes, at its both ends, and white metal is cast into the surface of each. The adjusting liner is installed on the contact
surface between the crosshead pin and the piston rod for the piston centering. The crosshead pin bearings, guide shoes,
and crank pin bearings are connected with the crosshead pin for feeding the piston cooling oil to lubricate the bearing.
The clearance between the guide bar and the guide shoe is adjusted by the shim.
The Piston consists of the special forged steel piston head, piston head inner pieces and piston skirt
attached to the piston rod flange bottom surface. Six stud bolts are provided at the under side of the piston
head to securely fix the piston head to the piston rod. Four Piston Rings are in the piston ring grooves in
the side of piston head ensure gastight interface between the piston head and cylinder liner inner surface.
The top of piston head, cylinder cover, and cylinder liner together constitute a combustion chamber.
The inner piece is securely clamped on the piston head with the three bolts, which forms a cooling oil
chamber between the piston head and the inner piece. Cooling oil is supplied to the cooling-oil chamber
by way of inner pipe built in the piston rod.
The Piston Rod is of. forged steel and has a square flat at its lower end, which is joined to the crosshead
pin by four stud bolts. Since the piston rod shuttles between the scavenging-air chamber of the cylinder
jacket and crankcase, a piston-rod stuffing box is provided in way of the penetration in the cylinder
jacket. Cooling oil is distributed from the cooling-oil main pipe to the inner pipe of cooling oil telescopic piping
for each cylinder and led through the supporting piece on the crosshead pin into oil passage in cooling-oil pipe in the
piston rod. The cooling oil after cooling the piston head, is discharged from the outlet in the center of the
piston inner piece passing through the passage in the piston rod and the discharge pipe. The sleeve box has the sleeve
and sleeve holder inside for preventing the oil leakage from the sliding arm of inner pipe.
The Camshaft has the Exhaust Cam, Fuel Cam, Starting Air control valve driving gear, and camshaft
driving gear on it to directly control the engine operation. The camshaft is driven by the crank shaft via
camshaft driving gear. The camshaft is a single, solid shaft and, housed in the camshaft casing, is supported by a bearing
in way of each cylinder. The Camshaft Driving Gear consists of the crank shaft gear, primary idle gear, secondary
idle gear, and camshaft gear. All the Gears are Spur Gears and the secondary idle gear has teeth with wider
face width than other gears, to take care of the shift of camshaft for "AHEAD" or "ASTERN" operation.
The Gears are spray-lubricated where they mesh. The flange of gear shafts are bolted to the driving end of
the engine column, and the shaft end itself is supported by the cast-iron supporter.

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The Exhaust Valve Driving Gear (Lower) consists of the driving piston, which slides smoothly in the camshaft
casing, and its accessories. In its upper part, the upper cover with “0” ring inserted into is installed on the camshaft
casing, and in its lower area, the roller pin, roller bush and roller are installed to the driving piston. Further, the
driving piston has the oil cushion and support the push rod. The roller is supported by the roller pin and roller
bush. The lubricating oil is supplied to those parts passing through oil passage in the camshaft casing and
driving piston.
The Exhaust Valve Driving Gear (upper) consists of the push rod and rocker arm. The tappet which
depresses the exhaust valve, and the adjusting screw which adjusts the clearance between the tappet and the top
of valve stem are attached to the rocker arm. The rocker arm pivots on bearing supported by the bearing stand
which is bolted to the cylinder cover. The rocker arm stopper is provided on the bearing stand for keeping the rocker
arm while overhauling the valve. The flange which allows the manual lubricating to the rocker arm shaft is
installed to the rocker arm.

The Camshaft Shifting Gear is attached to the camshaft free end side and the camshaft driving gear and
starting air control valve driving gear are installed on the driving end side. When the camshaft is at the position of
free end side, the engine rotates in ahead direction, and at driving end side it rotates in astern direction.
The camshaft shifting gear, fitted the free end of the camshaft, controls the shifting to free end side and to driving end side of
camshaft by dint of hydraulic pressures built up in the hydraulic cylinder by oil supplied from each of "AHEAD" and
"ASTERN" oil bottle.
The shifting is accomplished by means of a reversing handle, and when going ahead, the camshaft is kept at free end
side. The cast-iron piston with 0 ring moves to free end side or driving end side in the cast-iron hydraulic cylinder as oil is
forced into the cylinder through top of the cylinder. Lubricating oil is used as hydraulic oil. The camshaft shifting gear is
equipped with a safety gear on free end side to hold the camshaft in shaft direction.. The stopper of this safety
gear is loaded with springs and lands into a recess provided in the guide bar to hold the camshaft during operation. A piston
valve is provided on the stopper top to shut off the starting air if the camshaft is not correctly held at "AHEAD" or "ASTERN"
position.
When the reversing switch is turned to "AHEAD" (or "ASTERN") position, the starting air is supplied from the
starting air reservoir to arrive at the safety gear and push up its stopper, then goes to the "AHEAD" (or "ASTERN") oil bottle to
pressurize the oil in oil bottle. This pressurized oil actuate the piston in the hydraulic cylinder to shift the camshaft to "AHEAD"
(or "ASTERN") position.
When the camshaft is correctly shifted to "AHEAD" (or "ASTERN") position, and the reversing switch is turned to
neutral position, the air held in the safety gear and oil bottle is discharged to atmosphere, and the stopper is pushed down by springs
to fix the camshaft.

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The Starting Air Control Valve controls the distribution of control air to starting air valves. The starting air
control valve is located at the driving end of the camshaft and consists of a couple of Helical Driving Gears,
Turning Disk, Gear Shaft, which transmits the rotation, bearing support, cover, and housing.Once the
maneuvering handle is turned to the "START" position, when starting the engine, control air flows into the starting
air control valve through the cover and makes the turning disk to be attached tightly to the gear shaft to pass through
the air way of the bearing support. When the maneuvering handle passed over the "START" position, the
control air will be no more supplied and the gap is made between the turning disk and the bearing support to discharge the
unnecessary air existing in the control valve and starting air valve.
The Engine Turning Gear, of Cycloid Reduction Gear Type, is provided at the driving end of the engine
on the engine bed plate. The engine turning gear, driven by an electric motor, is engaged with the flywheel to turn
the engine crank shaft for adjustment and like purposes. To engage or disengage the turning gear with the fly
wheel, turn the handle manually to move the gear in shaft direction. The interlock valve for interlock is
provided to assure that -the-engine can be started only in the state the turning gear is disengaged. Before the engine
start, ascertain that the gear is disengaged and the stopper pin of the handle is surely inserted into-the-hole on
fixed plate.When the turning gear is used, the indicator valve shall be fully opened. Give adequate warning to
anybody who happens-to-be inside the engine crank case when piston and connecting rod are dismounted
because the crank shaft may turn a little under gravity once the turning gear is disengaged.
The Fuel Injection Pump is located on the camshaft casing of engine, one for each cylinder and driven by
the Fuel Cam attached to the camshaft. This pump supply the fuel oil to the fuel injection valve provided to each cylinder.
The plunger has special shaped notch on its top which changes fuel injection timing automatically. The
lubricating plug is provided on the housing to prevent sticking of moving part due to the quick change of fuel oil temperature
while the fuel oil is changed. The Fuel Injection Driving gear consists of the driving piston which slides smoothly
in the camshaft casing, and its accessories. In its upper area, the adjusting screw to push up the fuel injection pump
plunger guide is attached and in its lower area, the roller pin, roller bush and roller are installed. The lubricating
system is same as for the exhaust valve driving gear. The fuel injection pump cutting-off device which stops
the pump driving on emergency time is provided.
Power measurement
There are two possible measurements of engine power: the indicated power and the shaft power. The
indicated power is the power developed within the engine cylinder and can be measured by an engine
indicator. The shaft power is the power available at the output shaft of the engine and can be measured using
a Torsion Meter or with a brake.
The engine indicator
An engine indicator is shown in Figure below. It is made up of a small piston of known size, which
operates in a cylinder against a specially calibrated spring. A magnifying linkage transfers the piston
movement to a drum on which is mounted a piece of paper or card. The drum oscillates (moves
backwards and forwards) under the pull of the cord. The cord is moved by a reciprocating (up and down)
mechanism which is proportional to the engine piston movement in the cylinder. The stylus draws out an
indicator diagram which represents the gas pressure on the engine piston at different points of the stroke, and the
area of the indicator diagram produced represents the power developed in the particular cylinder. The
cylinder power can be measured if the scaling factors, spring calibration and some basic engine details are
known. The cylinder power values are compared, and for balanced loading should all be the same.
Adjustments may then be made to the fuel supply in order to balance the cylinder loads.

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(Chapter 3)
THE COOLING SYSTEMS
As a “heat engine” heat energy is a source of power by which the diesel engine can be operated, but
excessive heat will cause damage to the engine. It is therefore necessary to constantly cool the various
components of the machinery so that the engine can work properly. The separate cooling systems are designed
for this purpose. These can conveniently be grouped into sections. Cylinder cooling, or jacket cooling:
normally fresh or distilled water. This may incorporate cooling of the turbine or turbines in a turbocharged
engine and exhaust valve cooling. Fuel valve cooling: this would be a separate system using fresh water or a
fine mineral oil. Piston cooling: this may be lubricating oil, distilled or fresh water. If it is oil the system is
generally common with the lubrication system. If water, a common storage tank with the jacket cooling
system would generally be used. Charge air-cooling: this is normally Central Cooling Fresh water or
seawater. The high temperature of the working cycle would quickly heat up the metal forming the cylinders,
cylinder covers and pistons if steps were not taken to prevent this happening. It is necessary to keep the piston
rings at temperatures sufficiently low for the lubricating oil surrounding them to survive, and mechanisms
such as fuel valves, exhaust valves and starting air valves must be kept at temperatures at which they will
work satisfactorily and remain lubricated. Also the metal of parts forming the combustion spaces must be kept
at a temperature low enough to avoid losing mechanical strength. Cooling of engines is achieved by
circulating a cooling liquid around internal passages within the engine. The usual used coolant is fresh water.
Lubricating oil is sometimes used for piston cooling since leaks into the crankcase would not cause problem.
As a result of its low specific heat, however about twice the quantity of oil compared to water would be re-
quired. The heat picked up by these cooling fluids is transferred to seawater in heat exchangers and thus
rejected to the sea, the cooling fluids becoming cooled and ready to circulate the engine again. Sea water
cannot be used directly in the cooling spaces of modern engine, as it is both corrosive and liable to leave
deposits.
Fresh Water Cooling System
A fresh water cooling system for a slow speed diesel engine can be divided into two separate systems: one
for cooling the cylinder jackets, cylinder heads, exhaust valves and turbo blowers; the other for piston cooling.
There are two kinds of fresh water system being used on board ship, closed systems and open systems. In
a closed fresh water system, the engine jackets, the heat exchanger and the circulating pumps form a
continuous circuit which is not open to the atmosphere. The cylinder jacket cooling water after leaving the
engine passes to a sea water circulated cooler-heat exchanger and then into the jacket water circulating pumps.
It is then pumped around the cylinder jackets, cylinder heads, exhaust valves and turbo-blowers. However,
provision has to be made for the expansion of the water due to the increase in temperature and due to small
amounts of air which may enter the system and become entrained and for water make-up due to leakages.
These are met by a small head tank which is open to the atmosphere and placed at a higher level than any
other point in the system so that the small changes in volume can be accommodated by changing the level of
the free surface of the water in the tank. The head tank is generally connected into the system at the pump
suction, as this minimizes the chance of air being drawn into the system at the pump. The minimum height of
the head tank may be based on maintaining pressure of fresh water in the heat exchanger above that of the sea
water to ensure that in the event of a small internal leak developing sea water cannot enter the fresh water
system. Alternatively, it may be based on the need for a minimum pressure to be maintained within the jackets
to avoid cavitations effects. The closed systems usually need vents if steam pockets or air locks are not to
cause trouble. Vent pipes of small-bore tube are read from any local high point in the system to the top of the
head tank for the release of air from the cooling water. A heater in the circuit facilitates warming of the engine
prior to starting by circulating hot water. The temperature of the water entering the engine jackets is regulated
by means of a by-pass across the jacket water cooler. The proportions of water passing through the cooler, or
by-passing it are controlled by a three-way valve. The temperature is usually adjusted to maintain a constant
outlet water temperature from the engine regardless of the load or speed or the temperature of the seawater.
The piston cooling system may be an open system which employs similar components with the closed
system, except that a drain tank is used in stead of a head tank and the vents are then led to a hopper at the
high point in the machinery space. The hopper serves as a visual flow indicator. A separate piston cooling
system is used to limit any contamination from piston cooling glands to the piston cooling system only.
Fuel injector valves require precise control of the temperature at the tip of the nozzles, too high a
temperature leading to the formation of carbon trumpets, and too low a temperature, causing corrosion. They
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separate circuit. In either case there will be separate heat exchanger or a cooling tank and some means of
adjusting. The rate of flow to the injectors is independent of that to the engine cylinder jackets.

SEA WATER COOLING SYSTEM

The various cooling liquids which circulate the engine are themselves cooled by sea water. The usual
arrangement uses individual coolers for lubricating oil, jacket water and piston cooling system, each cooler
being circulated by seawater. Some modern ships use that is known as a central cooling system with only one
large sea water circulated cooler. This cools a supply of fresh water which then circulates to the other
individual coolers. With less equipment in contact with sea water the corrosion problems are much reduced in
the system. In a common sea water cooling system, from the sea suction one of a pair of sea water circulating
pumps provides sea water which circulates the lubricating oil cooler, the jacket water cooler and the piston
water cooler before discharging overboard. Another branch of sea water main provides seawater to directly
cool the charge air (for a direct-drive two-stroke diesel). In an emergency situation, for example in the event
of damage to a fresh water cooler or generator, the sea water pumps can be used to supply sea water to the
fresh water cooling system, merely by removing the blind-flanges.
Comparison of Coolants
Fresh water: Inexpensive, high specific heat and low viscosity. Contains salts which can deposit, obstruct
flow and cause corrosion. Requires treatment. Leakages could contaminate lubricating oil system leading to
loss of lubrication, possible overheating of bearings and bearing corrosion. Requires a separate pumping
system. It is important that the water should not be changed very often as this can lead to increased deposits.
Leakages from the system must be kept to an absolute minimum, so a regular check on the replenishing-
expansion tank contents level is necessary. If the engine has to stand inoperative for a long period and there is
a danger of frost, (a) drain the coolant out of the system, (b) heat up the engine room, or (c) circulate system
with heating on. It may become necessary to remove scale from the cooling spaces, the following method
should be used. Circulate, with a pump, a dilute hydrochloric acid solution. A hose should be attached to the
cooling water outlet pipe to remove gases. Gas emission can be checked by immersing the open end of the
hose occasionally into a bucket of water. Keep compartment well ventilated as the gases given off can be
dangerous. Acid solution strength in the system can be tested from time to time by putting some on to a piece
of lime. When the acid solution still has some strength and no more gas is being given off then the system is
scale free. The system should now be drained and flushed out with freshwater be drained and flushed out with
fresh water, then neutralized with a soda solution and pressure tested to see that the seals do not leak.
Distilled water: More expensive than fresh water, high specific heat and low viscosity. If produced from
evaporated salt water it would be acidic. No scale forming salts. Requires separate pumping system. Leakages
could contaminate the lubricating oil system, causing loss of lubrication and possible over-heating and failure
of bearings, etc.

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Additives for Cooling Water

Those generally used are either anti-corrosion oils or inorganic inhibitors. If pistons are water-cooled an
anti-corrosion oil is recommended as it lubricates parts which have sliding contact. The oil forms an emulsion
and part of the oil builds up a thin unbroken film on metal surfaces, this prevents corrosion but is not thick
enough to impair heat transfer. Inorganic inhibitors form protective layers on metal surfaces guarding them
against corrosion. It is important that the additives used are not harmful if they find their way into drinking
water - this is possible if the jacket cooling water is used as a heating medium in a fresh water generator.
Emulsion oils and sodium nitrite are both approved additives, but the latter cannot be used if any pipes are
galvanized or if any soldered joints exist. Chromate can be used if the cooling water is used in a fresh water
generator and it is a chemical that best be handled with care.
Lubricating oil: Expensive. Generally no separate pumping system required since the same oil is normally
used for lubrication and cooling. Leakages from cooling system to lubrication system are relatively
unimportant providing they are not too large, otherwise one piston may be partly deprived of coolant with
subsequent overheating. Due to reciprocating action of pistons some relative motion between parts in contact
in the coolant supply and return system must occur, oil will lubricate these parts more effectively than water.
No chemical treatment required. Lower specific heat than water, hence a greater quantity of oil must be
circulated per unit time to give the same cooling effect. If lubricating oil encounters high temperature it can
burn, leaving as it does so carbon deposit. This deposit on the underside of a piston crown could lead to
impairment of heat transfer, overheating and failure of the metal. Generally the only effective method of
dealing with the carbon deposit is to dismantle the piston and physically remove it. Since oil can burn in this
way a lower mean outlet and inlet temperature for the oil has to be maintained, in order to achieve this more
oil must be circulated per unit time. Some engines may use completely separate systems for oil cooling of
pistons and bearing lubrication, the advantages gained by this method are:
• Different oils can be used for lubrication and cooling, a very low viscosity mineral oil would be better
suited to cooling than lubrication.
• Additives can be used in the lubricating oil that would be beneficial to lubrication, e. g. oiliness
agents, e. p. agents and V. I. improvers. etc.
 Improved control over piston temperatures.
• If oil loss occurs, then with separate systems, the problem of detection is simplified and in the case of
total oil loss in either system, quantity to be replaced would not be as great as for a common system.
• Contamination of the oil in either system may take place. In the event the problem of cleaning or
renewal of the oil is not so great.
• Oxidation of lubricating oil in contact with hot piston surface leads to rapid reduction in lubrication
properties. Disadvantages of having two separate systems are: Greater initial cost due to separate
storage, additional pipe work and pumps. A sealing problem to prevent mixing of the two different
oils is created and duo to the increased complexity more maintenance would have to be carried out.
COOLING WATER SYSTEM WITH CENTRAL COOLER
The engine is cooled by a closed fresh water circuit, divided into a high temperature circuit (HT) and a
low temperature circuit (LT). The fresh water is cooled by a separate central cooler. The cooling water in the
HT circuit cools the cylinder liners, cylinder heads and turbocharger. From the pump water is supplied to the
engine manifold which is cast in the engine block. From the manifold the water is distributed to all cylinder
liner sections and from each liner upwards through the cooling water channels in the liner collars, hence
further into the cylinder heads. In the cylinder head the water is forced by an intermediate deck to flow along
the flame plate, around the valves to the exhaust valve seats and up along the fuel injector sleeve. From the
cylinder head the water is discharged via a connection piece into the discharge manifold.
Parallel to the flow to the cylinders part of the engine water flows through the turbocharger. The return
water from the cylinder heads and turbocharger is supplied to the HT air cooler, and then back to the inter-
cooler. In the first stage of this cooler, most of the heat from the charge air is extracted. The LT circuit water
cools the charge air in the second stage and the HT cooling water in the inter-cooler. The necessary cooling
for the LT water is gained from a central cooler. By controlling the LT water temperature to the inter-cooler
the correct charge air temperature can be obtained. The HT cooling water system has to work on an over
pressure of 3 bar and the LT cooling water system on 0. 7-1. 5 bar over pressure. For preheating purposes, a
heater circuit with a pump and heater is connected in the HT circuit before the engine. The non-return valves
in the circuit force the water to flow in the correct direction. Before starting, the HT circuit is heated till about
60'C by a separate heater. The pre-heating of the engine is, prior of starting up and loading on HFO, of utmost
importance.
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(Chapter 4)

FUEL OIL SYSTEM

Fuel oil is thought to be one of the main factors having much to do with the operation and maintenance of
an engine. When selecting a fuel oil, there are more than ten factors to be considered, among those which
affect combustion are the fuel oil's viscosity, cetane number and calorific value, the sulphur in it and its
carbon residues and ash are factors that decide the formation of combustion products; and the engine‟s
maintenance has a lot to do with its, flash, and setting points, specific gravity, viscosity, water content and the,
mechanical impurities in it. The work that fuel does in an engine does not only depends upon the fuel oil
itself, but also depends upon its working condition, which here means the fuel system.

The fuel oil system for a diesel engine can be considered in two parts - the fuel supply and the fuel
injection systems. Fuel supply deals with the provision of the fuel oil suitable for use by the injection system.
Fuel Oil Supply
A slow-speed two-stroke diesel is usually arranged to operate continuously on heavy fuel or residual oil
because of their relatively low cost and have available a diesel oil supply for Maneuvering conditions. The
whole fuel system will then embody two almost entirely separate systems, one for diesel fuel and one for high
viscosity fuel. The latter will embody heating arrangements and means to control the temperature of the fuel
to ensure that it is adequately fluid when stored, transferred, cleaned and injected.
In a typical fuel installation on board a ship for a modern diesel engine, separate filling connections for
the diesel and heavy fuel tanks are provided. In use, the filling connections on deck are connected to shore
hoses and the fuel oil bunkers are then distributed to various double bottom, deep, wing and side tanks as
necessary. Steam heating coils are installed in the various tanks to ensure that the temperature of the oil can be
raised to reduce the viscosity to a level that will ensure easy pump-ability. Pipes used for transferring high
viscosity fuel should be well lagged and long runs of piping should have steam-tracing pipes fitted. The fuel
oil is drawn from the bunker tanks through a duplex strainer by a transfer pump and thence to dirty oil storage
or settling tanks. Leaving the fuel in the setting tanks whilst keeping it hot to reduce its viscosity allows the
heavier impurities and any water present to settle to the bottom of the tank. The sediment and water are drawn
off leaving the remainder ready for cleaning. It is then passed to a purification system for treatment and from
there to the clean heavy fuel tank, which known as the service tank.

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From the clean heavy fuel tank the oil gravitates through a heated buffer or balance tank to the booster
pumps and is discharged through fuel heater and filter to a viscosity regulator and from there to a duplex fine
filter on the suction side of the main engine fuel pumps. Fuel excess to requirements is spilled back into the
system via the buffer tank. The viscosity regulator controls the fuel oil temperature in order to provide oil at
the correct viscosity for combustion.
A pressure-regulating valve ensures a constant pressure at the fuel main. The valve can be opened to
warm through the system by circulating with heated oil. Regular attention to the draining of heated settling
and ready use tank is advisable to eliminate the results of continuous condensation which can be very heavy
under certain climatic conditions. Usually the settling and ready use tanks are lagged to reduce heating losses.
The system will include various safety devices such as low level alarms and remote operation of tank outlet
valves in the events of fire. The diesel oil supply system similarly uses transfer pumps to draw oil from the
bunker tanks. The oil is then purified and stored in service tank. The diesel oil enters the system through a
three way valve which permits the supply of only one type of oil to the system. The engine must be changed-
over to running on diesel oil for 30 minutes or more before a long period of stand still. Diesel oil requires less
heating, and thus the change from one fuel to another should take place gradual to allow temperatures in the
system to stabilize.

Fuel Injection
The function of the fuel injection system is to provide the amount of fuel at the right moment and in a
suitable condition for the combustion process. That means, the fuel injection system for diesel engines must
be able to supply a metered amount of fuel to each cylinder for each power stroke according to the lead on the
engine, and must include a timing mechanism ensure that delivery of this fuel commences at the correct
moment, and must have a means atomize the fuel. The type of injection system most commonly used in
modern diesel engines is the jerk pump system. In the system, a separate injection pump is provided for each
cylinder which operates once every cycle. The barrel and plunger, together with the cam, are dimensioned to
displace fuel at the rates it is required in the combustion chamber. Ports in the barrel in combination with slots
in the plunger, or separate mechanically operated spill valves, determined the amount of fuel delivered and
the timing of its entry to the cylinder. Each pump is connected to the injector, or injectors, serving one
cylinder. These injectors have spring loaded differential needle valves which are set to ensure that the fuel is
raised to sufficiently high pressure to cause atomization when they automatically open to inject into the
cylinder.

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Fuel Oil Quality

Viscosity is not a measure of the fuel quality, but determines the complexity of the fuel heating and
handling system, which should be considered when estimating installation economy. The standard engine fuel
system is designed for fuels up to the viscosity class 55 mm2/s. When the density exceeds 0. 991 g/ml at 15'C.
water, and to some extent solid matter, can no longer be removed with certainty by a centrifuge. Centrifuging
systems that are claimed to be able to clean fuel oils with densities up to 1.01 g/ml at 15'C are available. If
such systems at the so called controlled discharge design are installed, fuels with densities up to 1. 010 g/ml at
15‟C may be used.
Note: Fuel oils having high density in combination with low viscosity may have low ignition quality.
High sulphur content increases the risk for corrosion and wear, particularly at low loads, and may
contribute to high-temperature deposit formation. The lubricating oil specification must be matched to this.
High ash content causes abrasive wear, and may cause high temperature corrosion and contributes to
formation of deposits. The most harmful ash constituents are vanadium sodium combinations.
High vanadium content causes hot corrosion on exhaust valves particularly in combination with high
sodium content. The corrosion increases with increased temperatures (increased engine output).
High Conradson carbon may cause deposit formation in combustion chamber and exhaust system,
particularly at low engine output.
High content of asphalt may contribute to deposit formation in combustion chamber and exhaust systems
(at low loads). Asphalt may under certain circumstances, precipitate from the fuel and block filters and/or
cause deposits in the fuel system. Precipitating asphalt may also cause excessive centrifuge sludge..
Heavy fuels may contain up to 1 % water at delivery. Water may also originate from the installation in
bunker tanks. To avoid difficulties in the engine fuel injection system water must be removed. Although low
ignition quality produces long ignition delay, advancing the ignition timing makes things only worse; fuel is
injected at a lower compression temperature and this will produce even longer ignition delay.
Aluminum and Silicon
Fuels may contain highly abrasive particles composed of aluminum and silicon oxides known as
“catalytic fines” from certain refining processes. if not removed by efficient fuel treatment, wear down of high
pressure fuel pumps nozzles and cylinder liners in a few hours.

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Jerk pump system

In the jerk pump system of fuel injection a separate injector pump exists for each cylinder. The injector
pump is usually operated once every cycle by a cam on the camshaft. The barrel and plunger of the
injector pump are dimensioned to suit the engine fuel requirements. Ports in the barrel and slots in the plunger
or adjustable spill valves serve to regulate the fuel delivery (a more detailed explanation follows). Each
injector pump supplies the injector or injectors for one cylinder. The needle valve in the injector will lift
at a pre-set pressure which ensures that the fuel will atomize once it enters the cylinder.
There are two particular types. of fuel pump in use, the valve controlled discharge type and the
helix or helical edge pump. Valve-controlled pumps are used on slow-speed two-stroke engines and the
helix type for all medium- and high-speed four-stroke engines.
Helix-type injector pump
The injector pump is operated by a cam which drives the plunger up and down. The timing of the
injection can be altered by raising or lowering the pump plung er in relation to the cam. The pump has
a constant stroke and the amount of fuel delivered is regulated by rotating the pump plunger which has a
specially arranged “helical groove” cut into it.
The fuel is supplied to the pump through ports or openings at Plunger Barrel . As the plunger
moves down, fuel enters the cylinder. As the plunger moves up, the ports are closed and the fuel is
pressurized and delivered to the injector nozzle at very high pressure. When the edge of the helix uncovers
the spill port, pressure is lost and fuel delivery to the injector stops. A non -return valve(Delivery
Valve) on the delivery side of the pump closes to stop fuel oil returning from the injector. Fuel will
again be drawn in on the plunger down-stroke and the process will be repeated. The plunger may be rotated in
the cylinder by a rack and pinion arrangement on a sleeve, which is keyed to the plunger. This will move the
edge, up or down to reduce or increase the amount of fuel pumped into the cylinder. The rack is connected to
the throttle control or governor of the engine.This type of pump, with minor variations, is used on many four-
stroke diesel engines.
Valve-controlled pump
In the Variable Injection Timing (VIT) pump used in MAN B&W engines the governor output shaft is
the controlling parameter. Two linkages are actuated by the regulating shaft of the governor. The upper
control linkage changes the injection timing by raising or lowering the plunger in relation to the cam. The
lower linkage rotates the pump plunger and thus the helix in order to vary the pump output. In the Sulzer
variable injection timing system the governor output is connected to a suction valve and a spill valve. The
closing of the pump suction valve determines the beginning of injection. Operation of the spill valve will
control the end of injection by releasing fuel pressure. No helix is therefore present on the pump plunger.

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The fuel injector

A typical fuel injector is shown in Figure below. It can be seen to be two basic parts, the nozzle and the
nozzle holder or body. The high-pressure fuel enters and travels down a passage in the body and then into a
passage in the nozzle, ending finally in a chamber surrounding the needle valve. The needle valve is held
closed on a mitred seat by an intermediate spindle and a spring in the injector body. The spring
pressure, and hence the injector opening pressure, can be set by a compression nut which acts on the spring.
The nozzle and injector body are manufactured as a matching pair and are accurately ground to give a good oil
seal. The two are joined by a nozzle nut. The needle valve will open when the fuel pressure acting on
the needle valve tapered face exerts a sufficient force to overcome the spring compression. The fuel
then flows into a lower chamber and is forced out through a series of tiny holes. The small holes are sized
and arranged to atomize, or break into tiny drops, all of the fuel oil, which will then readily burn. Once the
injector pump or timing valve cuts off the high pressure fuel supply the needle valve will shut quickly under
the spring compression force. All slow-speed two-stroke engines and many medium-speed four-stroke
engines are now operated almost continuously on heavy fuel. A fuel circulating system is therefore necessary
and this is usually arranged within the fuel injector. During injection the high-pressure fuel will open the
circulation valve for injection to take place. When the engine is stopped the fuel booster pump supplies fuel
which the circulation valve directs around the injector body. Older engine designs may have fuel injectors
which are circulated with cooling water.

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(Chapter 5)
LUBRICATING SYSTEM
Duties of Lubricant
The successful operation of any engine or machine and its trouble free life depends on effective
lubrication which involves the formation and maintenance of a lubricating oil film between the moving parts.
The marine diesel engine is no exception and considerable thought has gone into the problem of the
lubrication of its many parts with their widely varying operation conditions.
In addition to providing lubricating films, oils used in marine diesel engines have to remove heat from oil
cooled pistons, neutralize acidic, products of combustion, cleanse hot moving parts of carbonaceous deposits,
resist oxidation and wash away wear detritus.
The development of oils has kept pace with the increasing demands made by the steady rise in powers
produced by modern marine diesels. The selection of oil from the commercially available range depends to a
great extent on the operating conditions, the design of the engine and the type of fuel to be burned.
Large marine diesel engines of crosshead construction generally have two systems of lubrication: a total
loss system feeding the cylinders and a circulating system lubricating the running gear and cooling the pistons.
Cylinder Lubrication
Temperatures in the cylinder are naturally high, though only the cylinder combustion space and piston
crown are subjected to actual flame temperatures. The piston rings exert a varying pressure on the liner walls
under conditions involving rapidly changing speed and reversal of direction of motion. Oil is supplied to the
cylinder liner wall and the piston rings by means of mechanical lubricators giving a carefully controlled oil
feed, through injectors or quills. And in some designs it is timed so that the oil impinges only on the piston
ring belt , thus ensuring the most efficient lubrication.
The films of oil between the rings and the liner and between the rings and the grooves in the piston are not
only essential for lubrication but also play an important part in achieving a gas seal. In carrying out these
duties the oil is exposed to contamination by products of combustion. Some of these are acidic, particularly if
residual fuels are being used and can cause corrosive conditions which promote heavy rates of wear. Also,
lacquer and carbonaceous deposits form in the ring belt which interfere with the correct operation of the rings.
To counter act these undesirable effects cylinder oils usually contain additives formulated to impart a high
degree of alkalinity and detergency. The alkalinity neutralizes the acid conditions and the detergency cleanses
the rings end grooves.
Crankcase Lubrication
Operating conditions in the crank chamber are very different from those in the cylinder and it is the need
for the oil to perform its function over a very long period, which determines the properties required in the
lubricant. The following features are essential for crank chamber oils
1. They must have good lubricating properties and be able to resist rupture of the film separating the
moving parts in order to ensure minimum friction losses.
2. They must be able to remove heat from a bearing and to do so the viscosity should be nigh enough at
operating temperatures to assist film maintenance.
3. They must be capable of removing heat from oil cooled pistons and in doing so must have the highest
possible degree of resistance to oxidation and other effects of heat. The use of poor quality oil can lead to
rapid deterioration of its properties with the resultant formation of deposits in the piston crown which in turn
results in a considerable reduction in heat transfer with subsequent overheating and thermal cracking. The
cooling oil is usually supplied to the piston by means of telescopic pipes connected to the crossheads and
passages in the piston rods. To ensure a constant supply of clean and temperature controlled oil to the engine
requires the provision of a great deal of auxiliary equipment such as pumps, filters, centrifuges, coolers, drain
and storage tanks etc.

Lubricating Oil System

Lubricating oil for an engine is stored in the bottom of the crankcase, known as the sump, or in a drain
tank located beneath the engine. The oil is drawn from this tank through a strainer, one of a pair of pumps,
into one of a pair of fine filters. It is then passed through a cooler before entering the engine and being
distributed to the various branch pipes. The branch pipe for a particular cylinder may feed the main bearing,
for instance. Some of this oil will pass along a drilled passage in the crankshaft to the connecting rod bottom
end bearing and then up a drilled passage in the connecting rod to the gudgeon pin or crosshead bearing. An
alarm at the end of the distribution pipe ensures that adequate pressure is maintained by the pump.
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Pumps and fine filters are arranged in duplicate with one as standby. The fine filters will be arranged so
that one can be cleaned while the other is operating. After use in the engine the lubricating oil drains back to
the sump or drain tank for re-use. A level gauge gives a local read-out of the drain tank contents. A centrifuge
is arranged for cleaning the lubricating oil in the system and clean oil can be provided from a storage tank.
The oil cooler is circulated by seawater, which is at a lower pressure than the oil. As a result any leak in
the cooler will mean a loss of oil and not contamination of the oil by seawater.

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(Chapter 6)
MARINE BOILERS
TYPES OF BOILERS
There are two distinct types of marine boilers in use on board ship, the fire-tube boiler in which the hot
gases from the furnaces pass through the tubes while the water is on the outside, and the water-tube boiler in
which the water through the tubes while the hot furnace gases pass around the outside. The water tube is
employed for high pressure, high temperature, high capacity steam applications, e.g. providing steam for main
propulsion turbines or cargo pump turbines. Fire tube boilers are used for auxiliary purposes to provide
smaller quantities of low-pressure steam on diesel engine powered ships.
Fire Tube boilers were commonly used with steam reciprocating engines on board ship, but because of
their comparative poor efficiency and low power weight ratio, these systems are no longer installed for
propulsion plant.
There are many types of Water Tube Boilers in general use on board ship and each manufacturer has a
variety of designs to offer depending upon requirements. Water tube boilers have distinct advantages over fire
tube boilers.
(1) Circulation of the water is natural and immediate on lighting up, thus steam can be raised from cold
water in a shorter period of time without the danger experienced in fire tube boilers having larger temperature
differences between top and bottom parts of the boiler causing unequal expansion resulting in mechanical
straining.
(2) The steam and water drums are small in diameter compared with the large shell of the fire tube
boilers, therefore they are stronger and suitable for much higher steam pressure.
(3) Less mass of water is carried in the boiler, hence a saving in weight and less space is taken up for the
same output.
The water tube boiler does however require greater skill in operating and maintaining, especially with
regard to the purity of the feed water, and its upkeep is more costly than the fire tube boiler. A later
development of water tube boilers is the bent tube design. This boiler has two drums, an integral furnace and
is often referred to as the “D” type because of its shape. The furnace is at the side of the two drums and is
surrounded on all sides of by walls of tubes. These water wall tubes are connected either to upper and lower
header or lower header and the steam drums. Between the steam drum and the smaller water drum below
large number of smaller diameter generating tubes are fitted. These provide the main heat transfer surfaces for
steam generation. Large bore pipes or down comers are fitted between the steam and water drums to ensure
good natural circulation of the water.
A Donkey Boiler is an auxiliary boiler sometimes included in a steamship's installation for supplying
steam to the auxiliaries in port, and in motor ships with steam auxiliaries for supplying steam at sea and in
port. In motor ships, an Exhaust Gas Boiler (sometimes called a waste-heat boiler) is often used to recover
some of the heat carried in the Exhaust Gases from the main engines. Composite Boilers are often fitted
wherein the generation of steam can be maintained by oil firing when the exhaust gas temperature, falls due to
low running of the engines, or ceases when the engines are stopped.

Boiler Mountings
Certain fittings are necessary on a boiler to ensure its safe operation. They are usually referred to as
boiler mountings. The mountings usually found on a boiler are:
Safety Valves
These are mounted in pairs to protect the boiler against overpressure. Once the valve lifting pressure is
set in the presence of a surveyor it is locked and cannot be changed. The valve is arranged to open
automatically at the pre-set blow off pressure.
Main Stop Valve
This valve is fitted in the main steam supply line and is usually of the non-return type.
Auxiliary Steam Stop Valve
This is a smaller valve fitted in the auxiliary steam supply line, and is usually of the non-return type.
Feed Check or Control Valve
A pair of valves is fitted: One is the main valve, the other is the auxiliary or stand by. They are non-return
valves and must give an indication of their open and closed position.

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Water Level Gauge

Water level gauges or “gauge glasses” are fitted in pairs, at opposite ends of the boiler. The construction
of the level gauge depends on the boiler pressure.
Air Release Cock
These are fitted in the headers, boiler drum, etc. , to release air when filling the boiler or initially raising
steam.
Sampling Connection
A water outlet cock and cooling arrangement is provided for the sampling and analysis of feed water.
Blow Down Valve
This valve enables water to be blow down or emptied from the boiler. It may be used when partially or
completely emptying the boiler.
Scum Valve
A shallow dish positioned at the normal water level is connected to the scum valve. This enable the
blowing down or removal of scum and impurities from the water surface.
Automatic Feed Water Regulator
Fitted in the feed line prior to the main check valve, this device is essential to ensure the correct water
level in the boiler during all load conditions.
Soot blower
Operated by steam or compressed air, they are act to blow away soot and the products of combustion
from the tube surfaces.

WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS (W. H. R.)

Generation of electrical power from a steam turbine-generator and the supply of saturated steam to
heating services by exhaust gas heat recovery system is effected in many ships. The type of W. H. R. unit
mainly fitted nowadays for medium to large outputs is made up of horizontal extended surface steel tubes,
force-circulated with water taken from an oil fired boiler and returned as water/vapor emulsion. The boiler is
fired whenever the demand for steam exceeds that available from exhaust gas heating. Additional heat
extraction from the exhaust gases can be effected by adding an economizer section to the unit in plants where
the arrangement permits the supply of cooled circulating water or feed water at the economizer inlet. Similar
results, but with some disadvantages, can be obtained by producing low pressure steam from a separate heat
exchange unit at the tail end of the gas stream.
Circulation of the W. H. R. plant must be maintained at all times when the main engine is on load. Also it
must be continued for at least two hours after the engine has been stopped to ensure that any combustible
material from the exhaust gas which has deposited on the heating surfaces is thoroughly cooled below the
ignition point. Circulation should be stopped and the system secured only if a long stay in port is expected.
When leaving an intermediate port, if the system has been depressurized, circulation of the W. H. R. unit
should be commenced before the main engines are started, and any air liberated by the hot circulating water
released from the header air vents.
When soot blowers are fitted to the unit, the fires should be lit in the oil-fired boiler to maintain steam
pressure, the steam lines drained and the soot blowers operated once daily at sea. Intervals between blowing
may be extended when observation of the funnel shows that soot discharge is small. A guide to their
effectiveness is given by a change in the funnel exhaust temperature immediately after soot blower operation.
Water washing of the heating surface must also be carried out at intervals of three months, or such lesser
intervals as may be decided upon from sighting of the surface during intermediate inspections. The drain
provided at the lowest point of the inlet trunk immediately below the W. H. R. unit must be proved clear prior
to and during washing operation.
At a constant main engine power level, W. H. R. systems have a rising pressure characteristic on a falling
steam demand. The output can be reduced by bypassing the feed heater on either the feed water or circulating
water sides, so increasing the temperature at the economizer inlet and reducing gas/water temperature
differences in this heat exchanger section. Other automatic or manual control arrangements may be controlling
flow through an exhaust gas bypass duct by means of dampers and, when sub-divided inlet headers are
provided, by closing on or more of the isolating valves supplying circulating water to separate sections of the
steam generator. Valves must be fully open or fully shut and not left in an intermediate position.

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Type of boiler Horizontal smoke tube vertical composit boiler MKSC 20-
1000/1000
Design pressure 0.69 Mpa

Normal working pressure 0.59 Mpa

Hydraulic test pressure 1.04 Mpa

Steam temperature Saturated temperature

Feed water temperature 60 ۫ C

Evaporation capacity Oil fired side 1000 kg/h

Exh. Gas side 85% 1000 kg/h
00% 1149 kg/h

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Heating surface Oil fired side 26.9 M3,

Exh. gas heated side 189.64 M3

Volume of combustion chamber About 1.5ft

Fuel consumption About 85.5 kg/h

(low calorific valve 40,814 kj/kg)

Combustion system Forced draft pressure jet atomizing system

Kind of fuel Marine diesel oil for cold starting

Marine heavy oil under 380 Cst/50"C
Dimensions
Inside diameter of shell 1990 mm
Over-all height 6200 mm
Outside radius of furnace 900 mm
Mass
Boiler About 20.10 ton
Accessories About 1.00 ton
Boiler water (N.W.L) About 08.79 ton

MATERIALS and CONSTRUCTION

1. Boiler Casing.
The materials are follows.
Steel plate for pressure part: Rolled Steel plate for boiler 'KP46SR".
Steel plate for non-pressure part: Rolled Steel plate for General Structure "SS400" Smoke Tube: Steel
tube for boiler "KSTB35".
This boiler consists of the Shells, Dished End or Semi-ellipsoidal Head, semi-spherical Furnace.,
Ogee ring, Spiraled Smoke Tubes, etc. The all joints of the plates are made by welding and the whole length
of the weld seams arc X-ray examined. Post welding heat treatment is carried out in accordance with the rules
requirement.

2. Rear Smoke Box

The rear smoke box made of the steel plates is installed on the rear side of the boiler drum. This box is
divided into the two chambers horizontally the one is for oil fired side, exhaust gas heated side respectively.
The each chamber has the cleaning hole and soot blower to clean or inspect the chamber.
3. Front Smoke Box
The front smoke box is built with the steel plates and divided into the two chambers horizontally the one
is for Oil Fired Side, Exhaust Gas Heated Side respectively. The each chamber has the hinged door to
maintenance the chamber and has the individual gas outlet.

Insulation and lining.

1. Boiler Casing.
Outside of the Boiler Casing is insulated with good lagging cover. Insulation materials are supplied by
maker and insulation work to the drum is carried out at factory.
2. Furnace bottom
Furnace bottom is lined with Fireproof Bricks and cast-able Refractory. Lining materials are supplied by
maker, and lining work is carried out at factory.

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The MISSIONTM OC boiler is a combined Oil and Exhaust Gas fired vertical marine boiler, insulated
and assembled as a unit with the boiler mountings mounted on the boiler body.
The Boiler Mountings are mainly mounted on top of the boiler body in order to allow a simple
connection to the piping systems on board the ship. The Burner is ready for mounting in the furnace and
connection of pre-marked electric wiring. The control system supplied with the MISSIONTM OC boiler unit
provides fully automatic operation of the boiler and the pressure atomizing burner.
1.1 Boiler pressure part
The pressure part of the MISSION" OC boiler is shown in Figure above. The combined oil fired and
exhaust gas fired boiler is designed as a vertical boiler with a cylindrical shell surrounding the oil fired and the
exhaust gas fired sections. The oil-fired section comprises the cylindrical furnace, the steam space, and the
convection section consisting of pin tube elements. The exhaust gas fired section comprises the stay tubes
and smoke tubes.

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The pressure part is made of mild carbon steel with elevated temperature properties. This means that
stress concentrations on corner welding are minimized by the design of the cylindrical shell with the flat
endplates of equal thickness. The cylindrical shell with the two flat endplates welded on is supported by the
stay tubes, the pin-tube elements, and the furnace. Also the steam drum is a cylindrical vessel welded on the
top plate and upper tube plate. The drum acts as a dividing plate to the exhaust gas fired section. This unique
design ensures that no supports are required.
The Pin Tube Elements consist of an outer tube enclosing the pin tube. The pin tube is a plain seamless
steel tube provided with an inlet pipe at the bottom and an outlet pipe at the top. A large number of pins are
welded around the outside of the tube creating an extended heating surface. This extended heating surface
transfers heat from the flue gas to the steam/water mixture in the pin tube. The tubes in the exhaust gas fired
section consist of a small number of stay tubes and a large number of smoke tubes. The stay tubes with an
increased diameter act as support for the boiler. Both types are welded onto the endplates. The furnace is
cylindrical with two flat plates. The bottom steel plate is protected from radiation of heat by refractory.
Furthermore, the furnace bottom is provided with a socket for drain of washing water.
For inside inspection, the MISSION OC BOILER is arranged with both hand holes and manholes. Two
manholes are arranged on the boiler shell for convenient access both into the oil fired section and into the
exhaust gas fired section. For visual check of the smoke tubes, a number of hand holes are arranged in a
suitable distance at the bottom of the boiler drum. For inspection of the flue gas side, inspection doors are
arranged on the flue gas inlet and outlet chamber. The Boiler Mountings such as Safety Valves, Steam
Outlet Valve, Water Level Electrodes, etc. are mainly mounted on top of the boiler body in order to allow
simple connection to the piping system on board the ship. Furthermore, inlet and outlet boxes are included in
the delivery.
Boilers with a diameter up to 3,000 mm are prepared for tack welding along the boiler shell. For boilers
with a diameter above 3,000 mm, the boiler foundation is arranged as a flanged type which reduces the
thermal mechanical stresses to a minimum during operation. The counter flange is included and ready for
welding to the deck. In both cases, vent holes in suitable numbers are arranged to ensure the circulation of air
below the boiler. The boiler is prepared for mounting of a compact silencer to suit any type of diesel engine.
The optimal silencer dimensions suitable for each installation should be calculated on basis of the data for the
engine, exhaust gas system, and level of sound absorption.
Heat transfer and water circulation
Oil ignition and combustion take place in the furnace. The produced heat is transferred mainly by
radiation from the flame to the furnace shell. Leaving the furnace, the flue gases enter the vertical uptakes
where heat is transferred to the Pin Tube elements mainly by convection. In the exhaust gas fired section, heat
from the engine exhaust gas is transferred to the water side by convection.

STARTING OF AN AUXILIARY BOILER

Prior to starting the boiler, attention should be paid to the following items and through checking should be
made on them.
Boiler
1. All pressure parts are free from foreign material.
2. All gas side-heating surfaces are clean and all refractors are in good condition.
3. The furnace bottom and the burner wind box have been cleaned of oil and other foreign material.
4. All personnel are clear.
5. The manhole cover is securely tightened. All access doors on the casing are closed tight.
6. Inspect the safety valve and see that the gag has been removed and the Easing lever is in good.
condition.
7. Open the root valves for all instruments and controls connected to the drum. 8. Open the vent valve of
the boiler drum.
9. Open all pressure gauge valves, check and see all valves in the pressure gauge tubing are open.
10. Check and close all blow-off valves and drain valves.
11. Fill the boiler till water level appears 25 to 50 mm high in the gauge glass. The boiler shall be filled in
the following procedure and the feed water line shall be inspected simultaneously.
a) When the boiler has been laid up wet (Refer to “Boiler protection during outage”), drain the boiler till
the water level falls down to the bottom of the gauge glass, and bring the water level up again to about
50 mm high in the gauge glass.
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b) When the boiler has been laid up dry, fill the boiler to the water level 25 to 50 mm higher than the
normal water level through the boiler feed water line. Use distilled water for feed water whenever
possible. Boiler compound shall be added as instructed by the expert of boiler water treatment.

Fuel Burning Equipment

1. Make sure that all fuel oil lines including oil filters, etc. are in good condition.
2. Make sure that no oil residue is in the burner wind box.
3. Make sure that all burner air registers are clean and move smoothly.

Lighting off and Pressure Raising

1. Make sure that the boiler water level in the water level gauge is correct.
The water level should fall when the drain valve of the level gauge is opened, and should return to the
previous level when the valve is closed.
2. Attention must be paid not to mistake the empty level gauge for full of water or stains on the gauge
glass for water level.
3. Prior to lighting off, purge the furnace thoroughly by operating the forced draft fan, as explosive gases
may be present in the furnace.
4. In the start-up from cold condition, oil flow to the burner should be controlled to a minimum to sustain
burning for about 30 minutes after lighting off. It is desirable to bring the boiler to the normal pressure in
at least 2. 5 to 3 hours. When the furnace is sufficiently hot, however, this period can be shortened to
0. 5 to 1 hour. The sudden rise of temperature and pressure that causes severe thermal stresses and
expansions of the furnace walls and other boiler parts should be avoided to prevent damages on the boiler.
5. Close the air vent valve if it begins to blow steam.
6. When the boiler is brought nearly to normal pressure, crack the main steam valve to warm the steam
line gradually.

EXAMINATION OF BOILER FOR SURVEY.

Commencing the external examination at the boiler crown it is sometimes found that wastage exists
beneath damp lagging around leaking mountings, and in riveted Boilers any bulges in the lagging should
always be investigated, as often they are an indication of a leakage and wasted seam.
In boilers with smoke tubes, the smoke box should be opened and tube ends examined for leakage,
particular attention being paid to the stay tubes. Thin plain tubes, if leaking at their ends, are best renewed,
and in the case of leakage at the threads of stay tubes, provided the tubes are of round section and a fillet weld
of “t+3. 2 mm” (1/8 in) (where t is the tube thickness) can be applied, then this, where practicable, is the
obvious remedy.
Further down the boiler it is sometimes found that leaking mud hole doors have caused wastage of the
door opening and also the internal jointing faces of the shell. Building up of the shell opening by welding as
repair is not feasible as, after welding, it is practically impossible in most small boilers to face up the inner
jointing surface. A satisfactory repair can however be made by positioning inside the boiler a false seating
ring for the door, and then fillet welding it in position working from the outside.
In the firebox or furnace, of either the cylindrical or hemispherical type, particular attention must be given
to any signs of distortion, and to thermal cracking at positions where it is judged heat concentrations are likely
to occur when the boiler is being fired, or through scale encrustations being present on the water side. The flue
pipe outlet from Cochran boilers and the flat horizontal tube plate of some Spanner type boilers are two
examples - in the case of the former, when the cracking is extensive, the usual method of repair is to weld in a
new flue pipe with a flanged extension which takes in part of the furnace crown.
In the case of riveted vertical boilers, leakage and wastage sometimes occur in way of the three-ply
riveting which is embodied in the construction, at the junction of the double riveted lap seam of the shell and
the ogee ring. In extreme cases a satisfactory repair can be made by cutting out the double riveted seam in the
lower course of the boiler shell, inserting new piece of plate and raising a butt welded vertical seam on either
side of it and, if necessary, part renewing the ogee ring. If this repair is contemplated, it will be appreciated
that the two new vertical welded seams must be done under Class I welding conditions as far as practicable,
with full X-ray and local stress relief.

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FAILURES IN OPERATION AND COUTERMEASURE

Priming and Foaming

Priming is a phenomenon in which some portion of the boiler water is carried away with the steam when
boiled vehemently. Foaming is a phenomenon in which a mountain of bubbles is formed in the boiler
when such bubbles are less likely to break up due to a stronger surface tension of' the boiler water that
becomes more condensed by and by. In some serious case of the above mentioned phenomenon, a portion
of the boiler water is carried away with the steam.

Hazards by priming and foaming

(a) The level of the boiler water fluctuates violently, and it is difficult to identify the water level in the water
level gauge.
(b) Safety valve may be fouled, or the connecting hole of the pressure gauge may be clogged with scale or
other foreign matters, or boiler water may come into the vent hole of the water level gauge. All these
things could degrade the performance of each unit.
(c) The portion of the boiler water carried away with the steam may be accumulated in the piping, and cause a
water hammer, finally damaging the piping and each unit using such steam.
(d) When priming or foaming occurs, the water level of the boiler drops suddenly, which could cause any
accident due to low water levels.

How priming and foaming occurs

Too high water level, too rapid evaporation, too rapid increase of steam volume used, and boiler water
density exceeding a specified level may cause these phenomena. Also note that some drifting particles,
organic matters, soap or oil that may be included in the boiler water could contribute to these phenomena.

How to deal with problems

If priming or foaming occurs, identify the true cause for such problem first, and be sure to see what
corrective action(s) can be taken.
If such problem occurs suddenly, restrict the combustion first, and allow the water level gauge to show the
correct level.

Take the following steps according for each cause of the problem:

(a) When the water level is high, adjust it by blowing down the boiler water.
(b) Open close the steam valve slowly. 1f the problem is caused by a rapid increase of combustion load,
restrict the combustion, and wait for the water level to stabilize, and then increase the load slowly.
(c) If the boiler water is of high density, repeat blow down and feed water to decrease the density.
(d) If oil or fat is included in the boiler water, such oil or fat secreted may be seen in the glass of the water
level gauge. In such a case, stop the operation of the boiler immediately, and remove the cause for
including such oil or fat, and then flush the inside of the boiler.
(e) Test the safety valve, blow off the connecting pipe of the pressure gauge, and open the blow-off cocks of
water level gauge and water column. and then finally check the normal operation of these units.

Rumbling Boiler
During combustion. a rumbling sound may be heard continuously in the combustion chamber or flue, and
the boiler room may reverberate with such rumbling sound. This is called "Rumbling Boiler".

Causes for rumbling boiler

(a) When too much water is contained in the fuel.
(b) Fuel and air are mixed improperly, or combustion speed is too slow.
(c) When a pocket causing current stream is produced in the flue.
(d) When the sectional area of the flue varies widely

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Prevention
To prevent rumbling, use the fuel containing less water, and allow the combustion to complete as swiftly
as possible by improving the ways of heating, feeding the secondary air, and adjusting the ventilation.
Damages to Boiler Drum
The explosion of the Boiler Proper will bring about the most serious damage of all accidents. More of
double protective measures shall be taken accordingly. The followings are the cases where the accident
generally leads to a partial rupture, short of big explosion
(a) Overheat, swelling and crack of the boiler drum.
(b) Crack, leakage and overheat of the circumferential joint of the boiler.
(c) Overheat, swelling. rupture and corrosive perforation of water tube.
(d) Corrosive perforation of smoke tube, and overheat and leakage of installed section.
(e) The overheat, swelling, collapse or crack of the flue and combustion chamber will need appropriate
corrective action(s).
However, the most important thing is how to find such fault in early stages.
To do this, be sure to detect any leakage from the boiler proper early, confirm if the refractory protective
material or brick wall is not damaged, and monitor any irregularity of the heating surface inside the furnace.
When the accident is restricted to a partial rupture of the boiler, causing no immediate danger, take the
following actions immediately after stopping the operation:
(a) By stopping the operation of the blower, and opening the damper, release the leaked steam by way of
the chimney in natural flow of air.
(b) Feed enough water to keep the water level appropriate.
(c) By stopping the combustion, reduce the damage to the boiler.
(d) Drain water after the boiler is cooled down properly.
Swelling and Collapse by Overheat
These occur when a lot of incrustation is deposited, condensed water is heated, or when low level of tank
water is heated (short water burning). In these cases, take the following action(s):
(a) Stop the combustion, and cool the boiler as the fire door is opened.
(b) If no irregularity is detected in the water level when the feed water valve is opened slightly, keep on
feeding water.
(c) Close the steam stop valve.
(d) Wait for the pressure to fall naturally. Never blow off the safety valve.
(e) Check the cause of the accident inside outside the boiler when it is cooled down.
(f) Repair each part as required.

Short Water (Accidental Level-down of Boiler Water)

In most cases, this kind of accident is an error caused by carelessness, because no accidental level down of
boiler water will occur if the specified amount of supply water is always fed to the boiler.
The following things are suspected as possible causes for this:
(a) In case the water level indicated by the water level gauge does not fall when the water level inside the
boiler is actually lowered due to clogged gauge cock of the water level gauge, or error in opening, closing
such cock or stop valve of the water level gauge,
(b) In case the boiler water level falls abnormally due to the leakage, slack or insufficient tightening of
blow valve or cock, leakage from the boiler proper, or leakage of safety valve.
(c) In case water is supplied insufficiently due to the failure in feed water pump, feed water valve or
automatic feed water control system.
(d) In case a load exceeding the capacity of the boiler is applied.
If an abnormal level-down of the boiler water, which is caused by the above-mentioned conditions, is
detected, take appropriate action(s) according to "Damages to Boiler Drum" for a partial rupture of the
boiler, and take appropriate action(s) according to "Swelling and Collapse by Overheat" for a swelling or
collapse of the boiler. If such external irregularity is not detected, determine if the water level has been
lowered even below the safety low level. If the water level falls below the safety low level, estimate how
long the water level is being lowered below such safety level. If such water level stays below the safety
low level for only for a short time, simply increase the feed water. Or if the heating surface is heated, take
more drastic action(s) according the above mentioned instructions. In many cases, such reduced water
level by itself inflicts less damage to the boiler, while careless water supply leads more often to damages.

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Accidental Increase of Boiler Water

If the water level is too high, stop the combustion temporarily, and open the blow down valve slightly
to lower the water level to the normal level.
Broken Smoke Tube
The possible causes for damaged water tube and smoke tube have already been described. If any leakage
occurs due to damaged smoke tube of a cylindrical boiler or vertical boiler, such leakage can be stopped by
inserting a plug(Tube Stopper), excluding the case where the leakage occurs in the mount of tube end(s) or
tube plate. The most important thing in using this is to clean the inside of the tube by a brush in advance, and
examine if no burr is found in the damaged part, so that nothing may interfere with the stopper being inserted.
Also pay attention not to be burned when inserting such stopper. If any leakage is detected during voyage,
service the tube stopper for emergency use first, and replace the smoke tube with a new one when the ship
enters the next port.
Water Level Gauge
1. Drain
To avoid danger in draining the fluid inside the water level gauge, be sure to install a drain piping.
2. Test of water level gauge
Keep the stop valves on upside and downside, and the drain valve 3 opened. Remove air inside the water
level gauge by opening the upper valve 1 slowly to the full, and close the drain valve 3. Then the pressure
in the water level gauge will rise immediately. When the pressure has risen, open the lower valve 2
slowly. Then the water flows in immediately, and the water level will be indicated soon.
3. Why water level is not indicated, and how to deal with it.
(a) In case check ball is activated:
Close the bottom valve 2 temporarily, and open the handle by half turn, and then leave it for a while.
(b) In case the pipe is clogged with foreign matters: Clean the pipe.
4. Maintenance of water level gauge
When re-tightening the water level gauge, drain first the fluid or drop down pressure inside the water level
gauge via the drain valve by closing the stop valve or upper/lower cocks.
Such re-tightening shall be done zigzag in the order shown in Figure, where the amount of tightening bolts
each time shall be strict to 10 percent or less, and all the bolts (nuts) shall be tightened uniformly. Also re-
tighten the screws periodically.

Pressure Gauge
Pressure gauge is subject to an error in operation due to the fatigue of the pressurized material when it is
used for a long time. Pressure gauge should indicate zero when no pressure is applied, but it may not
return to the zero position in some case. In another case, some pressure gauge indicates differently from
other ones that are equal in their indication when pressure is increased. In these cases, replace such
pressure gauge with a new one. In still another case, the pointer of the pressure gauge may be too slow to
rise. and jump suddenly when tapped lightly with finger tip. In this, too, the pressure gauge is broken, and
must be replaced. Pressure gauge is not something that should be replaced when it is broken, but
something that should be replaced periodically in a specified period of time.

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Blow Down Valve

The blow down valve may sometimes be clogged with the scale in the boiler. To prevent the valve from
being clogged, blow down the boiler water every 24 hours regardless of the density of the water. If such
valve is clogged, reduce the pressure to "0", and cool the water temperature to a safe level. Then, remove
the blow down pipe from the flange, and open the valve slowly. Now you can rake out the scale bit by bit
by inserting a thin rod by way of the flange hole. If any amount of boiler water flows out, close the valve
immediately, and install the blow down pipe, and then blow down the water by opening the valve to the
full. However, never take this method when any pressure is left inside, or when the water is boiling.
The facing up of the blow down valves shall be done as often as the chance is given, even when no
leakage is detected, so that the proper function is maintained. The gland packing shall be replaced each
time in such facing up. When installing the gland packing, an allowance for re-tightening shall be left.

Avoiding Over-load Operation

1. Heavy oil fired side
To avoid an overload operation, don't adjust the oil amount of the combustion system to a value
exceeding the planned values specified in the drawings and Instruction Manual. Overload operation
may lead to a boiler failure.
2. Main engine exhaust gas side of composite type boiler
Operate the Boiler under the conditions for exhaust gas remaining within the range of planned values
specified in the drawings. Any negligence, in this case, may lead to degraded performance of drain
cooler, water feed pump, economizer circulation pump, etc., or a boiler failure could result.

FEED WATER AND BOILER WATER

Why Water Treatment is necessary

When the water sent to the boiler tank is evaporated by combustion heat, the impurities contained in the
water are always left behind. As the combustion and evaporation continue, the impurities contained in the
boiler water will increase indefinitely. Some of these impurities. insoluble in the water, are deposited on
the bottom as encrustation (scale) and mud, while some of them, light in weight, may float on the surface
of the water. Other impurities dissolved in the water will increase the density of the water as it grows in
quantity. These phenomena may lead to the corrosion and cracks of the boiler proper, flue and smoke
tube, which will in turn degrade the efficiency of heat conduction, causing the boiler overheated. The
boiler water, too dense, will contribute to a carry over that takes a portion of water up in evaporation,
where water is contained in the steam. All this will lead to a heat loss, and any other problems difficult to
cope with.
If gas such as oxygen or carbon dioxide is included in the feed water, such substance will lead to a
corroded boiler. The boiler is more corroded as the temperature and pressure of the steam used are
higher. In this regard, it is obvious that the quality of the boiler water brings about an extensive influence,
and it is necessary that the feed water, and the way of such feed water should be improved in any way to
prevent its quality from being deteriorated. Boiler water treatment is absolutely necessary for the former,
and feed water treatment is absolutely necessary for the latter.

Impurities Contained in Feed Water and Boiler Water

Impurities included un-dissolved.

Inorganic matters are mud, clay, sand, iron, rust, etc.
Organic matters are animal and plant substances such as starch powder, tannin, oil and fats. etc. which
react with carbon, and include hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Other types of oil and fats are also
included. Inorganic matters and organic matters do precipitate, while some of the oil and fats precipitate,
and others do not precipitate. Some of the oil and fats are also corrosive. This may easily lead to a carry
over.

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BOILER WATER LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEM

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STEP- 1. Water Filling Procedure for Boiler Water.

1. Set water level N.W.L in Boiler.
2. Remove air removal Plug from Seal Pot.
3. Open the Valves B.D.E & C (water inside of pipe line increases to "b" point.
4. Air is removed from pressure transmitter by open of two Plugs(4).
After that Plugs are closed.
5. Valves A & E are closed. Water is supplied to air hole until filling of upper part of Seal Pot.(water supply
is made until water is overflowed from there ).
6. A is opened. ( Water level is come down to "a" position which will be standard water level ).
7. Air ventilation Plug is installed in Seal Pot.
8. Above condition, arrange the pressure gauge 0.6 kg/cm2.

STEP- 2. How to supply the water for pipes after Boiler Pressure 1 Kg/cm2.

1. Set water level N.W.L in Boiler.

2. Close the Valves A & B and open C, D & E.
3. Take off Plug G, then supply with water until over Seal Pot. At this time, unfasten F1,F2 and b and take
out air in all Pipes and in pressure transmitter. ( Empty air then close F1, F2 & b )
4. Close E and replace Plug G.
5. Open A and B at the same time.
6. Above condition, arrange the pressure gauge 0.6 kg/cm2.

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STEP-3. How to supply the water for pipes after Boiler Pressure normal.
1. Set water level N.W.L in Boiler.
2. Close A and open B, D, E and C.
3. From F1, F2 take out air in pressure transmitter. ( Exclude air then close F1 and F2 )
4. Unfasten Plug G, exclude air until overflow the water from Plug G. ( Knock the pipes for exclude air )
5. Then exclude air, close Plug G and close E open A.
6. Above condition, then temperature becomes stable, arrange the pressure gauge 0.6 kg/cm2.
Cautions for Operation.
Water Level Indication
Differential pressure transmitter has generally some errors of output signal (Water Level Indication ) between
the completion of adjustment and completion of normal operation time. The followings are required time for
stabilization of equipment and errors.
a) Required time for temperature of each pipe line become to same temperature as environmental one.
b) Errors are differential water specific gravity in the pipe line and normal operation when differential
pressure transmitter and water level indication are adjusted.
c) Required time for escaping of remained air in the pipe line. These factors are important. Therefore, water
level indication is adjusted after several hours of operation and whenever it becomes stable condition.
After then, error's indication never appeared.

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(Chapter 7)
AUXILIARIES
Machinery, other than the main propulsion unit, is usually called 'auxiliary' even though without some
auxiliaries the main machinery would not operate for long. The items considered are Air Compressors,
Heat Exchangers, Distillation Equipment, Oillwater Separators, Sewage Treatment Plants and
Incinerators.

AIR COMPRESSOR
Compressed air has many uses on board ship, ranging from diesel engine starting to the
cleaning of machinery during maintenance. The air pressures of 25 bar or more are usually
provided in multi-stage machines. Here the air is compressed in the first stage, cooled and
compressed to a higher pressure in the next stage, and so on. The two-stage crank machine is
probably the most common, and one type is shown in Figure below.
Air is drawn in on the suction stroke through the first-stage suction valve via the silencer/filter. The
suction valve closes on the piston upstroke and the air is compressed. The compressed air, having reached
its first-stage pressure, passes through the delivery valve to the first-stage cooler. The second-stage
suction and compression now take place in a similar manner, achieving a much higher pressure in
the smaller, second-stage cylinder. After passing through the second-stage delivery valve, the air is again
cooled and delivered to the storage system.
The machine has a rigid crankcase, which provides support for the three crankshaft bearings.
The cylinder block is located above and replaceable liners are fitted in the cylinder block. The
running gear consists of pistons, connecting rods and the one-piece, two-throw crankshaft. The first-
stage cylinder head is located on the cylinder block and the second-stage cylinder head is mounted on the
first: each of the heads carries its suction and delivery valves. A chain-driven rotary-gear pump provides
lubricating oil to the main bearings and through internally drilled passages in the crankshaft to both
connecting rod bearings. Cooling water is supplied either from an integral pump or the machinery space
system. The water passes into the cylinder block which contains both stage coolers and then into the first and
second stage cylinder heads. A water jacket safety valve prevents a build-up of pressure should a cooler
tube burst and compressed air escape. Relief valves are fitted to the first and second-stage air outlets and are
designed to lift at 10% excess pressure. A fusible plug is fitted after the second-stage cooler to limit delivered
air temperature and thus protect the compressed-air reservoirs and pipe work.
Cooler drain valves are fitted to compressors When these are open the machine is 'unloaded' and
does not produce compressed air. A compressor when started must always be in the unloaded condition. This
reduces the starting torque for the machine and clears out any accumulated moisture in the system. This
moisture can affect lubrication and may produce oil/water emulsions, which line the air pipelines and could lead
to fires or explosions.
The compressor motor is started and the machine run up to speed. The lubricating oil pressure
should be observed to build up to the correct value. The first-stage drains and then -the second-stage drains
are closed and the machine will begin to operate. The pressure gauge cocks should be adjusted to give a
steady reading. Where manual drains are fitted they should be slightly opened to discharge any moisture
which may collect in the coolers. The cooling water supply should be checked, and also operating
temperatures, after a period of running loaded.
To stop the compressor, the first and second-stage cooler drain valves should be opened and the
machine run unloaded for two to three minutes. This unloaded running will clear the coolers of condensate.
The compressor can now be stopped and the drains should be left open. The cooling water should be isolated if
the machine is to be stopped for a long period.
Automatic compressor operation is quite usual and involves certain additional equipment. An un-loader
must be fitted to ensure the machine starts unloaded, and once running at speed will 'load' and begin to
produce compressed air. Various methods of unloading can be used but marine designs favor either depressors
which hold the suction valve plates on their seats or a bypass which discharges to suction. Automatic drains
must also be fitted to ensure the removal of moisture from the stage coolers. A non-return valve is usually
fitted as close as possible to the discharge valve on a compressor to prevent return air flow: it is an essential
fitting where un-loaders are used.

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The compressed air system for the supply of starting air to a diesel engine is described in the previous
chapter. Control or instrument air supplies have particular requirements with regard to being moisture and
oil free and without impurities. A special type of oil-free compressor may be used to supply control air or
it may be treated after delivery from an ordinary air compressor. This treatment results in the air being
filtered and dried in order to remove virtually all traces of oil, moisture and any atmospheric impurities.
Maintenance involves the usual checks and overhauls common to reciprocating machinery, e.g. crankcase
oil level, cooling water system, operating temperatures and pressures, etc. The suction and delivery air valves
for each stage will present the most work in any maintenance schedule. These valves are automatic,
requiring a small pressure differential to operate.
The constant rapid opening and closing action of the valves may require the seats to be refaced.
Overheating, use of incorrect lubricating oil, or the presence of dirt may result in sticking or pitting of
the surfaces. The various buffer plates, spring plates, valve plate and seat which make up a suction or delivery
valve can be seen in Figure. The valves should be stripped and all parts carefully cleaned and examined,
any worn parts replaced and the valve seat and plate lightly lapped separately on a flat surface before
reassembly to ensure a good seal.

CONSTRUCTION
The compressor described in this book is constructed as a two cylinder, two stage single action water
cooled compressor. The principles of its construction are illustrated in Figures below.
The compressor's first stage is often referred to as the low pressure (LP) stage, and the second stage is
called the high pressure (HP) stage. The circulation of air through the compressor is shown in Figure below.
The cast-iron Crankcase contains three main bearings for the crankshaft. There are two side covers for
inspection and access. The cast-iron Cylinder Block houses the tube bundles constituting the Inter and After
Coolers. The end covers ensure easy access to both coolers. Types HV2/220-300 are fitted with cylinder
liners. The cast-iron Cylinder Head contains the two LP and HP valves. The top covers are easy to remove
for inspecting the valves. The cooling water outlet connection is mounted on the top of the cylinder head.
The wrought-steel Crankshaft includes separately mounted balancing weights. The Connecting rods are
made of nodular iron, with big end bearings of steel-backed with white metal, small end bushings of bronze
and gudgeon pins of hardened steel. The high-efficiency disc valves for both stages are, easy to dismantle and
clean. On top of the cylinder head there is a manually operated valve lifter for unloading the LP suction valve.
Both pitons are made of an Aluminium Alloy. The compression and oil Scraper rings are made of cast iron
or composite materials, depending on the mode.

Lubrication system: All bearings are pressure lubricated by an oil pump, direct driven by the crankshaft.
The bypass valve of the oil pump provides the correct pressure for the oil.

Fittings: Standard fitting includes safety valves for both stages as well as pressure gauges for LP and HP air,
cooling water and the lubrication oil. It also includes a solenoid LP valve for draining the intercooler and a
solenoid valve which drains the After Cooler and ensures an unloaded start. The compressor is normally fitted
with an electric motor or other source of motive power on a well-braced base-plate, with a flexible coupling
between the compressor and the motor. This compressor, which is used to produce pressurized air for
compressed air tools and instruments as well as starting air, satisfies the requirements of the certification
companies.

Safety equipments
The compressor is fitted with safety valves after first-stage compression and second-stage compression.
These safety valves are pre-adjusted upon delivery of the compressor to suit the working pressure specified by
the customer, ensuring that the pressure does not exceed the limit for which the compressor and compressed
air system are dimensioned. A bursting disc is mounted on the cylinder block cooling water mantle, which ruptures
if the coolant chamber is subjected to abnormally high pressure The bursting disc must only be replaced with
original plates supplied by the compressor supplier.

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Start-up
In connection with the first start-up or after prolonged downtime, the following procedure should be used:
A. Check oil level.
B. Check that the oil does not contain water or other substances which will impair its quality.
C. Check the compressor valves and apply oil to the cylinders.
D. Turn over the compressor by hand, removing the suction valve load by means of the manual unloader.
(Set the lever in the vertical position.)
E. Check the cooling water circulation.
F. Check that the non-return valve between the compressor and the air reservoir is open.
G. Set the manual drain valves in the open position.
H. Start the compressor.
I. If everything functions correctly, the drain valves and the un-loader should be set to the operating
positions. (Set the un-loader lever in the horizontal position.) The compressor should be allowed to
run for a few minutes before subjecting it to maximum working pressure.

OPERATION

The operation of the compressor is normally monitored by the starter installation's automated
system, which provides, for example, pressure switch monitoring of the lubricating oil pressure and
thermostatic monitoring of the cooling water temperature and air temperature. However, it is
recommended that the operation and automatic functions of the compressor be inspected regularly. Under
any operating conditions, condensation will precipitate from the compressed air in the HP cooler of the
compressor. A water separator is integrated in the HP exhaust manifold to remove this condensation,
which is drained through a solenoid valve each time the compressor is stopped.
In areas of high atmospheric humidity it is recommended that the solenoid valve also be opened
periodically during operation (for example two seconds of draining every ten minutes). It is not necessary
to install a water separator in the pipe system between the compressor and the air tank in addition to the
compressor's integrated separator. In areas of high atmospheric humidity, precipitation of condensed
water may also occur in the LP cooler. It is important to prevent this condensation from accompanying
the air flow into the high pressure cylinder, where some of the water may penetrate into the crankcase
and contaminate the lubricating oil. The compressor is therefore fitted with a water separator after the
low pressure cooler which effectively removes condensed water and prevents water droplets from
accompanying the air flow into the HP cylinder. The water is drained automatically by a float chamber.

STOPPING

To stop the compressor manually for short periods, the followinq procedure should be used.

A. Flip the compressor's manual un-loader to the vertical position to unload the LP suction valve.
B. Open the drain valves.
C. Stop the compressor.

When stopping the compressor before prolonged downtime, use the following procedure:

A. Drain old oil, clean the crankcase sump and fill with new oil.
B. Apply a suitable corrosion inhibiting oil to the compressor valves, non -return valves, cylinder
walls and open surfaces of the crankshaft.
C. If there is a danger of frost, drain the cooling water.
D. Set the manual un-loader in the horizontal position so that there is no load on the compressor's
suction valve.
E. Turn over the compressor by hand once a week.
F. The starter panel and other electrical equipment must be similarly protected against the corrosion
damaged.

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Working Principle of Two-Stage Air Compressor.

EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS (ABOVE):

A: Intake Filter. B: L.P. Suction Valve. C: L.P. Delivery Valve. D: L.P. Safety Valve. E: L.P. Cooler
(Inter Cooler). F: H.P. Suction Valve. G: H.P. Delivery Valve. H: H.P. Cooler (After Cooler).
I: H.P. Safety Valve.

OPERATIONAL FAILURES
Some of the faults which may occur during operation are summarized below:
Fault symptom
The compressor has poor
A capacity and/or does not
produce full pressure.
B LP safety valve blows.
C HP safety valve blows.
Possible cause Remedy
Inspect and clean all valves.
Dirty, worn or damaged valves.
Replace defective parts.
Disassemble the rings. Clean
Piston rings have stuck in the grooves and rings and replace
ring grooves, or are defective parts. Reassemble,
damaged/broken. applying oil to the cylinder
walls.
Leaking safety valve. Replace safety valve.
Defective cylinder head gasket. Replace gasket.
Clogged air filter. Clean filter.
HP suction valve damaged or Inspect and clean valves and
dirty. replace defective parts.
Leaking seal in HP suction Replace seal.
valve.
LP safety valve defective or Replace safety valve.
damaged.
Stop valve in the air line is Open the stop valve.
closed.
Remove and clean non-return
Clogged non-return valve.
valve. Replace defective parts.

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D Valves need overhauling
Overheating and/or abnormal
E
noise in crankcase.
F Piston overheating and friction.
G Increased oil consumption.
Oil emission from crankcase
H
ventilation.
I Ruptured bursting disc.
Worn rubber lamina in the
Poor alignment of compressor Correct alignment of coupling.
J coupling between compressor
and motor shafts.
and motor.
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HP safety valve defective or Replace safety valve.
damaged.
Check cooling water circulation
Overheating. and tempera- ture. Inspect and if
neces- sary clean coolers.
Polluted intake air. Inspect intake filter.
Change oil grade. (See Section
5.3 for recom-mendded oil
Poor lubricating oil.
grades.) Further information can
be obtained from Sperre.
Valve clamp bolts not tightened Tighten the clamp bolts to the
enough. correct moment. (See Table 6.3)
Inspect bearings and check
Defective bearings.
clearances.
Low oil level or condensation in Drain and clean crankcase
oil. sump, fill with new oil.
Check bearing clearances.
Jamming crankshaft bearing.
Replace defective parts.
Replace defective parts, check
Incorrect fitting of piston or piston clearances, ring
crosshead bearing. clearances and crosshead
bearing.
Check cooling water circulation
Cooling malfunction.
and temperature.
Worn piston rings. Replace piston rings.
Check the exterior of the
Leakage.
compressor.
Remove and check piston and if
Defective or worn piston rings. necessary replace defective
piston rings.
Defective ventilating valve. Replace valve.
Check that pressure is within
Cooling water pressure too
the specified limits (See Table
high.
6.2)
Check that temperature is
Cooling water temperature too
within the specified limits (See
high.
Table 6.2)
Pressure pulses in cooling water Determine what is causing
system. pulses and eliminate.
(See Section 5.6)
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PUMPS

Pump types
There are three main classes of pump in marine use: Displacement, Axial Flow and Centrifugal.
A number of different arrangements are possible for displacement and centrifugal pumps to meet
particular system characteristics.

Displacement Pumps

The displacement pumping action is achieved by the reduction or increase in volume of a space causing
the liquid (or gas) to be physically moved. The method employed is either a Piston in a Cylinder using a
reciprocating motion, or a rotating unit using Vanes, Gears or Screws. A reciprocating displacement pump
is double-acting, that is liquid is admitted to either side of the piston where it is alternately drawn in and
discharged. As the piston moves upwards, suction takes place below the piston and liquid is drawn in, the valve
arrangement ensuring that the discharge valve cannot open on the suction stroke. Above the piston, liquid
is discharged and the suction valve remains closed. As the piston travels down, the operations of suction and
discharge occur now on opposite sides. An air vessel is usually fitted in the discharge pipe work to dampen out
the pressure variations during discharge. As the discharge pressure rises the air is compressed in the vessel,
and as the pressure falls the air expands. The peak pressure energy is thus 'stored' in the air and
returned to the system when the pressure falls. Air vessels are not fitted on reciprocating boiler feed pumps
since they may introduce air into the de-aerated feed water. A relief valve is always fitted between the pump
suction and discharge chambers to protect the pump should it be operated with a valve closed in the discharge
line. Reciprocating displacement pumps are self-priming, will accept high suction lifts, produce the discharge
pressure required by the system and can handle large amounts of vapor or entrained gases. They are,
however, complicated in construction with a number of moving parts requiring attention and maintenance.

When starting the pump the suction and discharge valves must be opened. It is important that no valves
in the discharge line are closed, otherwise either the relief valve will lift or damage may occur to the pump
when it is started. The pump is self- priming, but where possible to reduce wear or the risk of seizure it should
be flooded with liquid before starting. An electrically driven pump needs only to be switched on, when it will
run erratically for a short period until liquid is drawn into the pump. A steam driven pump will require the
usual draining and warming-through procedure before steam is gradually admitted.

Most of the moving parts in the pump will require examination during overhaul. The pump piston, rings
and cylinder liner must also be thoroughly checked. Ridges will eventually develop at the limits of the
piston ring travel and these must be removed. The suction and discharge valves must be refaced or
ground in as required.

Two different rotary displacement pumps are shown in Figure below. The action in each case results
in the trapping of a quantity of liquid (or air) in a volume or space which becomes smaller at the discharge
or outlet side. It should be noted that the liquid does not pass between the screw or gear teeth as they mesh but
travels between the casing and the teeth.

The starting procedure is similar to that for the reciprocating displacement pump. A relief valve will
be fitted between suction and discharge chambers. The particular maintenance problem with this type of
pump is the shaft sealing where the gland and packing arrangement must be appropriate for the
material pumped. The rotating vane type will suffer wear at a rate depending upon the liquid pumped and
its freedom from abrasive or corrosive substances. The screw pump must be correctly timed and if stripped
for inspection care should be taken to assemble the screws correctly.

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AXIAL FLOW PUMP - ( HEELING CONTROL SYSTEM )

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Axial-flow pump
An axial-flow pump uses a screw propeller to axially accelerate the liquid. The outlet passages
and guide vanes are arranged to convert the velocity increase of the liquid into a pressure. A reversible axial
flow pump is shown in Figure 6.5. The pump casing is split either horizontally or vertically to provide
access to the propeller. A mechanical seal prevents leakage where the shaft leaves the casing. A
thrust bearing of the tilting pad type is fitted on the drive shaft. The primp mover may be an
electric motor or a steam turbine.The axial flow pump is used where large quantities of water at a
low head are required, for example in condenser circulating. The efficiency is equivalent to a low
lift centrifugal pump and the higher speeds possible enable a smaller driving motor to be used. The axial-
flow pump is also suitable for supplementary use in a condenser scoop circulating system since the pump will
offer little resistance to flow when idling. With scoop circulation the normal movement of the sh ip will
draw in water; the pump would be in use only when the ship was moving slowly or stopped.

Centrifugal pump
In a centrifugal pump liquid enters the centre or eye of the impeller and flows radially out between
the vanes, its velocity being increased by the impeller rotation. A diffuser or volute is then used to
convert most of the kinetic energy in the liquid into pressure. A vertical, single stage, single entry,
centrifugal pump for general marine duties is shown in Figure. The main frame and casing, together with
a motor support bracket, house the pumping element assembly. The pumping element is made up of a top
cover, a pump shaft, an impeller, a bearing bush and a sealing arrangement around the shaft. The sealing
arrangement may be a packed gland or a mechanical seal and the bearing lubrication system will vary
according to the type of seai. Replaceable wear rings are fitted to the impeller and the casing. The motor
support bracket has two large apertures to provide access to the pumping element, and a coupling spacer is
fitted between the motor and pump shaft to enable the removal of the pumping element without disturbing the
motor.
Other configurations of centrifugal pumps are used for particular duties or to meet system requirements.
A vertical single stage doubleentry centrifugal pump is shown in Figure above. The incoming liquid
enters the double impeller from the top and the bottom and passes into the volute casing for discharge. A
double-entry pump It should be noted that different impeller sizes can be fittec into a basic pumping element.
This enables various discharge heac characteristics to be provided for the same basic pump frame. A vertical
multi-stage single-entry centrifugal pump used for deep-well cargo pumping is shown in Figure. This can
be considered as a series of centrifugal pumps arranged to supply ore another in series and thus
progressively increase the discharge pressure The pump drive is located outside the tank and can be electric,
hydraulic or any appropriate means suitable for the location.A diffuser is fitted to high-pressure centrifugal
pumps. This is a rir fixed to the casing, around the impeller, in which there are passages formed by vanes.
The passages widen out in the direction of liquid flow and act to convert the kinetic energy of the liquid
into pressure energy.
Hydraulic balance arrangements are also usual. Some of the high-pressure discharge liquid is
directed against a drum or piston arrangement to balance the discharge liquid pressure on the impeller and
thus maintain it in an equilibrium position.
Centrifugal pumps, while being suitable for most general marine duties, are not self priming and
require some means of removing air from the suction pipeline and filling it with liquid. Where the liquid to be
pumped is at a level higher than the pump, opening an air cock near the pump suction will enable the air to be
forced out as the pipeline fills up under the action of gravity. If the pump is below sea water level, and sea water
priming is permissible in the system, then opening a sea water injection valve and the air cock on the pump
will effect priming.

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OIL TREATMENT OF FUEL OIL & LUBRICATING OIL

Both fuel oils and lubricating oils require treatment before passing to the engine. This will involve storage
and heating to allow separation of water present, coarse and fine filtering to remove solid particles and also
centrifuging. The centrifugal separator is used to separate two liquids, for example oil and water, or a liquid
and solids as in contaminated oil. Separation is speeded up by the use of a centrifuge and can be arranged as a
continuous process. Where a centrifuge is arranged to separate two liquids, it is known as a “purifier”. Where
a centrifuge is arranged to separate impurities and small amounts of water from oil it is known as a
“clarifier”. The separation of impurities and water from fuel oil is essential for good combustion. The
removal of contaminating impurities from lubricating oil will reduce engine wear and possible breakdowns.

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Centrifuging
A centrifuge consists of an electric motor drive to a vertical shaft on the top of which is mounted the bowl
assembly. An outer framework surrounds the assembly and carries the various feed and discharge
connections. The bowl can be a solid assembly which retains the separated sludge and operates non-
continuously, or the bowl can be arranged so that the upper and lower parts separate and the sludge can be
discharged while the centrifuge operates continuously. The dirty oil is admitted into the centre of the bowl,
passes up through a stack of discs and out through the top.
The Purifying Process
The centrifugal separation of two liquids, such as oil and water, results in the formation of a cylindrical
interface between the two. The position of this interface within the centrifuge is very important for correct
operation. The setting or positioning of the interface is achieved by the use of dam ring or gravity disc at the
outlet of the centrifuge. Various diameter rings are available for each machine when different densities of oil
are used.
The Clarifying Process
Cleaning oil that contains little or no water is achieved in a clarifier bowl where the impurities and water
collect at the bowl periphery. A clarifier bowl has only one outlet. No gravity disc is necessary since no
interface is formed. The bowl therefore operates at maximum separating efficiency since the oil is subjected to
the maximum centrifugal force.
The Bowl Discs
Purifier and clarifier bowls each contain a stack of conical discs. The discs may number up to 150 and are
separated from one another by a small gap. Separation of impurities and water from the oil takes place
between these discs. A series of aligned holes near the outside edge permits entry of the dirty oil. The action
of centrifugal force causes the lighter components (the clean oil) to flow inwards and the water and impurities
flow outwards. The water and impurities form a sludge which moves outwards along the undersides of the
discs to the periphery of the bowl.

Selection of Gravity Disc

The interface between the liquid seal (water) and the oil should be positioned as close as possible to the
bowl periphery. However, the interface must not be located so far from the bowl centre that the oil will pass
the outer edge of the top disc, breaking the liquid seal and discharging with the water. Factors influencing the
interface position are:
Oil viscosity and density.
A high oil density will position the interface closer to the bowl periphery than will a low density.
Throughput and back pressure.
As a rule, the interface will be located closer to the bowl periphery at a high throughput than at a low one.
The same effect is produced by a high back pressure, and a low one respectively, in the clean oil outlet.
Gravity disc.
The location of the interface is adjusted by altering the outlet for the water, i.e. exchanging the gravity
disc. Changing to a gravity disc with larger hole diameter will move the interface towards the bowl periphery,
whereas a disc with smaller hole diameter will position the interface closer to the bowl centre.
The Nomogram is an aid to select a tentative gravity disc when the density of the oil at a given
temperature is known. The hole diameter of the disc to be tried first appears directly from the Nomogram.
However, in practical operation the best result is obtained by using the gravity disc with largest hole diameter
that will not cause a break in the liquid seal in the bowl or an emulsification in the water outlet.
Discharge of Sludge
Modern centrifuge designs enable continuous operating over a considerable period of time. This is
achieved by an ejection process which is timed to discharge the sludge at regular intervals. The sludge
deposits build up on the bowl periphery as separation continues, and the ejection process is timed to clear
these deposits before they begin to affect the separation process. To start the ejection process the oil feed to
the centrifuge is first shut off and the oil remaining in the bowl removed by admitting flushing water. Water is
then fed into the hydraulic system in the bottom of the bowl to open a number of spring-load valves. This
“operating” water causes the sliding bowl bottom to move downwards and open discharge ports in the bowl
periphery. The sludge is discharged through these ports by centrifugal force. Closing “operating” water is now
fed in to raise sliding bowl up again and close the discharge ports. Water is fed into the bowl to remake the
liquid seal, the oil feed reopened, and separation continues.

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Maintenance
The bowl and the disc stack will require periodical cleaning whether or not an ejection process is in
operation. Care should be taken in stripping down the bowl, using only the special tools provided and noting
that some left-hand threads are used. The centrifuge is a perfectly balanced piece of equipment, rotating at
high speeds; all parts should therefore be handled and treated with care.

OPERATION OF AN OIL SEPARATOR

Before Starting
The bowl should be well cleaned and assembled according to the instruction.
Check particularly: The brake is released. The collecting covers (frame hood respectively) are clamped
with the hinged bolts. The oil level in worm gear housing is somewhat above the middle of the gauge glass.
The operating liquid tank is full and the control valves are closed (operating liquid feed turned off; bowl
open). Note: The oil level must never be allowed to sink below the lower edge of the gauge glass. If the glass
is provided with corrugations they should be vertical. Keep the gauge glass clean, otherwise a line, which
could be mistaken for the oil level, will in time build up on the inside of the glass. If the machine has been
idle (for instance during a night), screw out the drain screw some turns and drain off any water.
Starting the Motor
If the process liquid is to be preheated, circulate it through the preheating until suitable temperature is
reached. Shortly after starting it may occur that the bowl begins to vibrate more than normal. The cause is
generally lack of balance due to bad cleaning of the bowl. Stop the machine and clean the bowl if the
vibrations are very heavy. Heat is always generated in the clutch coupling during the running-up period. This
will be noticeable, especially when the pads on the friction block are new, through smoke and smell of
burning. Like the sliding sound, this is quite normal and has no importance. During acceleration the power
consumption is higher than in normal operation. The acceleration time may vary somewhat depending, for
instance, on the condition of the friction pads in the clutch coupling.
Bowl Closing
After attaining the right speed, the bowl should be closed. Before starting the closing operation, the
number of revolutions of the speed indicator must be checked against the speed table in the instruction book.
The acceleration time can vary somewhat depending, i. e. on the wear of the friction pads. Close the bowl by
opening the corresponding control valve. Wait till the bowl has closed. Then fill it.
Filling
The filling procedure differs for purification, clarification and concentration, i. e. for machines provided
with purifier, clarifier and concentrator bowl respectively.
Clarification (clarifier bowl)
Set the flow regulator to wanted throughput and open the process liquid feed valve.
Purification (purifier bowl)
Supply liquid, usually water, to form the liquid seal. This liquid should preferably have the same
temperature as the process liquid and must be supplied quickly. Shut off the feed of sealing liquid when this
begins flowing out and becomes visible in the sight glass.
Set the Flow Regulator to Desired Throughput
Slowly open the process liquid feed valve. A certain quantity of sealing liquid will now escape, until
equilibrium is reached. If the valve is opened too quickly, the liquid seal could be forced away to the effect
that light liquid phase is discharged in the wrong way, i.e. through the outlet for the heavy liquid phase. When
this occurs with the filling procedure has to be repeated.
Adjust to suitable back pressure in the conduit for light phase. (For machine with equipment for interface
disposition see Selection of gravity disc).
Concentration (concentrator bowl)
The liquid seal builds up automatically. Adjust to wanted throughput (see Purification above).
Running
Check particularly: that throughput and working temperature are constant; that oil does not leak from the
worm gear housing (oil level at operative height); that, in purification, light phase is not escaping together
with the heavy one, thereby indicating that the bowl is clogged or the liquid seal is broken. If so, a sludge
discharge must be carried out immediately and henceforth the interval between discharges be reduced. If the
sludge had packed between the bowl discs it may be necessary to stop the machine for manual cleaning of the
bowl.

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PURIFICATION OF FUEL OILS

Fuels vary considerably thick in viscosity, quality and chemical composition. They also contain impurities
from producing, transferring and storage. All heavy fuels contain insoluble impurities such as mineral salts,
asphalt, foreign matter and some liquids not miscible. These impurities can to a great degree be removed by
centrifugal and filtration treatments.
Failure of any cleaning equipment could cause very serious troubles to the mechanical parts of the fuel
injection equipment, therefore standby duplicate cleaning equipment must be provided and so arranged that
continuous operation can be maintained should the working unit fail.

The most common method of cleaning fuel is by centrifuging and there are various makes of purifiers and
clarifiers in use such as Alfalaval, Titan, Sharples, etc., the basic principles of operation and design are
similar. The separation discs in purifiers and clarifiers are conical in shape and are made of stainless steel ,
the outer periphery is perforated by a series of holes through which the fuel passes, the distance between each
disc is approximately 0. 5 mm and the thickness is about 1 mm.
When the fuel is pumped into an operating centrifuge the centrifugal force generated causes the heavier
fractions such as sludge and water to be forced along the underside of the discs to the outer periphery. A
cylindrical interface is formed between the heavier fractions (water) and the lighter fractions (oil). The lighter
fraction is forced inward and up to the clean oil outlet. The impurities and sludge can be collected in the bowl,
sludge space, or in some designs discharged at regular intervals to a sludge tank. The best results are obtained
when the interface zone is close to the periphery of the bowl and it must be outside the disc stack areas. The
specific gravity of the fuel determines the size of the gravity rings to be fitted and it is important to refer to the
maker's instruction manual for verification. A higher throughput and more efficient process can be achieved if
the fuel is heated to reduce its viscosity. Heaters are, therefore, installed in the system. Recommended
temperatures for high viscosity fuels are between 80 to 95‟C depending on the viscosity of the fuel.
If the purifying of relatively clean fuel is needed, a centrifuge fitted with a clarifier bowl should be used.
There is only one outlet for clean oil, no gravity discs are fitted for the separation of water. Consequently, the
maximum cleaning efficiency is achieved, as the oil feed will at all time be outside the disc stack zone.
Experience has shown excellent results from a two-stage centrifuge treatment-purifying followed by
clarifying. The fuel is pumped into the purifier fitted with gravity rings and with separate discharges for oil,
water and sludge. The relatively clean oil is then pumped into a clarifier which extracts any small amount of
water or impurities still left in the oil. Unacceptably large quantities of impurities are left in the oil after the
purifying process if the oil is insufficiently heated, or the throughput is too high, or the wrong type of gravity
disc is fitted. Improvements in oil, oil purifying techniques and centrifuges have led to the development of
single phase purifiers which have in themselves been aided by improved temperature control, heaters, flood

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alarms and other ancillary equipment. A further development has been the self-cleaning purifier which
operates unattended for long periods and discharges its own sludge. The self cleaning unit can be stopped and
started at any time without dismantling for manual cleaning which is a dirty and time consuming job. If the
unit is not self-cleaning, then a strict maintenance routine must be followed. Poorly maintained units are a
continuous source of trouble and allowing a machine to run beyond its recommended time can result in a
choked bowl, especially if very dirty fuel is being purified. The efficiency of centrifugal unit decreases rapidly
when the accumulation of impurities reaches a certain point.
For self-cleaning purifiers used in unmanned machinery spaces, controls are arranged that if a centrifuge
fails, the standby unit will automatically comes into operation. The purifiers are fitted with electric timers for
controlling the period between bowl emptying operations and sequential regulating devices control the various
emptying operations. The units must incorporate an audio-visual, alarm system which come into operation
when any running condition is out of order. When abnormal condition prevails with the unit, it should be ar-
ranged to shut down or the fuel oil recycling valve should open and the oil flow should be passed to the outer
circle thus preventing the loss of oil. In order to control the interface line of the bowl a constant pressure
control valve is fitted at the clean oil outlet. By applying high back pressure the interface moves outward and
with a low back pressure the opposite results. It is important to note that when an excessive amount of water is
present in the fuel the temperature for centrifuging must be kept below the boiling point of water, otherwise
foaming and agitation of the fuel takes place. Under these circumstances it will be necessary to purify at a
very low rate to achieve a reasonable efficiency.

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PURIFIERS (SELFJECTOR) - OPERATION AND PRINCIPLE OF WORKING.

Gear pump
The gear pump feeds feed oil to the purifier. Mounted on the horizontal shaft of the purifier via a safety joint,
it is driven by the motor for the purifier. The gear pump can be selected to match a particular treating capacity.
Instead of the gear pump, a separate pump may be used.
Oil heater
Installed midway between the gear pump and oil purifier, the oil heater warms feed oil fed by the gear
pump to an optimum treating temperature. The heater is classified into steam and electrical types. The steam
type is provided with a temperature control valve and the electrical type with a thermostat to control the
temperature. Before oil is treated by the oil purifier, it must be heated up to a certain temperature according to
the particular oil viscosity and nature.
3-way cylinder valve
The 3-way cylinder valve is a pneumatically operated selector valve and feeds feed oil to the purifier. When
starting, stopped or discharging sludge, it is changed to return the oil via the bypass piping to the tank.
Leakage Monitor (LM)
The Leakage Monitor detects oil to treat from the bowl's sludge outlet or heavy liquid outlet and outputs
an alarm to the control panel. It is installed on the purified oil outlet piping. By means of a pressure control
valve, a constant pressure is applied at all times and if the pressure has dropped, it is attributed to "leakage"
and the monitor delivers an alarm to the control panel.
Water Detector
The Water Detector is an electrostatic type. It resorts to the principle that, as water content in oil rises,
the capacitance (dielectric constant) increases. Installed on the purified oil outlet piping, it sends a signal to the
control panel if the water content in purified oil has exceeded a trigger value for sludge discharge.
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Starter
The purifier is started by the starter. It is stopped by a signal from the control panel when an automatic stop
alarm has been generated.
Control panel
The control panel automatically controls the cycle of purifying the feed liquid by purifier and discharging
the sludge. If an alarm from the detector is inputted while running, feed liquid flow is stopped and, via a
specified sequence, the purifier is stopped.
Alarm panel
The alarm panel changes over the 3-way cylinder valve through switching. Feed liquid flow is stopped if an
alarm is inputted from the detector while running. (The purifier can be stopped).
Discharge Detector (DD)
The Discharge Detector monitors sludge discharges and outputs an alarm to the cont rol panel when
an abnormal discharge takes place. It detects a drop in horizontal shaft speed at sludge discharge by means of a
proximity switch and determines if the sludge discharge has been properly effected from the input data by means of a
comparison circuit. In addition to the alarm output function, the partial discharge type purifier Discharge
Detector has an indicating function to tell whether or not the sludge discharge is optimal during partial
discharge adjustment.

PURIFIER OPERATION AND CLARIFIER OPERATION

Purifier operation
The purifier operation refers to a separation into 3 phases or oil, water and sludge. It is most
commonly employed.
 The purifier has a heavy liquid outlet for continually discharging separated water.
 Before introducing oil, water sealing is required so that oil fill not flow out through the heavy liquid outlet.
 For normal operation, the interface (F) must be set to within a specified range by changing the
diameter of gravity disc.
 The high limit of specific gravity of oil to treat is 0.991 (at 15 °C) practically.
The cross sectional view of the bowl of SELFJECTOR (SJ10F-SJ30F) under purifier operation.
Feed liquid goes in through feed liquid inlet (1), passes through distributor (A) and is fed to the outer
periphery of disc (1) (B). Heavy liquid (water) and solids are separated to the outer periphery of bowl and light
liquid moves through the discs (1) inward and is discharged by the light liquid impeller. Heavy liquid
passes outside the top disc (C) and overflows over the gravity disc outside the machine. (SJ40F-100F are
provided with a heavy liquid impeller, by means of which heavy liquid is discharged.)

FIG :PURIFIER OPERATION

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1. Feed Liquid Inlet. 2. Light Liquid Outlet. 3. Heavy Liquid Outlet. 4. Sealing Water inlet.
A. Distributor. B.Disc. C. Top Disc. D. Light Liquid Chamber. E. Gravity Disc. F. Inter Face.

CLARIFIER OPERATION

The clarifier operation refers to a separation into 2 phases or oil and (water + sludge).

1. When the specific gravity of oil to treat exceeds 0.991 (at 15 °C),the specific gravity range
covered by a gravity disc narrows. As the specific gravity nears 0.999 (at 15 °C), the treatment gets easy
to be affected by temperature, flow variation and other operating condition changes, thereby causing
abnormal outflow or poor separation. Therefore, a clarifier operation is recommended.

2. For clarifier operation, there is no heavy liquid outlet for discharging separated water and, therefore,
separated water cannot be discharged continually.

The HIDENS SYSTEM consists of partial discharge clarifier and Water Detector and, when the
Water Detector provided at the purified oil outlet has detected a certain amount of separated water in the
bowl, discharges separated water. This system combines a feature of clarifier or freedom from abnormal
outflow, etc. and a feature of purifier or continual water separation and is capable of stable purifying operation
without using a gravity disc for fuel oil whose specific gravity is up to 1.01 (at 15°C).

3. Water sealing is unnecessary.

FIG: CLARIFIER OPERATION

1. Feed Liquid Inlet. 2. Light Liquid Outlet. A. Distributor. B. Disc. C. Top Disc. D. Impeller.
E. Gravity Disc for Clarifier. H. Light Liquid Weir.

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Bowl
Structure of bowl
The Bowl vessel mainly consists of body, hood and nut. The bowl incorporates separation chamber
composed of disc (1) and top disc and distributor which distributes feed liquid from the bowl inlet to the
separation chamber uniformly. There is a main cylinder which slides vertically by water pressure to
discharge sludge separated and accumulated on the inner wall of bowl during operation. At 2 points on the outer
periphery of bowl, there are pilot valve assemblies for controlling the main cylinder slide. When feed liquid
introduced through the feed liquid inlet through the distributor to the separation chamber passes through the
gap between discs (1), solids and water are separated and purified oil is continually delivered outside by the
centripetal pump (light liquid impeller) located on the top of bowl. For SJ10F --SJ30F, separated water overflows
continually. A centrifugal force acting on the pilot valve seals the valve seat and the water pressure
chamber for closing bowl is filled with operating water. The operating water pressure pushes up the main
cylinder to seal the main seal ring for purifying operation.
Operating water for closing bowl is intermittently introduced into the bowl closing water pressure
chamber for a given period of time during purifier operation. In the water pressure chamber, the
centrifugally generated pressure of water that turns with the bowl is balanced with the supplied water
pressure told the water surface at a certain level. Actually, therefore, as much water as reduced only is
admitted into the chamber. When operating water for closing bowl goes out, there is no more force of
pushing up the main cylinder which, then, is pushed down by the pressure in the bowl. The seal of main
seal ring breaks and sludge is instantly discharged outside the bowl.
As in the total discharge mode, a centrifugal force acting on the pilot valve seals the valve seat and
the water pressure chamber for closing bowl is filled with operating water. The operating water pressure
pushes up the main cylinder to seal the main seal ring for purifying operation. Operating water for closing
bowl is intermittently introduced into the bowl closing water pressure chamber for a given period of time
during purifier operation. In the water pressure chamber, the centrifugally generated pressure of water that
turns with the bowl is balanced with the supplied water pressure, holding the water surface at a
certain level as a result. Actually, therefore, as much water as reduced only is supplied into the chamber.
When operating water has filled up the bowl opening water pressure chamber, with part of it released
out through the drain nozzle, its pressure slides the pilot valve toward the shaft center to breaks the seal of the
valve seat. This causes part of operating water in the bowl closing water pressure chamber to be let out,
reducing the force pushing up the main cylinder. The main cylinder is pushed down by liquid pressure in the
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bowl as a result. This breaks the seal of main seal ring, allowing sludge to be instantly discharged out of the
bowl. When the supply of operating water for opening bowl is stopped, its overflow into the bowl
opening water pressure chamber is discontinued. As a result, the bowl closing water pressure chamber is
filled up and its operating water pushes up the main cylinder, sealing the main seal ring. At this point of time,
the valve seat has already been sealed. The main cylinder is quickly operated up and down to effect partial
discharge. This allows only sludge in the bowl to be discharged with minimum oil loss.

Water supplying device

The water supplying device is provided under the bowl to supply operating water for controlling the
discharge of sludge from the bowl to each water pressure chamber (for opening bowl, for closing bowl).

Fig: Water Supply Device for Total Discharge.

Fig: Water Supply Device- Partial Discharge

Total discharge
Operating water for opening bowl is fed from section A in Figure and enters the water pressure chamber
for opening bowl. Operating water for closing bowl is fed from section B and enters the water pressure
chamber for closing Bowl. Operating water for closing bowl is intermittently fed for a certain time during the
purifying operation. Because operating water in the water pressure chamber for closing bowl rotates
together with the bowl, the pressure generated its centrifugal force and the pressure of operating water for
closing bowl balance and the water level stabilizes at a certain position. Therefore, water is made up only for
the loss.

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Partial discharge type

In the case of FSP-1A and FSH-PA system. the water supplying device is piped for the supply of
operating water to effect partial and total discharge operations. As shown in figure. Operating water for closing
bowl and operating water for opening bowl for partial discharge are introduced from B and operating water for
closing bowl for total discharge is supplied from A. Operating water fed from B fills up the bowl closing
water pressure chamber first and overflows into the bowl opening water pressure chamber to effect partial
discharge operation. As operating water for opening bowl, compressed fresh water regulated to a certain
pressure is used. The pressure of operating water for closing bowl is regulated by reducing valve of the operating
water line as well. Operating water for closing bowl is so much lower in pressure than operating water for
opening bowl that it will not overflow from the bowl closing water pressure chamber into the bowl
opening water pressure chamber. Also, in the case of operating water for closing bowl is intermittently
supplied for a certain period of time during purifier operation. In the bowl closing water pressure chamber, the
centrifugally generated pressure of water that turns with the bowl is balanced with the supplied water pressure,
holding the water level at a certain level as a result. Actually, therefore, as much water as reduced only is
supplied into the chamber.

Centripetal pump
The Centripetal Pump is a spiral Impeller Pump and
is built in the Bowl top for discharging light liquid outside
the machine. The Impeller consists of a Disc of a certain
thickness provided in its interior with spiral grooves. It is
dipped in Oil which rotates together with the Bowl and oli is
let out according to the grooves resorting to its own rotation.

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Discharge mechanism (Total discharge)

Sludge is discharged as follows.
Main cylinder
A centrifugal force acting on the pilot valve seals the valve seat and
the water pressure chamber for closing bowl is filled with operating
water. The operating water pressure pushes up the main cylinder to
seal the main seal ring for purifying operation.Operating water for
closing bowl is intermittently introduced into the bowl closing
water pressure chamber for a given period of time during purifier
operation. In the water pressure chamber, the centrifugally
generated pressure of water that turns with the bowl is balanced
with the supplied water pressure told the water surface at a certain
level. Actually, therefore, as much water as reduced only is
admitted into the chamber.

Water pressure chamber for operating bowl

Operating water for opening bowl is fed for a certain time to the
water pressure chamber for opening bowl. It partly goes out
through the drain nozzle. More operating water for opening bowl is
supplied and fills up the water pressure chamber for opening bowl.
As its pressure slides the pilot valve toward the shaft center, the
seal of valve seat breaks and operating water for closing bowl
flows out from the bowl.

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Operating water for operating bowl

When operating water for closing bowl goes out, there
is no more force of pushing up the main cylinder
which, then, is pushed down by the pressure in the
bowl. The seal of main seal ring breaks and sludge is
instantly discharged outside the bowl.

Operating water for closing bowl

After the sludge discharge, operating water for closing
bowl is fed to the water pressure chamber for closing
bowl and, when it is filled up, the main cylinder is
pushed up to seal the main seal ring.

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Discharge mechanism (Partial discharge)

In the case fo FSP-1A and FSH-PA system, the

partial discharge mode and the toal discharge
mode are used for partial discharge and total
discharge sludge, respectively. Described below is
the mechanism for partial discharge.
As in the total discharge mode, a centrifugal force
acting on the pilot valve seals the valve seat and
the water pressure chamber for closing bowl is
filled with operating water. The operating water
pressure pushes up the main cylinder to seal the
main seal ring for purifying operation.

Operating water for closing bowl is intermittently

introduced into the bowl closing water pressure
chamber for a given period of time during purifier
operation. In the water pressure chamber, the
centrifugally generated pressure of water that turns
with the bowl is balanced with the supplied water
pressure, holding the water surface at a certain
level as a result. Actually, therefore, as much
water as reduced only is supplied into the
chamber.

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Operating (compressed) water for opening bowl is

supplied from the bowl closing water pressure chamber
side. Supplied water is first introduced into the bowl
closing water pressure chamber to capacity, then
overflown into the water pressure chamber for opening
bowl.

When operating water has filled up the bowl opening

water pressure chamber, with part of it released out
through the drain nozzle, its pressure slides the pilot
valve toward the shaft center to breaks the seal of the
valve seat. This causes part of operating water in the
bowl closing water pressure chamber to be let out,
reducing the force pushing up the main cylinder. The
main cylinder is pushed down by liquid pressure in the
bowl as a result. This breaks the seal of main seal ring,
allowing sludge to be instantly discharged out of the
bowl.

When the supply of operating water for opening bowl is

stopped, its overflow into the bowl opening water
pressure chamber is discontinued. As a result, the bowl
closing water pressure chamber is filled up and its
operating water pushes up the main cylinder, sealing the
main seal ring. At this point of time, the valve seat has
already been sealed.
The main cylinder is quickly operated up and down to effect partial discharge. This allows only suldge in
the bowl to be discharged with minimum oil loss.

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DISTILLATION SYSTEMS
Distillation is the production of pure water from sea water by evaporation and re-condensing. Distilled
water is produced as a result of evaporating sea water either by a boiling or a flash process. This
evaporation enables the reduction of the 32000 parts per million of dissolved solids in sea water
down to the one or two Ppm, present in distilled water. The machine used is called an
“evaporator”, although the word “distiller” is also used.

Boiling process

Sea water is boiled using energy from a heating coil, and by reducing the pressure in the evaporator
shell, boiling can take place at about 60 °C. The sea water from the ship's services is first circulated
through the condenser and then part of the outlet is provided as feed to the evaporation chamber.
Hot diesel engine jacket water or steam is passed through the heater nest and, because of the reduced
pressure in the chamber, the sea water boils. The steam produced rises artd passes through a water
separator or demister which prevents water droplets passing through. In the condensing section the steam
becomes pure water, which is drawn off by a distillate pump.The sea water feed is regulated by a flow
controller and about half the feed is evaporated. The remainder constantly overflows a weir and carries
away the extra salty water or brine. A combined brine and air ejector draws out the air and brine from the
evaporator.

Flash process
Flash evaporation is the result of a liquid containing a reasonable amount of sensible heat at
a particular pressure being admitted to a chamber at a lower pressure. The liquid
immediately changes into steam, i.e. it flashes, without boiling taking place. The sensible heat
content, water pressure and chamber pressure are designed to provide a desired rate of evaporation.
More than one stage of evaporation can take place by admitting the liquid into chambers with
progressively lower pressures.

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FEATURES OF THE PLANT AND ITS SYSTEM

Since the Fresh Water Generator utilizes the waste heat in the circulating cooling water from the
diesel engine. In case of damage to the fresh water cooler, it may be possible to use the fresh water
generator only as cooler during the repair of the fresh water cooler.
Part of the engine cooling water is led to the heat exchang er in the fresh water generator where
it circulates on the outside of the heating tubes, giving off heat to the feed water (sea water) passing
through the inside of tubes. The feed water then evaporates at a comparatively low temperature because
the inside of the generator - is formed vacuum by the water ejector. The generated vapor in the heat
exchanger passes through the deflector and mesh separator to the condenser where it is condensed by
the cooling sea water. The brine, concentrated sea water, is constantly taken out from the evaporator
shell and discharged to over board.
The ejector pump supplies sea water to water ejector. The distillate pump extracts the fresh water
produced from the condenser of the Fresh Water Generator and transfer it to the fresh water tank. Part of
cooling sea water heated by condenser is used as feed water and flow into the bottom cover of the heat
exchanger after heated by the preheater and passing through the feed water orifice. Produced fresh
water is always registered by the salinity alarm (salinity indicator). When the salinity is up to the
prescribed value (normally 10 ppm, adjustable to the other value), the solenoid valve on the improper
fresh water line opens which leads improper fresh water into the evaporator automatically. Fresh water
with high purity flows into the fresh water tank.

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OPERATION

STARTING UP.

Before starting, the following valves are to be closed.

1. Inlet and outlet valves for jacket cooling water of Heat Exchanger.
2. Vacuum breaker valve.
3. Outlet valve for Distillate pump.
4. Feed water inlet valve for heat exchanger.
4. Bottom blow valve.

1) Open the outlet and inlet valves of condenser cooling water and lead cooling water into the
condenser.
2) Start the Ejector Pump and then open the pump outlet valve and the overboard discharge valve.
3) Open the feed water valve and lead the sea water into the heat exchanger. Feed water quantity can be
seen by the readings of the compound gauge in front of the feed water orifice. Control feed water
quantity within range of green belt shown in the compound gauge.
4) When the vacuum in the generator become about 70 cm Hg(-0.092MPa), open the inlet and outlet
valves for jacket cooling water of the heat exchanger. The outlet v alve for jacket cooling water is to
be opened slowly lest the heat exchanger should be overheated suddenly.
5) The air vent cock at the upper part of the heat exchanger shell should be opened whenever jacket
cooling water passes through the heat exchanger and should be closed after confirming that the air in
the shell is completely discharged.
6) Work the Salinity Alarm in order to check purity of the fresh water.
7) When the distillated fresh water comes up to the sight glass of the suction pipe of distillate pump,
start the distillate pump and regulate the water quantity by the outlet valve of the pump. If there is not
abnormality on the discharge pressure of distillate pump, the level need not always be fixed.
(normal discharge pressure is 1.4 - 2.2 kg/cm2) (0.137 - 0.216MPa) Fresh water quantity is increased as
the sea water temperature falls after adjusting to the fixed fresh water quantity. Naturally water level
at the distillate pump suction side increases, produced water stays inside of the condenser, the effective
heating area of the condenser decreases, evaporation quantity decreases, accordingly, the operating
condition will be naturally balanced.

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REGULATING THE CAPACITY

The capacity (quantity of produced water) of the Fresh Water Generator is regulated by increasing
or decreasing the quantities of jacket cooling water to the heat exchanger.
The capacity of the-plant is now-measured-by means of the water meter, the quantity of the jacket cooling
water shall be regulated by the by-pass valve to the fresh water cooler until the plant produces its normal
capacity. In case that the temperature of the jacket cooling water is lower than the prescribed one, the
flow quantity passing through the heat exchanger shall be increased more. The supply of cooling sea water
to the condenser is regulated so that the cooling sea water temperature rises about prescribed value when
passing through the cooling tubes of the condenser. The evaporation temperature should be about 45'C
to 60°C. Evaporation temp. may become much lower than suitable range when ship sails in low sea water
temperature area. In such case, Evaporation temperature must be raised by means of either adjusting
"VACUUM ADJUST VALVE (V7)" on air extraction line, or reducing condenser cooling sea water
flow rate. If the evaporation temperature is too high which may occur at high cooling sea water temperature,
the quantity of cooling sea water to the condenser is increased which will make the evaporation temperature
drop. Too high evaporation temperatures increase the risk of scale formation in the tubes of the heat
exchanger, and too low evaporation temperature will owing to the resulting great vapour volumes
mean a risk that sea water drops are brought with to the condenser resulting in fresh water with a too
high salt content. Any regulation of the capacity of the Fresh Water Generator should be effected by
regulating the amount of jacket cooling water to the heat exchanger. Although when the tubes are
clean, the Fresh Water Generator will be able to produce fresh water in excess of its rated capacity, it is
recommended that to operate the plant at the prescribed quantity of fresh water or less, as
production in excess hereof can involve the risk of scale formations.
STOPPING
When the vessel approaches a port, land or Esturary, the Fresh Water Generator is desirable to be
stopped because at such places the sea water may be heavily infected with bacteria, and there is a risk
that bacteria can be transferred to the fresh water produced. Before the Fresh Water Generator is
stopped the by-pass valve for the jacket cooling water should first be opened.
THE CONDENSER
In order to condense all generated vapor in the heat exchanger, cooling sea water, as cold as possible
should be flowed to the condenser and also should be checked temperature difference of cooling sea
water between inlet and outlet of condenser for regulating the amount of cooling sea water. In case
excess cooling sea water should be supplied, turbulent corrosion may possibly caused due to too high
velocities in the cooling tubes of condenser. On the contrary, when cooling sea water is short, the
capacity of produced fresh water should decreased because of short cooling performance.
Automatic Control of the salinity in the Fresh Water
The Fresh Water Generator is furnished a salinity alarm which automatically registers the
salinity in the fresh water produced. This salinity alarm gives an alarm if the salt content exceeds
prescribed value. In addition to the alarm lamp, a solenoid valve is operated which automatically
return improper fresh water produced to the vapor shall. When the value of the sea-salt content
returns to the normal readings, this alarm circuit is automatically restored from the alarming state
and consequently alarm lamp is turned off, the alarm and the solenoid valve are stopped and the
fresh water with high purity begins to flow into the fresh water tank of the ship again.
Checking the Evaporation Temperature
It is very important, in order to avoid the risk of scale formation, to maintain as low an evaporation
temperature as possible, without the salinity in the fresh water produced being too high. Therefore, it is
recommended that the evaporation temperature should be checked regularly on the thermometer,
fitted on the separator shell. The thermometer on the separator shell states the exact evaporation
temperature when the Fresh Water Generator is working steadily after having run for 15 - 30 min.
INSPECTION
At suitable intervals, for instance twice a year, the top cover of the separator shell and the bottom
cover of the heat exchanger should be removed in order to inspect whether -scale has formed in the tubes
and- the state of exfoliation of inside coating. At the same time, the condenser covers are removed in
order to check that the condenser cooling tubes are not fouled with sludge or the like. The pumps
should be inspected and cleaned regularly, and the corroded parts, if any, should be replaced to the
spare
ones.

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F.W. GENERATOR PIPING DIAGRAM

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OIL & WATER SEPARATORS

Oil/water separators are used to ensure that ships do not discharge oil when pumping out bilges,
oil tanks or any oil-contaminated space. International legislation relating to oil pollution is
becoming more and more stringent in the limits set for oil discharge. Clean water suitable for
discharge is defined as that containing less than 15 parts per million of oil. Oil/water separators
using the gravity system can only achieve 100 parts per million and must therefore be used in
conjunction with some form of filter.
A complete oil/water separator and filter unit for 15 parts per million purity is shown in Figure.
The complete unit is first filled with clean water; the oily water mixture is then pumped through the
separator inlet pipe into the coarse separating compartment. Here some oil, as a result of its lower
density, will separate and rise into the oil collection space. The remaining oil/water mixture now
flows down into the fine separating compartment and moves slowly between the catch plates.
More oil will separate out onto the underside of these plates and travel outwards until it is free to
rise into the oil collecting space. The almost oil-free water passes into the central pipe and leaves the
separator unit. The purity at this point will be 100 parts per million or less. An automatically
controlled valve releases the separated oil to a storage tank. Air is released from the unit by a
vent valve. Steam or electric heating coils are provided in the upper and sometimes the lower parts
of the separator, depending upon the type of oil to be separated.
Where greater purity is required, the almost oil-free water passes to a filter unit. The water flows
in turn through two filter stages and the oil removed passes to oil collecting spaces. The first-stage
filter removes physical impurities present and promotes some fine separation. The second-stage filter
uses Coalescer inserts to achieve the Final de-oiling. Coalescence is the breakdown of surface tension
between oil droplets in an oil/water mixture which causes them to join and increase in size. The oil
from the collecting spaces is drained away manually, as required, usually about once a week. The
filter inserts will require changing, the period of useful life depending upon the operating
conditions. Current legislation requires the use of a monitoring unit which continuously records
and gives an alarm when levels of discharge in excess of 15 parts per million occur.

PIPING DIAGRAM 15 PPM OILY WATER SEPARATOR SYSTEM

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PRECAUTIONS.
1. Watch pressure gauges carefully, and wash the membrane cartridges with kerosene when pressure difference
between pressure gauges 2nd & 3rd Stage becomes 0.1MPa(1.Okg/cm2) to protect Membrane Cartridges from
any damages/clogging.
2. Wash the Coalescer, when pressure difference between 1st Stage & 2nd Stage becomes “0.03 Mpa”(0.3 kg/cm)
3 . No welding allowed to protect coating inside separator shell.
4. No detergent should be poured into bilge tank to avoid emulsification of bilge water.
5. Keep separator always full of water except during maintenance work and in case being frozen.
STEAM HEATING DEVICE
1. Steam supply should be stopped when oily water separator is not operated.
2. Do not use the steam heater except the condition that much quantity of fuel oil gets into bilge well.
3 . Adjust steam supply valve to keep temperature of oily water separator inside between 40 - 60 deg.C.
SEPARATOR OVERHAULING PROCEDURE
(1) Supply clean seawater to the separator with the oily water supply pump for about 10 minutes.
(2) Press "FORCED OIL DISCHARGE" button to "OPEN" the Solenoid Valve and turn the valves
Drain Valves to "OPEN" position for oil/air purge.
(3) Stop the oily water supply pump and turn the inlet and outlet piping valves to "CLOSE" position.
(4) Turn the Test Cock to “OPEN” position and then the Drain valves and Drain Plug to “OPEN”
position for water removal.
(5) Turn off the Oil Level Sensor power.
(6) Remove the body flange bolts.
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Washing Method of Coalescer

Keep the separator filled with hot water (40-60 °C) for about 1(one)hour, and and oil which adhere to wire gauze
filter Coalescer will float up and be separated.
Washing method of membrane cartridge
(1) Supply clean seawater to the separator with the oily water supply pump for about 10 minutes.
(2) Press "FORCED OIL DISCHARGE" button to "OPEN" the motor valve and turn the
valves (Test Cocks) to "OPEN" position for oil/air purge.
(3) Stop the oily water supply pump and turn the inlet and outlet piping valves to "CLOSE" position.
(4) Turn the test cock to "OPEN" position and then the valves to "OPEN" position for water
removal.
(5) Remove the hand-hole flange bolts.
(6) Remove the membrane cartridge from the partition plate.
(7) Put the membrane cartridge into kerosene and clean inside and outside of the membrane
cartridge with cloth or brush.
(8) Remove oil completely, and then equip the membrane cartridge with the partition plate .
(9) Perform restoration work for the separator.
(10) Keep the separator filled with clean seawater for about 1(one)hour, and kerosene which adhere to
the membrane cartridge will float up and be separated at the lower body.
Inner coating repair procedure
(1). Repair material Tar Epoxy Resin.
Repair procedure:
a) Remove stains such iron and rust from the portion subjected to paint peeling with a hand grinder, wire brush, etc.
to clean its surface.
b) Wipe off oil with gasoline, trichloroethylene, or other solvent.
c) Remove moisture completely using an electric lamp, etc.
d) Prepare a tar epoxy resin by mixing its principal agent and hardening agent in the ratio specified in the maker
supplied instructions.
e) Apply the prepared paint with a brush. Dry the paint film to the extent that it does not stick to the finger
before second application of the paint. Repeat the same operation to apply the paint at least three times.
f) After the application is complete, dry the paint film using an electric lamp, etc.
g) If the film is pressed with a finger nail without leaving any nail mark on it, suggesting that it has been dried,
perform restoration work.. Note, however, that the film requires more than 1 (one) week for its complete
hardening. It is thus recommended that no water be passed through the oil separator during this
period.
OPERATION
Water filling after installation or overhaul
(1) Supply power to the Oil level Sensor(Probe) . The sensor signals the Solenoid Valve (Motor Valve) to “OPEN”
in the air. ( The lamp goes off. ).
(2) Turn the Drain Valves to "OPEN" position.
(3) Start up the Oily Water Supply Pump to supply clean seawater.
(4) If the water level reaches the Oil Leval Sensor (Probe), the sensor signals the motor valve to "CLOSE" with the
lighting up of the lamp. After the lamp lights up, press the "FORCED OIL DISCHARGE" button of the oil
level sensor for about 1(one) minute to "OPEN" the Motor Valve again for complete air purge.
(5) If the water appears from the Drain Valves , turn the valve to "CLOSE" position.
(6) Stop the oily water supply pump.
Routine operation - Startup and shutdown
(Startup)
(1) Start up the oily water supply pump to supply bilge to the separator. If it is to be used for the first time in more than 1(one) week,
pass clean seawater through it for about 10 minutes before supplying bilge.
(2) Press the "FORCED OIL DISCHARGE" button of the Oil Level Sensor (Probe) for about 10 seconds to purge air/oil.
(3) Turn the Drain Valves to "OPEN" position for air/oil purge.
(Shutdown)
(1) After the bilge treatment has been completed, pass clean seawater through the separator for about 10 minutes.
(2) Press the "FORCED OIL DISCHARGE" button of the Oil Level Sensor to purge air/oil.
(3) Turn the Drain Valves to "OPEN" position for air/oil purge.
(4) Stop the Oily Water Supply Pump.
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CONSTRUCTION
Gravity Separation Chamber
The gravity separation chamber is so structured that oily water flows into it from the oily water inlet (8)
mounted tangentially on the upper body Large-size oil particles are collected in the upper oil sump.
Coalescer
The oily water fed from the gravity separation chamber flows through the coalescer C made of metal
fiber where the size of oil particles is increased. The oil particles subjected to size enlargement in the
coalescer have their floating power increased to flow upstream to the upper oil sump. The oil having an
insufficient power for such flotation is collected in the lower oil sump located in the lower part of the
coalescer.
Membrane Cartridge
Fine oil particles impossible to treat in the coalescer are subjected to size enlargement in the membrane
cartridge mounted on the partition plate between the upper and lower bodies. Enlarged oil particles float
outside the membrane cartridge and the treated water is discharged from the treated-water outlet.
Oil Discharge Pipe
The oil collected in the upper oil sump is discharged from the motor valve.
Automatic Oil Discharge System
The oil level sensor and the motor valve provided on the upper oil sump operate in linkage with each
other for automatic oil discharge.

SEWAGE TREATMENT
The discharge of untreated sewage in controlled or territorial waters is usually banned by legislation.
International legislation is in force to cover any sewage discharges within specified distances from
land. As a result, and in order to meet certain standards all new ships have sewage treatment plants installed.
Untreated sewage as a suspended solid is unsightly. in order to break down naturally, raw sewage must
absorb oxygen In excessive amounts it could reduce the oxygen content of the water to the point where fish and
plant life would die. Pungent smells are also associated with sewage as a result of bacteria which produce
hydrogen sulphide gas. Particular bacteria present in the human intestine known as E. coli are also to be
found in sewage. The E. coli count in a measured sample of water indicates the amount of sewage present.
Two particular types of sewage treatment plant are in use, employing either chemical or biological
methods. The chemical method is basically a storage tank which collects solid material for disposal in
permitted areas or to a shore collection facility. The biological method treats the sewage so that it is
acceptable for discharge inshore.

Chemical sewage treatment

This system minimizes the collected sewage, treats it and retains it until it can be discharged in a decontrolled
area, usually well out to sea. Shore receiving facilities may be available in some ports to take this retained
sewage. This system must therefore collect and store sewage produced while the ship is in a controlled area.
The liquid content of the system is reduced, where legislation permits, by discharging wash basins, bath and
shower drains straight overboard. Any liquid from water closets is treated and used as flushing water for
toilets. The liquid must be treated such that it is acceptable in terms of. smell and appearance.
A treatment plant is shown diagrammatically in Figure. Various chemicals are added at different points
for odor and color removal and also to assist breakdown and sterilization. A comminutor is used to
physically break up the sewage and assist the chemical breakdown process.

Biological sewage treatment

The biological system utilizes bacteria to completely break down the sewage into an acceptable
substance for discharge into any waters. The extended aeration process provides a climate in which oxygen-
loving bacteria multiply and digest the sewage, converting it into a sludge. These oxygen-loving bacteria
are known as Aerobic.
The treatment plant uses a tank which is divided into three watertight compartments: an aeration
compartment, settling compartment and a chlorine contact compartment. The sewage enters the aeration
compartment where is digested by aerobic bacteria and micro-organisms, whose existence is aided by
atmosperic oxygen which is pumped in. The sewage the flows into the settling compartment where the

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activated sludge is settle out. The clear liquid flows to the chlorinator and after treatment to kill any
remaining bacteria it is discharged. Tablets are placed in the chlorinator and require replacement as they
are used up. The activated sludge in the settling tank is continuously recycled and builds up, so that every
two to three months it must be partially removed. This sludge must be discharged only in a decontrolled
area.

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NAME OF PARTS

A. Bio Filter Tank. 1. Tank. 9. Control Panel.

B. Sterilization 2. Screen. 10. Discharge Pump.
Compartment. 3. Treatment Water Outlet 11. Aeration Blower.
C. Sewage Inlet. Valve. 12. Motor for Blower.
D. Sewage Inlet. 4. Stop Valve. 13. Level Probe.
E. Air Outlet. 5. Drain Valve for Bio- 14. Sterilizer.
F. Emergency Overflow. Filter Tank. 15. Manhole.
G. Cleaning Water Inlet. 6. Air Scour (clean) Valve. 16. Air Scour Pipe.
H. Discharge. 7. Air Lift Valve. 17. Packing Media.
8. Non Return Valve.
STARTING.

1. Confirm that all piping is correct by referring to piping diagram.

2. Apply power to control panel (9), and confirm "SOURCE" lamp is lit.
3. Confirm the direction of rotation of the discharge pump (10) by instantaneous use of pump switch. After
making sure the pump is rotating correctly, turn the switch to "MANUAL" and "STOP".
4. Shut stop valve (4) and open drain valve for bio-filter tank(s).
5. Introduce cleaning water into the device at (G) by opening cleaning water inlet valve.
6. When the indicator lamp marked "HIGH WATER LEVEL" on the control panel lights, immediately
close the cleaning water inlet valve. (If external alarms is installed, confirm alarm operation at the same time).
7. Open treatment water outlet valve (3), discharge pump outlet valve at (H) and storm valve.
8. Turn the discharge pump switch to "AUTO".Confirm that discharge pump starts automatically and
"HIGH WATER LEVEL" lamp goes out as water level drops. Confirm that the discharge pump
stops automatically.
9. Check the quantity of oil in blower by sighting the oil level indicator of aeration blower (11). Add oil if
necessary.
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10. Open air lift valve (7) (right side) and shut air scour valve(6). Confirm the direction of rotation of the
aeration blower (11). by turning the select switch to "RUN". Model SBT-15 & 25 are clockwise
rotation and Model SBT-40 & 65 are counter clockwise as viewed from the V-pulley side.
11. With the aeration blower in operation, confirm that the water is activated in the sewage treatment device.
If the sound of running water is heard, the operation is normal.
12. Check the supply of disinfectant (14a) by removing the cap (14c).
13. If an auxiliary device (such as a collecting tank, etc.) has been installed, confirm its automatic operation
and alarm in the same way as the sewage treatment device.
14. Open the valve at (C) on the sewage supply pipe, so that sewage may enter the treatment device.
15. Confirm the quantity of flush water for each toilet bowl (approximately 10 to 12 Ltrs/flush) and for urinals
(2 to 3Ltrs/flush).

Cautions for toilet usage

1. Do not turn off the power source for the aeration blower under any circumstances. If this happens, the
microorganism will die and thereby reduce the effectiveness of this MSD.
2. Be careful not to throw any foreign substances into the Toilet fixtures.
3. Do not use paper containing Vinyl components.
4. Be sure to flush after each use of toilet bowl.
5. Chemicals for cleaning toilet bowl (hydrochloric acid, bowl cleaners and deodorizers etc.)should be used
sparingly(Very little amount sometime) . When used, they should be directly discharged overboard.
(Only in unrestricted waters). Additionally after chemicals are used, rinse with water. If chemicals
enter into the treatment device, operation may be hindered.
6. In the case of general stains, clean bowls in the following way. Wipe with a cloth which is soaked in soapy tepid
water. If stains don't come off, wipe with a sponge containing a little neutral detergent. Don't use polishing
power containing rough particles because they can scratch crockery and metal fittings, and cause
permanent stains.

Stoppage
When the device must be shut down for inspection, failure of equipment, or part replacement, the following
procedures should be taken.
1. Prohibit the use of toilets, or open direct overboard discharge valve (if provided and if vessel's in unrestricted
waters).
2. Turn off "AERATION BLOWER" switch.
3. Turn off "DISCHARGE PUMP" switch.
4. Turn off "POWER SOURCE" open main circuit breakers.
5. To reactivated the device, reverse items (2)-(4) above and allow sewage to flow into the device.
Close direct overboard discharge valves.

INCINERATOR
Stricter legislation with regard to pollution of the sea, limits and, in some instances, completely bans the
discharge of untreated waste-water, sewage, waste oil and sludge. The ultimate situation of no discharge
can be achieved by the use of a suitable incinerator. When used in conjunction with a Sewage Plant
and with facilities for burning oil sludge, the incinerator forms a complete waste disposal package.
One type of incinerator for shipboard use, MIURA-BGW 20 N is shown in figures below. The
combustion chamber is a horizontal chamber lined with refractory material. An auxiliary oil-fired burner is
used to ignite the refuse and oil sludge and is thermostatically controlled to minimise fuel consumption. A
sludge burner is used to dispose of oil sludge, water and sewage sludge and works in conjunction with the
auxiliary burner. Combustion air is provided by a forced draught fan and the Loading Door is interlocked
to stop the fan and burner when opened. Solid material, usually in sacks, is burnt by an automatic cycle of
operation. Liquid waste is stored in a tank, heated and then pumped to the sludge burner where is is burnt
in an automatic cycle.

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Name and Function of Components.

Cooling Fan.
Cooling Fan draws the cool air and sends the air to Ejector. The cooling air circulate around the Combustion
Chamber.
Ejector.
Ejector unit is functioned to draw the combustion gas and cooled by mixing with cooling air and released to
exhaust gas piping.
Charging Door.
Door for loading solid Waste.
Ash Removal Door.
Door to take out the Ash.
Burner Blower.
Supply Air to Auxiliary Burner.
Burner Unit.
Burner Unit includes Aux:Burner(Pilot Burner) and Main Burner for Waste Oil.
Trochoid Pump.
Supply the Waste Oil to waste oil Burner.
Electric Pump.(Diaphragm Type).
Supply D.O to Auxiliary Burner.
Flame Eye( CdS Cell ).
To detect the Flame of Aux: Burner. Safety Device.

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Operating the Equipment

Introduction
The Model BGW-N on-board incinerator can process both solid waste and waste oil. The basic cycle is
one incineration of solid waste and 6-8 hours of oil incineration per day. Solid waste is loaded, then the
waste oil burner is ignited to incinerate both the oil and the solid waste. After all the solid waste is gone,
only the waste oil is incinerated. After all incineration is completed, the burner is allowed to cool until the
next day. Then the ash should be removed before the next incineration cycle begins. In order to incinerate
all the solid and oil wastes produced on your ship as well as to use the equipment safely, need to plan
the operations so they are close to the basic incineration cycle.

Operation.
1. Turn the power switch on to confirm the temperature of the incineration chamber. Check the
combustion chamber is completely cool.
2. Check the smoke or fire still remaining inside the chamber through Sight Glass. If any fire or smoke,
“do not open the charging door” as could cause “back fire due to un-burnt gas”.
3. Stand to the side and open the charging door.
4. Clean and remove the ash from the Incineration Chamber. Be-careful some hard solid waste are still
hot and could burn you.
5. Inspect the Chamber that there is no damage such as collapsed wall and fire clay. Then close the ash
removal door.
6. Heat the Waste Oil in the waste oil Tank to 90‟C and drain out the water from oil.
7. If the smoke damper is installed, the Damper should be completely open.
8. Open the D.O valve. Use the D.O for Start – Stop operation in order to prevent the clogging inside the
pipe.
9. Open the Air Atomizer Valve.
10. Load the Solid Waste into the Incinerator.
11. Do not incinerate any non-approved solid waste. Such waste might not burn properly, and might
damage the incinerator.
11. As per MEPC76 (40), the maximum weight of a solid waste load is 20 (40) kg. Please note,
however, that maximum load depends on the condition and type of solid waste.
(Examples of maximum load)
Paper, cardboard only ............... 17 (35) kg
Plastic only 3 (10) kg
Solid sludge only 8 (15) kg

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Please put plastics on the flat bottom of the incinerator. If you do not do this, it might cause damage the
incinerator. Even if a load is small, it needs at least 1 hour to burn. By all means, load solid waste through
the charger door. If you load it through the ash removal door, you could cause incomplete incineration
and/or damage the equipment. Small bits of garbage that can fall out of the grate should first be put in an
unneeded cardboard container or on a cardboard plate that covers the grate. Waste paint and other liquids
should be put into metal cans and set on the lower floor of the incinerator on the chimney side. Waste that
contains a lot of water (food scraps, etc.) can be incinerated in a shorter time by setting it on th gate (upper
floor).

12. Close the Charging Door and make sure handle “lock position”.
13. Turn the “Cooling Fan Running Switch-ON- position”. The Cooling Fan must run continuously
during operation.
14. Turn the “Combustion Select” switch to “Solid Waste”.

15. Push the "Combustion Start" button. After pre-purging, ignite and commence automatic incineration.
When the burner ignites, the "Combustion" lamp will be lighted.

16. Before incinerating waste oil, preheat the incinerator by burning about 15 minutes' worth of waste with
diesel oil (D.O.).

17. Please make sure that the waste oil tank is sufficiently heated (about 90‟C), then open the waste oil tank
outlet valve.

18. Close the D.O. tank valve.

Shut-Down.

1. Open the D.O Valve.

2. Close the Waste Oil Tank Valve.
3. Continue burning about 10-20 minutes, in this condition in order to replace the waste oil in the pipe
with D.O. Turn the 3 way valve at the top of the pump to upright position so that D.O does not flow
back into the return pipe.
4. Push the “Combustion Stop” button.
5. Turn the “Coolin Fan Running”to the off position. Coolin Fan will then turn off automatically after
“4” Hours of cooling operation.
6. Close the Waste Oil Valve, D.O Valve and Air Valve.

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HEAT EXCHANGERS

Heat exchangers on board ship are mainly coolers where a hot liquid is cooled by sea water. There are
some instances where liquid heating is required, such as Heavy Fuel Oil Heaters and Sea Water Heaters for
tank cleaning. Although being heat exchangers, the main condenser for steam ship and the evaporator/distiller
are dealt with separately.
The heat exchange process is accomplished by having the two liquids pass on either side of a conducting
surface. The heat from the hot liquid passes to the cold liquid and the conducting surface, i.e. the tube wall, is
at a temperature between the two. It is usual for marine heat exchangers to have the two liquids flowing in
opposite directions, i.e. counter or contra flow. This arrangement provides a fairly constant temperature
difference between the two liquids and therefore the maximum heat transfer for the available surface area.

Coolers
Coolers at sea fall into two groups, shell and tube and the plate type.

Shell and tube

In the shell and tube design a tube bundle or stack is fitted into a shell. The end plates are sealed at either
end of the shell and provision is made at one end for expansion. The tubes are sealed into the tube plate at
either end and provide a passageway for the cooling liquid. Headers or water boxes surround the tube plates
and enclose the shell. They are arranged for either a single pass or, as in Figure below for a double pass of
cooling liquid. The tube bundle has baffles fitted which serve to direct the liquid to be cooled up and down
over the tubes as it passes along the cooler. The joint arrangements at the tube plate ends are different. At the
fixed end, gaskets are fitted between either side of the tube plate and the shell and end cover. At the other end,
the tube plate is free to move with seals fitted either side of a safety expansion ring. Should either liquid leak
past the seal it will pass out of the cooler and be visible. There will be no intermixing or contamination.

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THE PLATE TYPE HEAT EXCHANGER

The plate-type heat exchanger is made up of a number of pressed plates surrounded by seals and held
together in a frame Figure 7.5(a)). The inlet and outlet branches for each liquid are attached to one end plate.
The arrangement of seals between the plates provides passageways between adjacent plates for the cooling
liquid and the hot liquid (Figure 7.5(b)). The plates have various designs of corrugations to aid heat transfer
and provide support for the large, flat surface. A double seal arrangement is provided at each branch point
with a drain hole to detect leakage and prevent intermixing or contamination.

Plate type

Operation
Temperature control of coolers is usually achieved by adjusting the cooling liquid outlet valve. The inlet
valve is left open and this ensures a constant pressure within the cooler. This is particularly important with sea
water cooling where reducing pressure could lead to aeration or the collecting of air within the cooler. Air
remaining in a cooler will considerably reduce the cooling effect. Vents are provided in the highest points of
coolers which should be opened on first filling and occasionally afterwards. Vertical mounting of single pass
coolers will ensure automatic venting. Positioning the inlet cooling water branch facing downwards and the
outlet branch upwards will achieve automatic venting with horizontally mounted coolers. Drain plugs are also
fitted at the lowest point in coolers.

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Maintenance
Clean heat transfer surfaces are the main requirements for satisfactory operation. With sea water cooling
the main problem is fouling of the surfaces, i.e. the presence of marine plant and animal growth.
With shell and tube coolers, the end covers are removed to give access to the tubes for cleaning. Special
tools are usually provided by the cooler manufacturer for cleaning the tubes. The end covers can also be
cleaned. Tube leakage can result from corrosion. This can be checked for, or identified, by having the shell
side of the cooler circulated while the cooling water is shut off and the end covers removed. Any seepage into
the tubes will indicate the leak. It is also possible to introduce fluorescent dyes into the shell-side liquid, any
seepage will show under an ultraviolet light as a bright green glow. Leaking tubes can be temporarily plugged
at each end or removed and replaced with a new tube.
Plate-type coolers, which develop leaks present a more difficult problem. The plates must be visually
examined to detect the faulty point. The joints between the plates can present problems in service, or on
assembly of the cooler after maintenance. Where coolers are out of use for a long period, such as during
surveys or major overhauls, they should be drained on the sea water side, flushed through or washed with
fresh water, and left to dry until required for service
PRINCIPLE
1 ) The plate heat exchanger consists of plates, frames, tightening bolts and Nuts. A pattern designed for
maximum heat transfer with small pressure loss is stamped on a metal board to make a plate.
2 ) Each plate is equipped with gaskets for sealing against its adjacent plate, and the whole plates are
tightened in one body between the frame plate and movable pressure plate with tightening screws.
3 ) Fluid passes through many channels in co-current or counter current in the heat exchanger.
4 ) The plate heat exchanger has the types standard processed in accordance with capacity and use, which
are manufactured by assembling the standard parts.
PLATE COMPONENTS
1 ) Alfa Laval plate heat exchanger consists of Components in the following figure.
2 ) A pattern of herringbone corrugation is stamped on a thin metal plate below 1.0 mm to make a plate,
which is provided with grooves in the periphery to engage gaskets for sealing.
3 ) See the following figure.
In installing plates to the frame, the plate having an inlet on the left as seen from the gasket side is
called A-plate, and every other B-plate (inlet on the right as seen from the gasket side).

ARRANGEMENT OF PLATES AND FLOW OF LIQUID

In plate configuration, the pattern of herringbone corrugation is arranged by turns, angular-root, regular-
root and so forth. Avoid angular-angular or root-root arrangement. Be sure to place the gasket face toward the
frame plate.
PIPING
1) In piping, assure that tensile or compressive force due to piping and stress such as heat expansion of
piping during operation may not be applied to connection, and mount the pipe support as near as
possible to the connection.
2) Be sure to provide an air vent and drain vent in piping.
3) See that the pulsation of the liquid to the heat exchanger is restrained minimum.
4) Install an vent valve in the case where the shut-off pressure of the pump is larger than the proof
pressure of the heat exchanger.
5) Maximum working temperature and maximum working pressure are given on the name plate.
START AND STOP
1) Gradually apply pressure up to operational pressure by use of a throttle valve during piping in start-up.
2) When the heat exchanger is to be halted for long, disassemble and clean it, and slightly tighten to make
the inside empty for storage.
(Apply the same procedure when freezing may occur.)
DISASSEMBLY
1) The frame plate and pressure plate are kept parallel by two of diagonally opposed tightening screws as
a rule in the heat exchanger. Gradually loosen the two tightening bolts for disassembly.
2) When a heat exchanger uses six or more tightening screws, remove the bolts at the corner first, and
attach then last to protect the corner of the frame from damage.
3) Remove the bolts except the opposed two, namely the set of either 1 and 2 or 3 and 4 in Figure.
4) Loosen the remaining two bolts seeing that the frame plate and pressure plate are kept parallel. Take
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care that the frame plate and the pressure plate are not gapped above 10 mm laterally and 25 mm
longitudinally.
5) The locking bolt (shorter than the tightening bolt, provided with no bearing housing) is an internal
pressure proof bolt, unusable for disassembly and tightening. So, when it is equipped, remove it First
and attach last like corner bolts.
(Note) The lock washers of the tightening bolt are set on the pressure plate side in the M- types. So,
turn the bolt head on the frame plate side for disassembly and tightening.

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TIGHTENING
1) Check that the surface of the gasket is clean before tightening.
2) Press the plate and pressure plate to the frame plate, then mount the two bolts(used in disassembly).
3) Tighten them keeping parallel the pressure plate and the frame plate as in disassembly. The tightening
size should be that given on the name plate attached to the frame plate. Measure the size at least in
four positions.
4) When the opposed two bolts are tightened almost securely, tighten the remaining bolts.
(Note) In installing a plate of M 6, if the edge of the plate hinders tightening, slightly bend the plate
longitudinally with the gasket face inside before installation as in Figure.

CLEANING OF PLATES
1) Check and clean the heat exchanger periodically. Operation period before cleaning depends on the
liquid in use. In heat exchange by clean water, the unit needs no cleaning about one year.
2) Flush the plates as they are hung in the unit, and clean them with a fiber brush or a stainless steel wire
brush. (Use only a metal brush made of stainless steel.) Take care not to damage the gaskets here.
Cleaning with a water jet is also effective.(Use a water jet with 5 MPa or so.) In chemical cleaning
with thin nitric acid, pay full attention to corrosion resistance of plates and gaskets. and be sure to
perform neutralization and flushing after cleaning. (Nitric acid of 4 wt% below 60 C is
recommended.)
3) Number the plates with dry ink or the like when the plates are removed from the heat exchanger so that
they can be replaced in the same order.

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REMOVAL OF PLATE
1) Damaged plates can be easily replaced by the same spare plates.
2) The damaged plate and the adjacent plate, two in sum (only the plate with four holes), may be safely
removed without replacement. However, the performance of the unit is slightly lowered. Note that the
tightening size in this case is shortened by two plates.

REPLACEMENT OF GASKET
1 ) Remove the old gasket from the plate, then wipe the gasket groove with a clean cloth moistened with a
solvent(methyl ethyl ketone, toluene, xylene, trichloroethylene, etc.). If it is hard to be removed,
remove it warming the rear side with a gas burner or pour a solvent into the gasket groove and leave it
for a while. (Note) Do not use a gas burner and solvent at the same tints. Use a propane burner or a
drier(1000 W). Do not use an acetylene burner.
2 ) Use GC-8 as adhesive agent.
3 ) Apply a thin layer of cement with a brush over the rough side of the gasket and the gasket groove of
the plate.
4 ) Allow the cement to dry for three to five minutes, and when it does not feel sticky when touched with
fingers, apply the face to the gasket groove.
5 ) Apply the gasket controlling the length not to elongate it too much.
6 ) when all are applied. pile up only A-plates(or B-plates) and press them from above (with a weight),
and leave them a half to one day.
7 ) Dry them fully and install to the frame.
(Note) Avoid such places where ventilation is poor or near fire in cementing gaskets.

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(Chapter 8)
STEERING GEAR
The steering gear provides a movement of the rudder in response to a signal from the bridge. The total
system may be considered made up of three parts, Control Equipment, a Power Unit and a Transmission
to the Rudder Stock.
The control equipment conveys a signal of desired rudder angle from the bridge and activates the power
unit and transmission system until the desired angle is reached. The power unit provides the force, when
required and with immediate effect, to move the rudder to the desired angle. The transmission system, the
steering gear, is the means by which the movement of the rudder is accomplished.
The reliability and sufficiency of steering gears are vital to safe navigation, consequently strict rules
governing the design, construction, installation and operation are enforced. These are, in short,
1. Every ship must have two independent steering gears, adequate for her size and speed; in all passenger
ships and in cargo ships of 5000 tons gross or more, one must be power-operated. Both must be power-
operated in the former if the rudder-stock rule diameter exceeds 230 mm and also in the latter if the
rudder-stock rule diameter, appropriate to a speed of ten knots, exceeds 250 mm.
2. The main gear must put the rudder from 35 ۫ Port to 35 ۫ Starboard or vice versa, at service speed: the
time from 35 ۫ one side to 30 ۫ the other must not exceed 28 seconds. The gear and the rudder-stock must
be adequate for the maximum speed astern.
3. In passenger ships, the auxiliary steering components should have a strength appropriate to a main gear
designed for 12 knots; in all ships it must be able to steer the ship at navigable speed and to be brought
into used rapidly; auxiliary gears are not required if the main has duplicate power units and duplicate
connections to the rudder-stock, with duplicate electric cables run independently for their whole length,
separated as widely as practicable. (This may require two tillers).
4. The actual position of power-operated rudders must be indicated at the main steering position.
5. Passenger ships whose rudder-stock rule diameter exceeds 230 mm must have a second steering position
remote from the main position and means of transmitting orders to it: failure of the control system of
6. Steering gears must be protected from shock and from weather, be adequately secured and chocked; their
pipes and cables must be exclusive to them. There must be stops for the rudder and at a smaller angle, for
the gear and also, an effective locking gear or brake.
7. Steering arrangements must be of approved design and materials, tested as required and they must be
built and installed under survey; spare gear must be carried, sufficient for the ships; intended service.
8. Electrically operated gears are to have short-circuit protection only. (The reason for this should be
apparent). Motors must have running indicators, suitably placed.
9. When Rudder Heads, Pintles, etc., have increased scantlings for navigation in ice, steering gears are to be
able to withstand or to be protected from the increased loads arising.

Control Systems
Steering gears can be arranged with hydraulic control equipment known as a “Tele-motor”, or with
Electrical Control Equipment.
Tele-motor control
Tele-motor control is a hydraulic control system employing a transmitter, a receiver, pipes and a charging
unit. The transmitter, which is built into the steering wheel console, is located on the bridge and the receiver is
mounted on the steering gear. The charging unit is located near to the Receiver Unit.
The Tele-motor system is shown in Figure. Two rams are present in the transmitter which move in
opposite directions as the steering wheel is turned. The fluid is therefore pumped down one pipe line and
drawn in from the other. The pumped fluid passes through piping to the receiver and forces the Tele-motor
cylinder unit to move. The suction of fluid from the opposite cylinder enables this movement to take place.
The cylinder unit has a control spindle connected to it by a pin. Its control spindle operates the slipper ring or
swash plate of the variable delivery pump. If the changeover pin is removed from the cylinder unit and iserted
in the local hand-wheel drive then manual control of the Rudder is possible. Stops are fitted on the receiver to
limit movement to the maximum rudder angle required. The charging unit consists of a tank, a pump, and
shut-off cocks for each and is fitted in the main piping between the transmitter and receiver.
In the transmitter a replenishing tank surrounds the rams, ensuring that air cannot enter the system. A
bypass between the two cylinders opens as the wheel passes mid-ships. Also at mid position the supercharging
unit provides a pressure in the system which ensures rapid response of the system to a movement of the wheel.
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This supercharging unit also draws in replenishing fluid if required in the system, and provides a relief valve
arrangement if the pressure is too high. Pressure gauges are connected to each main pipeline and air vent
cocks are also provided.
In normal operation the working pressure of about 20 to 30 bar, or the manufacturer's given figure, should
not be exceeded. The wheel should not be forced beyond the 'hard over' position as this will strain the gear.
The replenishing tank should be checked regularly and any lubrication points should receive attention. Any
leaking or damaged equipment must be repaired or replaced as soon as possible. The system should be
regularly checked for pressure tightness. The rudder response to wheel movement should be checked and if
sluggish or slow then air venting undertaken. If, after long service, air venting does not remove sluggishness,
it may be necessary to recharge the system with new fluid.

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Electrical control
The electrical remote control system is commonly used in modem installations since it uses a small
control unit as transmitter on the bridge and is simple and reliable in operation.
The control box assembly, which is mounted on the steering gear. Movement of the bridge transmitter
results in electrical imbalance and current flow to the motor. The motor drives, through a flexible coupling, a
screw shaft, causing it to turn. A screw block on the shaft is moved and this in turn moves the floating lever to
which a control rod is attached. The control rod operates the slipper ring or swash plate of the variable
delivery pump. A cut-off lever connected to the moving tiller will bring the floating lever pivot and the lever
into line at right angles to the screw shaft axis. At this point the rudder angle will match the bridge lever angle
and the pumping action will stop. The rotating screw shaft will have corrected the electrical imbalance and the
motor will stop. For local manual control, the electrical control is switched off and a small hand wheel is
connected to the screw shaft. A detent pin holds the hand wheel assembly clear when not in use. Rotation of
the hand wheel will move the floating lever and bring about rudder movement as already described.

There are three basic types of Control System.

1. Non Follow Up System.
2. Follow Up System.
3. Automatic System.

(1) Non Follow Up Systems.

With these systems the gear will run and the rudder will continue to turn while the steering wheel or other
controller is moved from its central position. Rudder movement is stopped only when the steering control is
centred once again (or when the rudder is brought up against the stops). It will be obvious that placing the
tiller amidships merely stops application of helm and does not remove it. Removal of helm must be effected
by moving the tiller to the opposite side. Controllers with non follow up systems take the form of a wheel or a
tiller lever or push buttons. A rudder indicator is fitted to indicate rudder movement.

(2) Follow Up Systems

With these systems movement of the rudder follows the movement of the steering controller, e.g. if the
controller is moved to indicate a desired rudder position the rudder will turn until the actual rudder angle is the
same as the desired rudder angle shown on the steering pedestal after which rudder movement will cease, the
controller remaining offset from its central position .

(3) Automatic Systems

With these systems the steering control circuits are controlled by signals received from the master
compass, so that the ship is automatically held on to a selected course.
Primarily the system is so arranged that when the vessel is on course the rudder is amidships but as soon
as the compass indicates an error the auto pilot applies an amount of rudder sufficient to bring the vessel is on
course again the applied correcting rudder has been removed.
With some systems, should it be required to alter the course being steered by the auto pilot by a few
degrees, this can be done by a Trim Switch and without necessarily reverting to hand steering.

Any or all of the above systems can be applied to both all electric or electro hydraulic steering systems so
that the following may be fitted:-
(i) Hand Electric (Follow Up)
(ii) Hand Electric (Non Follow Up)
(iii) Hand Hydraulic (Previously described under “Telemotor Control”
(iv) Automatic
And it is normal practice to fit at least two of systems (i), (ii) and (iii).

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POWER UNITS
Two types of hydraulically powered transmission units or steering gear are in common use, the RAM and
the rotary VANE.

Ram type
Two particular variations, depending upon torque requirements, are possible the Two-Ram and
the Four-Ram.

TWO RAM HYDRAULIC STEERING GEAR

Figure shows an arrangement of a two-ram gear; such gears may have a torque capacity of 120-650 KNm.
Figure shows the hydraulic system diagrammatically.
The steering cylinders are cast steel; the rams are one-piece steel forgings, with integral pins to transmit
their effort to cod-pieces free to slide between the jaws of the fork-end tiller, a steel forging, suitably
machined; they are ground to slide in the gun-metal neck bushes and hydraulic seals in the cylinders. The tiller
may be of single-in type, working in a ball crosshead (the Rapson Slide) as in the four-ram gear.

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The duplicate Power Units, PU1 and PU2, each have a continuously-running motor driving, through a
flexible coupling, a variable delivery axial-cylinder pump and an Auxiliary Pump, A1, A2; the latter draw
filtered oil form the Reservoir T and discharge through a 10 micron filter F10 to lubricate the main pumps,
to supply oil at constant pressure to the servo-controls SC and to the automatic Change-Over valves CO; also
to maintain a flow of cool oil and to make up any loss in the main system. When the main pumps are at 'no-
stroke', the auxiliary pumps discharge to the reservoir via a Pressure-Limiting valve PC20, set at 20 bar, and
to the pump casing; when the main pumps are 'on-stroke', they discharge to the main pump suction.
Either or both pump(s) may be brought into operation at any position of the gear at any time by starting
the motor(s). The servo-operated automatic change-over valves, are held in the bypass condition by the spring
while the associated pump(s) are at rest; when a pump is started, the auxiliary pump pressure builds up,
overcomes the spring, closes the bypass and connects the main pump to the hydraulic system. Thus, the main
pump starts in the unloaded condition, it cannot be motored when idle by cross pressure flow and load is held
off until the electric starting currents are dissipated; when a pump is stopped, the spring returns valve to the
bypass condition. The spring end of the valve is connected to the constant-pressure line and, to obviate
hydraulic locking, the spring chamber has a bleed line. From the automatic Change-Over valves CO, the
main pump discharge passes to the Pump Isolating valves, P1 and P2, and to the cylinders, through the
Locking Valves LV. These valves are incorporated in a group valve chest so arranged as to provide cross-
connections with the Bypass Valve BP, Relief Valve, RV, and the emergency Hand Pump shut-off valves,
HP, with appropriate Non-Return valves NR.
In open water it is usual to have one power unit is use. If quicker response is required, two units may be
run simultaneously, doubling the flow of oil and almost, the speed of operation.
Normally, the gear is controlled from the bridge by a manually operated hydraulic or electric remote
control system or by a gyro-pilot, but a local control hand wheel ('trick' wheel) is provided and a steering
position, wheel, standard, etc. is commonly fitted aft. Electric remote systems are commonly used because of
their inherent simplicity and reliability and they are adaptable to the control of any type of steering gear.
The construction is light as the forces concerned are small; the control and hunting gears are combined as
a self-contained unit, self-lubricating, in an oil-tight case. Pump output and therefore rudder movement, is
controlled by a floating lever, one end of which is moved by the control motor (or Tele-motor), the other end
by the movement of the tiller. A rod attached to its mid-point and to the pump control levers puts the pump(s)
on stroke in response to movement of the floating lever by the control motor or Tele-motor. As the tiller
moves, the cut-off linkage acts to counteract the initial movement (i.e. hunts) and brings the gear to rest by
restoring the pump control levers to the no-stroke position. Spring links, suitably dispose, obviate over-
stressing of the mechanism.
The end of the floating lever connected to the remote control mechanism is attached to a block which
move along a screw shaft when the latter is rotated by the control motor; the stroke is restricted by stop
collars. This shaft carries a mitre wheel engaging with the local control arrangement.
The rams acting in hydraulic cylinders operate the tiller by means of a swivel crosshead carried in a fork
of the rams. A variable delivery pump is mounted on each cylinder and the slipper ring is linked by rods to the
control spindle of the tele-motor receiver. The variable delivery pump is piped to each cylinder to enable
suction or discharge from either. A replenishing tank is mounted nearby and arranged with non-return suction
valves which automatically provide make-up fluid to the pumps. A bypass valve is combined with spring-
loaded shock valves which open in the event of a very heavy sea forcing the rudder over. In moving over, the
pump is actuated and the steering gear will return the rudder to its original position once the heavy sea has
passed. A spring-loaded return linkage on the tiller will prevent damage to the control gear during a shock
movement.
During normal operation one pump will be running. If a raster response is required, for instance in
confined waters, both pumps may be in use. The pumps will be in the no-delivery state until a rudder
movement is required by a signal from the bridge Tele-motor transmitter. The Tele-motor receiver cylinder
will then move: this will result in a movement of the floating lever which will move the floating ring or
slipper pad of the pump, causing a pumping action. Fluid will be drawn from one cylinder and pumped to the
other, thus turning the tiller and the rudder. A return linkage or hunting gear mounted on the tiller will
reposition the floating lever so that no pumping occurs when the required rudder angle is reached.

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FOUR RAM HYDRAULIC STEERING GEAR

Figures show a four-ram gear and Hydraulic Circuit; this type may have torque capacities of 250 to 10
000 kNm. The basic principles of operation are similar to the two-ram gear except that the pump will draw
from two diagonally opposite cylinders and discharge to the other two. The four-ram arrangement provides
greater torque and the flexibility of different arrangements in the event of component failure. Either pump can
be used with all cylinders or with either the two port or two starboard cylinders. Various valves must be open
or closed to provide these arrangements. The use of a control valve block incorporating rudder shock relief
valves, pump isolating valves, ram isolating and bypass valves, offers greater flexibility with a four-ram
steering gear. In normal operation one pump can operate all cylinders. In an emergency situation the motor or
a pair of hand pumps could be used to operate two port rams, two starboard rams, two forward rams or two
after rams.
The gear incorporates the Rapson Slide and the arrangement of stop and bypass valves in the chest VC
enables the gear to be operated on all four or on any two adjacent cylinders (but not on two diagonally
disposed cylinders), the inactive cylinders being isolated from the pumps by valves and the bypass valves
connecting them opened to permit free flow of idle fluid. Either or both duplicate independent power units
may be employed with any usable combination of cylinders. It will be seen that the torque available from two
cylinders is only one-half of that from four, even when both power units are working, though the speed of
operation will be increased if both are used.
The mechanical arrangement of the control gear and the basic hydraulic system, in all but their layout, are
identical with the two-ram gear already described. The valve chest however, must cater for four cylinders in
all useful combinations; this demands four cylinder Isolating Valves, C1-C4, and four bypass valves, B1-B4.
The emergency hand pump arrangement, its directional control valve, the main system relief and the locking
valves remain unchanged, as do the remote, local and emergency control arrangements.
Referring to Figure above, normally, the pump and the four cylinder isolating valves, P1, P2, C1-C4, and
the rudder locking valves LV are open; the bypass valves B1-B4 and the emergency hand pump isolating
valves HP are closed. Either or both power unit(s) may then be brought into action or shut down by starting or
stopping the associated motor(s).
To change from four-ram to two-ram working, it is only necessary to make two cylinders inoperative by
closing their isolating valves, C-C, and opening the bypass valves between them. For example, to steer or
cylinders 1 and 3, valves C2 and C4 are closed and B2 and B4 opened so that cylinders numbers 2 and 4 are
isolated from the main hydraulic system and the oil in them is free to flow from one to the other. The cylinder
isolating valves and the bypass valves were shown as separate items in Figure but, each pair may be combined
as a double seating valve so that, as any cylinder is isolated from the main hydraulic system it is automatically
opened to a bypass manifold and thence to another inoperative cylinder.
The materials used were described at the beginning of this section except for the Rapson Slide. In this the
ball cross-heads, through which the rams transmit their effort to the Tiller, are of cast steel bored and gun-
metal bushed to slide on the highly finished pins forming the two ends of the tiller crosshead and having their
own (vertical) pins well finished to rotate in the gun-metal bushes fitted in the cast steel split ram crossheads.

Alternatively, the tiller may be arranged with fork ends in which Cod-Pieces, carried on pins incorporated
in the rams, are free to slide. In either case, the arrangement prevents loads arising from vertical movement of
the rudderstock being transmitted to the rams.
To charge the system with fluid it is first necessary to fill each cylinder then replace the filling plugs and
close the air cocks. The cylinder bypass valves should be opened and the replenishing tanks filled. The air
vents on the pumps should be opened until oil discharges free of air, the pumps set to pump and then turned
by hand, releasing air at the appropriate pair of cylinders and pumping into each pair of cylinders in turn using
the hand control mechanism. The motor should then be started up and, using the local hand control, operation
of the steering gear checked. Air should again be released from the pressurized cylinders and the pumps
through the appropriate vents. During normal operation the steering gear should be made to move at least once
every two hours to ensure self lubrication of the moving parts. No valves in the system, except bypass and air
vent, should be closed. The replenishing tank level should be regularly checked and, if low, refilled and the
source of leakage to be found. When not in use, that is, in port, the steering motors should be switched off.
Also the couplings of the motors should be turned by hand to check that the pump is moving freely. If there is
any stiffness the pump should be overhauled. As with any hydraulic system cleanliness is essential when
overhauling equipment and only linen cleaning cloths should be used.

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ROTARY VANE TYPE

With this type of steering gear a Vane Rotor is securely fastened onto the rudder stock. The rotor is able
to move in a housing , which is solidly attached to the ship's structure. Chambers are formed between the
vanes on the rotor and the vanes in the housing. These chambers will vary in size as the rotor moves and can
be pressurised since sealing strips are fitted on the moving faces. The chambers either side of the moving
vane are connected to separate pipe systems or manifolds. Thus by supplying hydraulic fluid to all the
chambers to the left of the moving vane and drawing fluid from all the chambers on the right, the rudder stock
can be made to turn anti-clockwise. Clockwise movement will occur if pressure and suction supplies are
reversed. Three vanes are usual and permit an angular movement of 70°: the vanes also act as stops limiting
rudder movement. The hydraulic fluid is supplied by a variable delivery pump and control will be electrical,
as described earlier. A relief valve is fitted in the system to prevent overpressure and allow for shock loading
of the rudder.
Rotary vane gears
These may be regarded as equivalent to a two-ram gear, with torque capacities of some 3000 KNm.
Figure below illustrates the principle.
The Rotor C is fitted and keyed to a tapered Rudder-Stock; the Stator B is secured to the ship's
structure. Fixed Vanes, secured equidistantly in the Stator bore and Rotating Vanes secured equidistantly in
the Rotor, form two sets of alternative pressure chambers in the annular space between Rotor and Stator: they
are interconnected by a manifold. Fluid supplied at pressure to one set of these chambers will rotate C
clockwise and the rudder will turn to port, or to starboard if the alternative set is put under pressure.
Three of each type of vane, rotating and fixed, are usual and permit a total angular rudder movement
of 70˚; two of each, 130˚. The vanes act as rudder stops. Figure shows the details of a typical unit.
The Rotary Vanes D and the Fixed Vanes E are made in SG Iron and are securely fixed to the cast-
steel rotor C and the stator B respectively, by high-tensile steel dowel pins and cap screws. Keys are also
fitted over the whole length of each rotary vane in order to give them a mechanical strength at least equal to
that of the rudderstock so that they are entirely suitable to act as rudder stops. Steel Sealing Strips H backed
by synthetic rubber are fitted in grooves along the working faces of the fixed and rotary vanes, thus ensuring a
high volumetric efficiency 96-98% even at the relief valve pressure of 100 bar or over. Rotation of B is
prevented by means of two anchor brackets, and two anchor pins. The anchor brackets are securely bolted to
the ship. Vertical clearance is arranged between the inside of the stator flanges and the top and bottom of the
anchor brackets to allow for vertical movement of the rudderstock. This clearance varies with each size of the
rotary vane unit, but is approximately 38 mm total and it is necessary that the rudder carrier should be capable
of restricting the vertical movements of the rudderstock to less than this amount.

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The method of control for these gears and also the hydraulic supply system is as described for electro-
hydraulic gears.

All-Electric Steering
Steering gears which comprise electric control, electric power unit and electrical transmission, are of two
types, the Ward-Leonard system and the Direct Single Motor system. Both types have a geared-down
motor drive via a pinion to a toothed quadrant.
Ward-Leonard arrangement is shown diagrammatically in Figure below.
A continuously running motor-generator set has a directly coupled exciter to provide the field current of
the generator. The exciter field is part of a control circuit, although in some circuits control is directly to the
field current of the generator with the exciter omitted. When the control system is balanced there is no exciter
field, no exciter output and no generator output, although it is continuously running. The main motor which
drives the rudder has no input and thus is stationary. When the wheel on the bridge is turned, and the rheostat
contact moved, the control system is unbalanced and a voltage occurs in the exciter field, the exciter, and the
generator field. The generator then produces power which turns the rudder motor and hence the rudder. As the
rudder moves it returns the rudder rheostat contact to the same position as the bridge rheostat, bringing the
system into balance and stopping all current flow.

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In the Single Motor system the motor which drives the rudder is supplied directly from the ship's mains
through a contactor type starter. Reversing contacts are also fitted to enable port or starboard movements.
The motor runs at full speed until stopped by the control system, so a braking system is necessary to bring
the rudder to a stop quickly and at the desired position. The usual electrical maintenance work will be
necessary' on this equipment in order to ensure satisfactory operation.

Twin system steering gears

To meet the automatic changeover within the 45 seconds required for tankers of 10 000 ton gross tonnage
and above, a number of designs are available. Two will be described, one for a ram type steering gear and one
for a rotary vane type steering gear. In each case two independent systems provide the power source to move
the tiller, the failure of one resulting in a changeover to the other. The changeover is automatic and is achieved
within 45 seconds.
The ram type steering gear arrangement is shown diagrammatically in Figure. A simple automatic device
monitors the quantity of oil in the circuit. Where a failure occurs in one of the systems it is located and that
circuit is isolated. The other system provides uninterrupted steering and alarms are sounded and displayed.
Consider Pump 1 in operation and Pump 2 placed on automatic reserve by the selector switch. If a leak
develops in circuit 2 the float chamber oil level will fall and proximity switch A on the monitor will be
activated to close the Solenoid Valve 2t which isolates Circuit 2 and bypasses the cylinders in that circuit. An
alarm will also be given. If the leak is in circuit 1 however, the float chamber oil level will fall further until
Proximity Switch B is activated. This will cut off the power supply to Motor 1 and Solenoid Valve 1 and
connect the supply to Motor 2 and solenoid valve 2, thus isolating circuit 1. If pump 2 were running and pump
1 in reserve, a similar changeover would occur. While a two cylinder system has been described this system
will operate equally well with four double acting cylinders.
An arrangement based on a Rotary Vane Type steering gear is shown in Figure. This system involves the
use of only one Actuator but it is directly fitted to a single Tiller and Rudderstock and therefore complete
duplication of the system does not occur anyway. Self Closing Lock Valves are provided in the two
independent hydraulic circuits which operate the actuator. The self closing valves are fitted on the inlet and
outlet ports of the actuator and open under oil pressure against the action of a spring. Where an oil pressure
loss occurs in one circuit the valves will immediately close under the action of their springs. A low tank level
alarm will sound and the other pump can be started. This pump will build up pressure, open the valves on its
circuit and the steering gear can immediately operate.

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VARIABLE-DELIVERY PUMPS
The steering torque required in a 90 000 tons d.w. ship at 18 knots may exceed 2000 kNm. Three types
of variable-delivery pumps are in common use and are described below. These work on the principle of
varying the amount of oil displaced by altering the stroke of the pump Pistons in either Radial or Axial
Cylinders, by Floating Ring, Swash-Plate or Slipper Pad.
A number of different designs of variable delivery pump exist. Each has a means of altering the pump
stroke so that the amount of oil displaced will vary from zero to some designed maximum value. This is
achieved by use of a floating ring, a swash plate or a slipper pad. Within the casing a short length of shaft
drives the cylinder body which rotates around a central valve or tube arrangement and is supported at the ends
by ball bearings. The cylinder body is connected to the central valve arrangement by ports which lead to
connections at the outer casing for the supply and delivery of oil.
A number of pistons fit in the radial cylinders and are fastened to slippers by a gudgeon pin. The slippers
fit into a track in the circular floating ring. This ring may rotate, being supported by ball bearings, and can
also move from side to side since the bearings are mounted in guide blocks.
Two spindles which pass out of the pump casing control the movement of the ring.
The operating principle will now be described by reference to Figure. When the circular floating ring is
concentric with the central valve arrangement the pistons have no relative reciprocating motion in their
Cylinders(a). As a result no oil is pumped and the pump, although rotating, is not delivering any fluid. If
however the circular floating ring is pulled to the right then a relative reciprocating motion of the pistons in
their cylinders does occur (Figure (b)). The lower piston, for instance, as it moves inwards will discharge fluid
out through the lower port in the central valve arrangement. As it continues past the horizontal position the
piston moves outwards, drawing in fluid from the upper port. Once past the horizontal position on the opposite
side, it begins to discharge the fluid. If the circular floating ring were pushed to the left then the suction and
discharge ports would be reversed (Figure (c)).
This pump arrangement therefore provides, for a constantly rotating unit, a no-flow condition and
infinitely variable delivery in either direction. The pump is also a positive displacement unit. Where two
pumps are fitted in a system and only one is operating, reverse operation might occur. Non-reversing locking
gear is provided as part of the flexible coupling and is automatic in operation. When a pump is stopped the
locking gear comes into action; as the pump is started the locking gear un-lock the system.

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The pump consists of case A, to which are attached two covers, the shaft cover B and the pipe connection
cover C. This latter cover carries the D tuve (or central valve), which has ports E and F forming the
connections between the cylinders and branches G and H. The cylinder body J is driven by shaft K, and
revolves on the D tube, being supported at either end by ball bearings T.
The pistons L are fitted in a row of radial cylinders, and through the outer end of each piston is a gudgeon
pin M, which attaches the slippers N to the piston. The slippers are free to oscillate on their gudgeon pins and
fit into tracks in the circular floating ring O. This ring is free to rotate, being mounted on ball bearings P,
which are housed in guide blocks R. The latter bear on tracks formed on the covers B and C and are controlled
in their movement by spindles S, which pass through the pump case A.
The maximum pump stroke is restricted by the guide-block ends coming in contact with the casing.
Further restriction of the pump strokeis effected externally.
Figure shows sections through the D tube, cylinder body, pistons and slippers at right angles to the axis.
XY is the line along which stroke variations take place. The arrow indicates direction of rotation.
With the floating ring central, i.e. concentric with the D tube, the slippers move round in a circle
concentric with the D tube, and consequently no pumpin action takes place. With the floating ring moved to
the left, the slippers rotate in a path eccentric to the D tube and cylinders, consequently the pistons, as they
pass above the line XY, recede from the D tube and draw oil through the ports E, whilst the pistons below XY
approach the D tube and discharge oil through ports F.
With the floating ring moved to the right the reverse action takes place, the lower pistons moving
outwards drawing oil through ports F and the upper pistons moving into the cylinders and discharging oil
through ports E.
The direction of flow depends on the location of the floating ring to left or right of the centre. The floating
ring can be moved to any intermediate position between the central and maximum positions, the quantity of
oil discharged varying according to the amount of displacement of the floating ring from its mid-position.
Non-reverse locking gear
When two pumping units are fitted and only one is running, the idle pump might be driven in the reverse
direction by fluid under pressure from the running pump, if non-reverse locking gear were not fitted. This gear
is integral with the flexible coupling connecting motor and pump. It consists of a number of steel pawls so
mounted on the motor coupling that, when pumping units are running, they fly outward due to centrifugal
force and remain clear of the stationary steel ratchet secured to the motor supporting structure. The limit of
this outward movement is reached when the pawls contact the surrounding casing, which revolves with the
coupling. When the pumps stop, the pawls return to their normal, inward position and engage the ratchet
teeth, so providing a positive lock against reverse rotation. This action is automatic and permits instant
selection and commissioning of either unit without needing to use the pump isolating valves, which are
normally open - and only closed in an emergency.
The swash-plate axial-cylinder pump
A circular cylinder barrel is bored and splined centrally to suit the input shaft with which it revolves.
Several cylinder bores are machined in the cylinder barrel, concentric and parallel with the shaft, one end of
each terminating in a port opening into that end face of the barrel which bears against the stationary valve
plate, maintained in contact by spring pressure, compensating automatically for wear. Ports in the valve plate
match those in the barrel and are connected by external pipes to the steering cylinders, through a valve chest.
In the current design, the cylinder barrel is driven by the input shaft through a universal joint and the valve
plate contact springs are supplemented by hydraulic pressure in operation. Each cylinder contains a piston,
connected by a double ball-ended rod to a socket ring driven by the input shaft through another universal join
and rotating on roller thrust bearings (in some cases on Michel pads) within a tilt box. This is carried on
Trunnions and can be tilted on either side of the vertical by an external control, e.g. a Telemotor. Figure
shows a cut-away section of the pump. When the tilt box is vertical, the socket ring, cylinder barrel and
pistons all revolve in the same plane and the pistons have no stroke. As the box is tilted, and with it the socket
ring, stroke is given to the pistons at each half-revolution, the length of stroke determined by the angle of tilt.

The HASTIE four-ram gear with Axial-Cylinder pumps

A new development of the gear described above uses a new type of swash plate axial cylinder pump,
servo-controlled and capable of working at 210 bar. Each pump is complete with its own torque motor, servo-
valve, cut-off mechanism, shut-off valve and oil cooler. These pumps are brought into operation as described
earlier and an idle pump is prevented from motoring. The rotating assembly of the pump, which consists of
cylinder, nine pistons, valve plate, slippers, slippers, slipper plate and retaining ring, is manufactured from

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EN8 steel, which is finally machined, heat treated and then hardened for long wear by Tuftriding. The nine
pistons are fitted with return springs. The casing and covers are of nodular cast iron. The main valve block is
EN8 steel and houses five check valves, main pump relief valve, boost and servo relief valves, boost gear
pump and servo gear pump. Piping from the valve block supplies the servo pistons via the servo valve. The
main drive is through a splined shaft to the cylinder body of the pump. The pump swash plate is actuated by
two servo cylinders which receive oil at the desired pressure through a directional servo-valve. The servo-
valve is displaced initially by the torque motor acting on the input signal demand and is returned to the neutral
position by the hunting linkage connected to the swash plate. The hunting action is achieved through the
application of a simple lever system connecting input displacement servo-valve and the hunting action from
the pump swash plate angle. This allows for a very fast response.

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The slipper pad axial-cylinder pump

This is a later development of the pump described above, suitable for the higher pressures demanded for
steering gears and fin stabilizers. The socket ring and connecting rods are replaced by slipper pads in the tilt
box, the spherical ends of the pistons being carried in the pads. Inclination is given to the tilt box by a control
piston, using pressure from the auxiliary pump. Another variant is the 'Sunstrand' pump, in which a reversible
swash plate, vertically disposed and given the desired angular rotation by an integral servo-piston, is used to
vary the quantity and direction of the hydraulic fluid.
The control system is shown inf Figure. As will be seen, a torque motor, receiving the appropriate signal
from the bridge through an amplifier unit actuates the floating lever, putting the pumps on stroke in response.
The hunting action of the floating lever is no longer required as the normal control of the steering gear from
the bridge is by electric signal. The signal is directied to the torque motor which operates the servo valve
which in turn controls the pump. When the steering gear has attained the required rudder angle, the electric
feed back unit connected direct to the rudder-stock cancels the input signal to the control amplifier, and the
steering gear is held at that angle until another rudder movement is required.
This form of control eliminates the need for mechanical linkage and hunting gear on the steering gear.
Each of these units will be considered in turn, with the hydraulic unit pump being considered first. A
pump is required in the hydraulic system which can immediately pump fluid in order to provide a hydraulic
force that will move the rudder. Instant response does not allow time for the pump to be switched on and
therefore a constantly running pump is required which pumps fluid only when required. A variable delivery
pump provides this facility.

THE FLOATING LEVER

Figure shows diagrammatically three variants of the floating lever arranged as a control and cut-off gear.
In each diagram, the control movement is applied at point A, point B is linked to the body whose movement is
to be controlled and point C is linked to the control mechanism of the power source i.e. in a ship's steering
gear, movement of point A is controlled by the steersman, point B, known as the hunting point, is linked to a
point on the tiller and point C is linked to the control lever(s) on the pump(s). The floating lever pivots
alternately about points B and A while executing the control and cut-off functions respectively so that the
lever 'floats' in space and, as can be seen in the diagrams, the distance between one or more pairs of
attachment points on the lever varies as movement takes place. In consequence, the motion of the lever is
extremely complex and is difficult to visualize as a continuous process. However, if the geometry of the
system is examined step by step at each of its rest positions, the principles of operation become clear.
To render the geometry of the system determinate and to ensure that it functions correctly, it is prudent to
impose the following limitations on the design:

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(a) Either point A or point C, but not both, should occupy a fixed location in the length of the lever: the
other must be left free to move longitudinally in the lever to accommodate the variation that occurs in the
distance between them.
(b) Points A and C should be constrained to move on known loci to ensure the accuracy of the system.
(c) Point B should be free to move longitudinally in the lever.

In the three diagrams, the control point A has been selected as the datum point and constrained to move
only in a straight line such as AA', the hunting point B is free to slide in a slot cut in the floating another slot
and constrained to move along a straight line such as CC'.

Now, if we assume a ship to be proceeding on a straight course, point A, B and C in each of the diagrams
lie on the mid line since the steering controls and the rudder are centralized and the pump is in the no-stroke or
neutral condition. Movement of point A to A', which corresponds with the rudder angle required, causes the
floating lever to pivot about point B and point C moves to C' placing the pump(s) on-stroke in the correct
sense. As the rudder moves over towards the angle 'ordered' by the movement of A to A', point B, which is
linked to the tiller, moves towards B' with the floating lever now pivoting about A', being held there by the
steersman, causing point C' to return to C. Points B' and C' arrive at B and C simultaneously, placing the
pumps in the no-stroke condition and bringing the rudder to rest at precisely the angle ordered. If, now, the
control point is moved back from A' to the mid position A, the floating lever pivots about B', point C moves to
a new position C' on the opposite side of the mid line placing the pumps on-stroke to drive the steering gear
back towards the mid position. The lever again pivots about A as the gear returns, point B' moves back to B,
causing C' to move back to C thus placing the pump(s) in the no-stroke condition and bringing the rudder to
rest at the mid position. Movement of point A to a position A" (not shown) on the opposite side of the mid
line and then back to A would have a similar effect except, of course, that the rudder movements and all the
hunting movements would also occur on the opposite side of the mid line to that shown.

The mechanical arrangement of a floating lever system may not always be in one of the three forms
illustrated but, if the principle is understood and it is kept in mind that its basic functions are to initiate
movement of the steering gear and to stop movement when the rudder arrives at the angle ordered by the
steersman, the reader should have no difficulty in recognizing any floating lever arrangement he may
encounter.

Steering gear testing

Prior to a ship's departure from any port the steering gear should be tested to ensure satisfactory operation.

These tests should include:

1. Operation of the main steering gear.
2. Operation of the auxiliary steering gear or use of the second pump which acts as the auxiliary.
3. Operation of the remote control (telemotor) system or systems from the main bridge steering positions.
4. Operation of the steering gear using the emergency power supply.
5. The rudder angle indicator reading with respect to the actual rudder angle should be checked.
6. The alarms fitted to the remote control system and the steering gear power units should be checked for
correct operation.

During these tests the rudder should be moved through its full travel in both directions and the various
equipment items, linkages, etc., visually inspected for damage or wear. The communication system between
the bridge and the steering gear compartment should also be operated.

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OPERATION

Before operation, make sure of the following matters.

(1) Every stop valve and by-pass valve assembled in the valve blocks and changeover pins, if are in
accordance with the working arrangement on the expositive name plate.

(2) The stop valves of the oil supply tanks are open.

(3) The oil amount in the oil supply tanks is more than the normal oil level. But do not fill up to prevent
overflow from the tank due to vessel's vibration.

(4) The working oil is applied to the exposed surface of the Rams.

(5) The rams and link-lever system are free from foreign matters which will cause them to work improperly.

(6) The actual rudder angle is in accordance with the rudder angle of the steering stand in the bridge.

(7) Air in the working oil is completely removed. The air vent valves are tightly closed. If air remains in the
working oil, it will cause an abnormal noise or vibration in the hydraulic pump and the piping system.

2. Precautions to be exercised during starting and operation

(1) When starting the motor and switching the steering method over, a good contact is to be made with the
bridge ; and the starting and change over are to be done after it has been ascertained that everything is as
shown in the working arrangement on the expositive name plate and the rudder is 0° ,
(2) In case where the air temperature in the steering gear room is lower than 10 °C, the motor is to be started
about 30 minutes before the departure of vessel from the port and the oil temperature is to be increased by
warming-up.
(3) Otherwise, make sure of the matters mentioned in following Section "Maintenance".

Caution
In case of the non-follow-up steering or steering with the mechanical lever in the steering gear room.

(1) Watch for the actual rudder angle very carefully so that the rudder will not turn beyond 30'.

(2) At times the rudder can deviate from the desired angle due to the steering gear control characteristics.
In such an instance. rectify the rudder position to the desired angle using the lever or the push button.

3. Care to be taken after operation.

(1) In case where the steering gear is kept at standstill for a long period of time, rust preventing oil should be
applied to the exposed portion of the rams and other sliding parts. Furthermore, when some work such as
repair, etc. is done in the steering gear room, the exposed portion of the rams should, if necessary, be
covered in order to prevent sticking of foreign material.

(2) When the oil amount in the oil supply tanks decrease below the normal oil level, the oil supply tanks
should be replenished with new oil.

(3) The stop valves and cocks after operation should be kept open as they are, unless otherwise required to be
closed.

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MAINTENANCE

Periodical maintenance and inspection list

Period Equipment Inspection Item Measures

Day Steering gear Oil leakage in hydraulic [Hydraulic cylinder ram side]
system The special packing is to be pressed further.
(For detail, refer to the Section 5. Item 3.)

[Piping valve block etc.]

In case of oil leakage. some measures (for
instance, re-tightening) are to be taken
against it. If oil leakage should not be
prevented. sealing materials such as O-ring
etc. are to be renewed.

The oil amount and the
oil temperature in the
oil supply tank
The oil amount should be more than the normal
oil level. Supply the new oil to it, if need ~ Max.
allowable oil temperature is 80°C. Details about
it are mentioned in the following Section 5. Item
2-3.

The indicator of the Renew the filter element when the red part
filter attached to the appears over 50% of visible area in the indicator.
hydraulic pump In this regard. refer to Section 2. Item 2-7.

Clearance between The clearance between ram pin bush and top
ram pin bush and top stopper is to be checked using the clearance
Stopper gauge
If the clearance is less than 0.3 mm. please
contact MHI.

Period Equipment Inspection Item Measures

Week
Rust prevention of the Oil is to be applied for the rust prevention of the
sliding portion of rams sliding parts between the tiller, the ram. the
and tiller, etc.. guide bar etc., when necessary.

Make sure that the pilot The regulation pilot pressure is in

pressure of the auxiliary 1.27-1.52 MPa (12.7--15.2 bar).
pump is in the Make sure the amplitude of pointer is less than
regulation range. 0.2 division

Lubrication in the The lubricated portions,if provided, should be

portions to be greased. sufficiently greased.

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Steering gear
Abnormal noise, or If air bubbles remain in the working oil, it will
vibration in hydraulic cause an abnormal noise or vibration in the
system hydraulic system.
Remove the air bubbles completely in the
manner mentioned in preceding section "Air vent
working"
Chain
Three couplings Change of the grease in Periodically change the old grease for new one
months the coupling casing. after removing the coupling casing as follows.
First change
... after working 1000 hours
Second change or more
... every 2000 hours

Guide bar Clearance between In case the clearance exceeds 1.0 mm, adjust it
bearing bush guide bar bearing bush (For detail, refer to Section 3. Item 7.)
and guide bar

Bolts, nuts, Looseness of each bolt f Equally tighten the bolts and nuts which are
keys. etc. and nut loose
and the condition of key Adjust and repair no-good keys and knock-pins.
and knock-pin

Half a year Working oil Property of working oil Inspect the working oil in the oil supply tank in
the manner mentioned in the following Section 5,
Item 2-2.
By this result, if it is bad, change the old working
oil for the new one.
At this time, make sure that dusts, sands and
water. etc. are not contained.

Ram pin bush Clearances between Measure each of the clearances In case it is
tiller and ram pin bush more than 0.5 mm. the existing ram pin bush is
and between ram pin to be replaced with a new one at the earliest
and ram pin bush opportunity
Period Equipment Inspection Item Measures

Ram pin. tiller Sliding surface condition In case unbalanced wear is observed on the
and sliding surface, these parts are to be repaired or
ram pin bush renewed as soon as possible.
However, the grease for conditioning shall be
fully applied on the sliding surface.

Oil supply tank The inside of oil supply
tank
Inspect the inside of it since the impurities
included in the working oil tend to settle at the
bottom of it.
If a great amount of phlegmatic depositions
adhere on the bottom of it, clean the inside of it
and change the old working oil for the new one.

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One year
Steering gear Appearance inspection Repair no-good parts.
and hydraulic Precision inspection.
pumps if need.

One year Oil tank level Level switch functioning Overhauling and inspection.
or at dry- switch If the level switch is not function, replace the
docking level switch.

Filter Disassembly and The existing element is to be replaced with a

checking of filter new one in case it is in a dirty condition.

Four years Hydraulic pumps Overhaul inspection of When the periodical inspection will be carried
and auxiliary hydraulic pumps and out for steering gear, we recommend that
pump auxiliary pumps overhaul inspection of hydraulic pumps and
auxiliary pumps is also carried out.
At this time, inspect the wear of each piston,
cylinder barrel. valve plate, end plate, servo
piston and servo cylinder, servo spool and servo
sleeve. bearings and auxiliary pump, etc..
I

Remark Before-hand. make sure that the working of steering gear is good when it is rough weather or
high speed running.

Working oil

2-1 Working oil to be used

We would like to recommend the oil as prescribed in Section 3, Item 1. When filling up new oil into
tank, it is to be the same brand as being in that. If the oil of different brand mixes in, the oil will undergo early
deterioration. And the new oil is to be filled up through the filter on tank.

2-2 Examination of working oil

The working oil undergoes deterioration after the lengthy operation of the steering gear, and there is also
a fear that the hydraulic pump is functionally disordered. Therefore, there is a necessity for examining the oil
periodically. The oil should be examined at least once in six months as to a change of oil color to brownish
black, deposition of impurities, the mixture of water into the oil. And have the oil maker analyze the used oil
in case of need.

2-3 Temperature and viscosity of working oil

It is better that the working oil is used within the limit of 700 cst. to 13 cst.. The viscosity of working oil
differs in dependence on the temperature and further on brand and property of working oil, so we recommend
to select suitable oil in advance for operating condition of the steering gear.
a) Even if the temperature of oil rises to 100°C it does not direct harm to the function of hydraulic
pump itself, but it is undesirable to operate the hydraulic pump for a long period of time at 80 °C or higher,
because the oil undergoes early deterioration. In such case, we'd like to recommend to equip a cooling
installation or to improve the ventilation in steering gear room.
b) When starting up the hydraulic pump at a low temperature (10 °C or lower), inching should be
repeated, and the hydraulic pump should be set in normal operation after the oil temperature has become high
enough. However, it is inadvisable to operate the pump for a long time in such a temperature that the viscosity
of the working oil becomes higher than 1,100 cst.. In such a case, select the working oil with one suitable for
low temperature use beforehand or warm up the steering gear room.

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3. Points of care in installing V-Packing into cylinder

3-1 Construction
The special packing for hydraulic cylinder is made of synthetic rubber shrouding cloth in it. It, s composed
of five (5) V-packing rings and each one (1) adaptor for the front and rear, totalling seven (7) rings. Each
is cut at a bias of 45° at one (1) position for ease of installation.

3-2 Features
(1) The excellent sealing performance for high-pressure oil, high-pressure tightness and the service life of
the special packing will be ensured if it is correctly built in the cylinder.

(2) The primary purpose of this special packing is to prevent high-pressure oil from leaking out of the
hydraulic cylinder when the ram is driven. For the prevention of abrupt wear of the special packing and
the ram which repeat sliding each time when the rudder turns, it is necessary to maintain good lubrication
on the contact surface between the special packing and the ram.
From this lubrication viewpoint, it is designed that an amount of oil leaks from the special
packing is one to two droplets/min.

(3) In case that oil leakage quantity increases. retighten the bolts of packing gland according to sub-
item 3-4 "Re-tightening procedure of V-Packing".

3-3 Packing setting procedure

Caution : Improper building in of special packing may cause excessive oil leak. It must be installed
correctly with care. In consideration of above sub-item 3-2 "Features", the special packing is to be put in
position with care according to the following procedure.

(1) Thoroughly clean the hydraulic cylinder stuffing box and the ram surface.

(2) When the special packing is set in position, apply the working oil on the packing and adaptors.

(3) The special packing rings are to be set one by one. The bias cut position of one ring is to be located at
a position 120° displacement from that of fore-installed ring. (A cut face shall not be doubled at the same
position because this will be the cause of possible oil leakage.)

(4) Install first the male adaptor ring to the bottom of stuffing box and then the V-packing rings one by
one to have close abutting with the fore-installed ones. The packing ring tends to become slanted when
pushed in. Use a somewhat bar of resin. a somewhat wooden piece or a spatula not damaging the
packing and ram (do not use the hard material such as screw driver, etc.) to force the packing ring into
appropriate position. Also. be careful to see to it that the packing ring gap is tightly closed without the
overlap or a clearance.

(5) After inserting a specified number of packing rings. finally insert the female adaptor.

(6) After the V-Packing and adaptors are put in place. the packing gland is to be set.
However. unbalanced tightening is prohibited. The bolts are to be tightened gradually and equally in a
diagonally alternate tightening order and take care not to cause unbalanced tightening of the packing
gland. The bolts are to be tightened by hand in setting the packing in position. From the beginning do not
tighten the packing strongly with a tool like spanner.
(The initial setting clearance between the packing gland and the cylinder is about 5 mm.)

(7) Excessive tightening of the packing can run the risk of overheating or seizure and of causing the ram
to "rattle" or to make abnormal noise during operation, thereby giving rise to premature wear of the
packing. Tighten the packing only gradually so that the packing can successfully be run in against sliding
surface of the ram. When new packing is installed, sometimes oil leakage is observed due to some inside
gap caused by gradual deformation of the packing. In this case. tighten the packing gland a little more.

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(8) After the completion of bolt tightening and subsequent checking of no oil leakage, pass a wire through
bolts for packing gland so as not to let bolts to be loosened.

(9) When oil leakage happens. tighten the packing gland a little more.

3-4 Re-tightening procedure of V-Packing.

(1) Remove the safety wire for packing gland.

(2) Measure the clearance between the cylinder and packing gland at four position. i.e. top, bottom, right
and left. and then gradually tighten the packing gland while visually checking that the amount of leakage
is reduced. (The initial setting clearance between the packing gland and the cylinder is about 5 mm.) At
this point pay attention to the following items.

a) Diagonally and uniformly tighten the bolt by using of the block gauge. (The difference for each
clearance is to be not more than 0.2 mm.)
b) The amount of tightening for bolt is to be 0.8^-1.0 mm at the first tightening.
c) Repeat to turn the rudder from hard over to hard over several times while check the amount of oil
leakage.
d) If the oil leakage remain on, further tighten the bolts. (The amount of tightening for bolt is to be 0.4-0.6
mm from second tightening.)
e) If the oil leakage does not stop at the clearance between the cylinder and packing gland of 3 mm, V-
packing is to be renewed.

(3) Attach the safety wire for packing gland.

Lubrication

4-1 lubrication for ram-pin bush.

The ram-pin bush is copper alloy in material and of special construction is featuring embedded solid
lubricant. In installing a steering gear at a shipyard and in renewing a ram pin and a ram-pin bush, fully
smear sliding grease on the sliding surface of the ram pin, the ram-pin bush and the tiller. After the
application of grease, no special oil lubrication is required. After the completion of annual inspections and
before placing the steering gear in operation again. smear such grease on the sliding surface of the ram
pin, the ram-pin bush and the tiller.

4-2 Lubrication for control lever system

It need not grease on the joints of control lever system as it makes use of oil-less spherical bearings and
oil-less bushes.

4-3 Lubrication for Ram, Tiller and Guide bar

The sliding surface of the ram, the tiller and the guide bar usually slide a part of them. That is, the rudder
usually steer within 15° , and the sliding surface of hard angle may rust. The ram is to be applied the
lubricant (new working oil) every a week, the tiller and the guide bar are to be applied the grease every
three months. It is for the purpose of the rust prevent so that the lubricant quantity is little.

Caution items when steering gear being at standstill

The rudder may be swung by heavy waves when the steering gear being kept at standstill for a long
hour on rough weather or heavy current, because the working oil will be by-passed in the steering gear
hydraulic oil lines as a result of oil leakage in the cause of oil pressure rising in hydraulic cylinders when
heavy waves working on rudder. In this case, please prevent the rudder from swinging by starting up the
steering gear hydraulic pump.

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MEASURES OF TROUBLE

Trouble Cause Measures

Steering Breakdown of Due to the breakdown. the rudder is left stopped at a certain
impossible hydraulic pump angle. Therefore. the hydraulic pump is to be stopped
immediately, and the other hydraulic pump is to be started to
resume steering.

Breakdown of In case where the Tele-control system connecting the

Tele-control system wheelhouse to the steering gear room is in trouble, the
changeover to spare Tele-control system is to be carried out.
If all Tele-control systems are in trouble, the mechanical lever in
the steering gear room is to be operated without delay for
resumption of steering.

Breakdown of the Due to the breakdown, it's impossible to have enough pilot
hydraulic by-pass pressure to control the hydraulic pump.
valve attached to So the hydraulic pump which is faulty is to be stopped
hydraulic pump and the other hydraulic pump is to be started to resume
steering.
Try to shift the spool of faulty unit by means of the push rods
which stand out on the right and left side of the valve body.
If it is not restored to normal condition by the above means,
overhaul it and repair the sticking of the spool, etc..

Breakdown of The hydraulic pump on the side of the transfer valve at fault is
transfer valve to be stopped, and immediately, the other hydraulic pump is to
be started to resume steering.
In case of the trouble mentioned in the following item (a), the
steering method is to be switched to the emergency steering
(using two cylinders) by operating the valves.
When operating the valves. refer to the expositive name plate.
(a) In case where the spool of transfer valve is not returned
when the hydraulic pump comes to a halt.
The hydraulic pump may be motored by the other running
pump and it will be impossible to steer.
(b) In case where the spool of transfer valve can't be shifted
when the hydraulic pump is started.
It will be impossible to steer because the oil discharged from
the hydraulic pump will be by-passed in the transfer valve.

Trouble Cause Measures

Steering Decrease of pilot The hydraulic pump which is faulty is to be stopped and the
impossible pressure due to the other hydraulic pump is to be started to resume steering.
breakdown of And, overhaul and repair it.
auxiliary pump

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Oil leakage due to The broken part of hydraulic circuit is to be isolated from the
breaking hydraulic sound circuit by operating the valves, and the steering method
circuit is to be switched to the emergency steering (using two
cylinders)
When operating the valves, refer to the expositive name plate.

Steering The safety valve is to be adjusted to the prescribed pressure.

Insufficient
unsatisfactory adjustment of safety The prescribed pressure is mentioned to "particulars of
valve and by-pass steering gear".
valve The unloading valve should be fully loosen.

Unsatisfactory The control and repeat back unit lever should be overhauled.
operation of control Check and repair the sticking or the excessive play of the
and repeat back unit bearings and pins.
lever
Difference Insufficient The turn-buckle attached to the rod of control and repeat back
between helm adjustment of unit lever is to be exactly adjusted.
angle of steering control and repeat
wheel and actual back unit lever
rudder angle

Difference Insufficient The turn-buckle attached to the rod is to be exactly adjusted.

between helm adjustment of
angle indicator connecting rod
and actual between helm angle
rudder angle transmitter and
rudder stock or tiller

Generating of Air bubbles included Air bubbles are to be completely removed through the air vent
heavy noise in working oil valves attached to hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic pumps in
the manner mentioned in preceding Section 3, Item 3.

Closing of the valves The valves are to be opened.

attached to oil
supply tank

Excessive ShortageCause
of oil in oil Measures
The oil supply tank is to be filled to than the normal oil level.
temperature rise supply tank
of Working oil
Rudder does not Insufficient The limit switch is to be adjusted to the maximum prescribed
move to the adjustment of limit rudder angle (35.5° - 35.8° ) by the manufacturer of tele
Maximum switch of the repeat control system.
prescribed back unit or fitted on
rudder angle, or steering gear for
moves beyond auto pilot
the limit

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(Chapter 9)

WATCH KEEPING - OPERATION AND SAFETY INSTRUCTION

The “round the clock” operation of a ship at sea requires a Rota system of attendance in the machinery space.
This has developed into a system of watch keeping that has endured until recently. The System of 'Un -
attended Machinery Spaces' (UMS) has begun to replace this traditional practice of watch keeping. The
organization of the Engineering Department, conventional watch keeping and UMS practices will now be
outlined.

The Engineering Department

The Chief Engineer is directly responsible to the Master for the satisfactory operation of all
machinery and equipment. Apart from assuming all responsibility his role is mainly that of consultant
and adviser. It is not usual for the Chief Engineer to keep a watch.
The Second Engineer is responsible for the practical upkeep of machinery and the manning of
the engine room: he is in effect an executive officer. On some ships the Second Engineer may keep a watch.
The Third and Fourth Engineers are usually senior watch keepers or engineers in charge of a watch.
Each may have particular areas of responsibility, such as generators or boilers. Fifth and Sixth Engineers
may be referred to as such, or all below Fourth Engineer may be classed as Junior Engineers. They will make
up as additional watch keepers, day workers on maintenance work or possibly act as Refrigeration
Engineer.
The Electrical Engineers may be carried on large ships or where company practice dictates. Where no
specialist Electrical Engineer is carried the duty will fall on one of the engineers. Various engine room
ratings will usually form part of the engine room complement.
At appropriate intervals inspections should be made of the main propulsion plant, auxiliary machinery
and steering gear spaces. Any routine adjustments may then be made and malfunctions or breakdowns can be
noted, reported and corrected. During these tours of inspection bilge levels should be noted, piping and
systems observed for leaks, and local indicating instruments can be observed.
Where bilge levels are high, or the well is full, it must be pumped dry. The dirty water will be pumped to
an oily water separator, and only clean water is to be discharged overboard. Particular attention must be paid
to the relevant oil pollution regulations both of a national and international nature, depending upon the
location of the ship. Bilges should not be pumped when in port. Oily bilges are usually emptied to a Bilge
Oil tank from which the oil may be reclaimed or discharged into suitable facilities when in port. The
discharging of oil from a ship usually results in the engineer responsible and the Master being arrested.
Bridge orders must be promptly carried out and a record of any required changes in speed and
direction should be kept. When under standby or maneuvering conditions with the machinery being
manually operated the control unit or console should be continuously manned.
Certain watch keeping duties will be necessary for the continuous operation of equipment or plant -the
transferring of fuel for instance. In addition to these regular tasks other repair or maintenance tasks may be
required of the watch keeping personnel. However no tasks should be set or undertaken which will interfere
with the supervisory duties relating to the main machinery and associated equipment.
During the watch a log or record will be taken of the various parameters of main and auxiliary
equipment. This may be a manual operation or provided automatically on modern vessels by a data logger.
The hours and minutes columns are necessary since a ship, passing through time zones, may have watches
of more or less than four hours. Fuel consumption figures are used to determine the efficiency of
operation, in addition to providing a check on the available bunker quantities. Lubricating oil tank levels
and consumption to some extent indicate engine oil consumption. The sump level is recorded and pecked
that it does not rise or fall, but a gradual fall is acceptable as the engine uses some oil during operation. If the
sump level were to rise this could indicate water leakage into the oil and an investigation into the ause must be
made. The engine exhaust temperatures should all read about the same to indicate an equal power production
from each Meter. The various temperature and pressure values for the cooling water and lubricating oil
should be at, or near to, the manufacturer's assigned values for the particular speed or fuel lever settings. Any
high outlet temperature for cooling water would indicate a lack of supply to that point.

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Various parameters for the main engine turbo-blowers are also logged. Since they are high-speed
turbines the correct supply of lubricating oil is essential. The machine itself is water cooled since it is
circulated by hot exhaust gases. The Air Cooler is used to increase the charge air density to enable a large
quantity of air to enter the engine cylinder. If cooling were inadequate a lesser mass of air would be supplied
to the engine, resulting in a reduced power output, inefficient combustion and black smoke.
Various miscellaneous level and temperature readings are taken of heavy oil tanks, both settling and
service, stern tube bearing temperature, sea water temperature, etc. The operating diesel generators will have
their exhaust temperatures, cooling water and lubricating oil temperatures and pressures logged in much the
same way as for the main engine. Of particular importance will be the log of running hours since this will be
the basis for overhauling the machinery.
Other auxiliary machinery and equipment, such as Heat Exchangers, Fresh water generator (evaporator),
Boiler, Air Conditioning plant and Refrigeration plant will also have appropriate readings taken. There will
usually be summaries or daily account tables for heavy oil, diesel oil, lubricating oil and fresh water, which will
be compiled at noon. Provision is also made for remarks or important events to be noted in the log for each
watch.
The completed log is used to compile a summary sheet or abstract of information which is returned to
the company head office for record purposes. The log for a medium-speed diesel driven ship would be fairly
similar with probably greater numbers of cylinder readings to be taken and often more than one engine. There
would also be gearbox parameters to be logged.
Where situations occur in the machinery space which may affect the speed, maneuverability, power
supply or other essentials for the safe Operation of the ship, the bridge should be informed as soon as possible.
This notification should preferably be given before any changes are made to enable the bridge to take
appropriate action.
The engineer in charge should notify the Chief Engineer in the event of any serious occurrence or a
situation where he is unsure of the action may well be delayed or even arrested if this job is not properly
carried out.

BUNKERING
1. All scuppers are to be sealed off, i.e. plugged, to prevent any minor oil spill on deck going
overboard.
2. All tank air vent containments or drip trays are to be sealed or plugged.
3. Sawdust should be available at the bunkering station and various positions around the deck.
4. All fuel tank valves should be carefully checked before bunkering commences. The personnel
involved should be quite familiar with the piping systems, tank valves, spill tanks and all tank-sounding
equipment.
5. All valves on tanks which are not to be used should be closed or switched to the 'off' position and
effectively safeguarded against opening or operation.
6. Any manual valves in the filling lines should be proved to be open for the flow of liquid.
7. Proven, reliable tank-sounding equipment must be used to regularly check the contents of each tank. It
may even be necessary to 'dip' or manually sound tanks to be certain of their contents.
8. A complete set of all tank soundings must be obtained before bunkering commences.
9. A suitable means of communication must be set up between the ship and the bunkering installation
before bunkering commences.
10. On-board communication between involved personnel should be by hand radio sets or some other
satisfactory means.
11. Any tank that is filling should be identified in some way on the level indicator, possibly by a sign
or marker reading 'FILLING'.
12. In the event of a spill, the Port Authorities should be informed as soon as possible to enable
appropriate cleaning measures to be taken.

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Periodic safety routines

In addition to watch keeping and maintenance duties, various safety and emergency equipment must be
periodically checked. As an example, the following inspections should take place at least weekly:
1. Emergency generator should be started and run for a reasonable period. Fuel oil, lubricating oil and
cooling water supplies and tank levels should be checked.
2. Emergency fire pump should be run and the deck fire main operated for a reasonable period.
All operating parameters should be checked.
3. Carbon dioxide cylinder storage room should be visually examined. The release box door should be
opened to test the alarm and check that the machinery-space fans stop.
4. One smoke detector in each circuit should be tested to ensure operation and correct indication on the
alarm panel. Aerosol test sprays are available to safely check some types of detector.
5. Fire pushbutton alarms should be tested, by operating a different one during each test.
6. Any machinery space ventilators or skylights should be operated and greased, if necessary, to ensure
smooth, rapid closing should this be necessary.
7. Fire extinguishers should be observed in their correct location and checked to ensure they are
operable.
8. Fire hoses and nozzles should likewise be observed in their correct places. The nozzles should be tried on
the hose coupling. Any defective hose should be replaced.
9. Any emergency batteries, e.g. for lighting or emergency generator starting, should be examined, have the
acid specific gravity checked, and be topped up, as required.
10. All lifeboat engines should be run for a reasonable period. Fuel oil and lubricating oil levels should be
checked.
11. All valves and equipment operated from the fire control point should be checked for operation, where
this is possible.
12. Any watertight doors should be opened and closed by hand and power. The guides should be checked to
ensure that they are clear and unobstructed.

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE ENGINEER OFFICERS ON WATCH

1. The Engineer Officer of the Watch is to have the immediate charge and control of the Engine
Room staff on watch, and is to exercise a general over all superintendence over all Machinery,. Boilers and
Equipment in use or likely to be used. He will be held responsible during the period of his watch for the
efficient management and working of the whole of the machinery and boilers etc, in use, for the readiness
for use of stand-by machinery, and for the good order of the Engineering Department.

2. Taking over charge of the watch.

The officer taking over the watch is to ascertain from the officer he is relieving:
a) The exact condition of all machinery, boilers, accessories, pipe systems and tanks etc, in use or
available for use in the Department.
b ) What orders his predecessor has received which remain in force or are required to be carried out.

3. Before taking over the watch.

The Engineer Officer of the Watch is to visit all the Machinery Compartment and personally
inspect all machinery in use and, at stand-by to ensure that the Machinery running satisfactorily and
efficiently, and that the standby, machinery is in good condition.

4. As soon as possible after taking charge.

The Engineer Officer of the watch is to confirm that all orders are being complied with, that the
machinery is being-operated satisfactorily and efficiently, and that any water entering the
Compartments or any other bilges is being pumped out regularly. If the on incoming Engineer is not
satisfied with the conditions of the machinery and equipment, he is to acquaint the Chief Engineer
Officer without delay.

5. Absence from Department during Watch.

The Engineer Officer of the watch should not to be absent from the Department at any time during
his watch, except for the time necessary to pass from one Compartment to another, unless property
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relieved. When leaving the machinery control position to inspect other machinery in the department, he is to
leave a subordinate who is competent to execute orders, which may be received and is to keep his sub-
ordinate informed of his movements

6. Accident when on Watch.

Should an accident of any kind occur to the machinery of the ship under way, or should the Engineer on
watch observe or be informed of anything unusual in the working of the Main or Aux. Machinery or Boilers
etc., the Chief Engineer Officer is to be informed immediately. The E.O.W. in the meantime is to take
such immediate action as he may consider necessary for the safety-of the machinery informing the
Officer of the Watch on the bridge, if the action taken or proposed to be taken affects the mobility of
the ship. In such a contingency it must be remembered that the safety of the ship is the first consideration.

7. Economy of fuel, lubricants and stores.

The E.O.W. is to pay the closest possible attention to matters affecting the consumption of fuel,
lubricants and stores, and is to regard the attainment. Regarding economy, these matters to be assumed
as an important part of his duties. The strictest attention is to be paid to the instructions concerning the
correct burning of fuel and the proper use of the lubricants. Auxiliary Machinery not actually
required is to be shutoff. All leaks of fuel, lubricating oil, steam or water are to be checked and made good
as early as possible

8. Checking Clocks.
Before getting underway, whether the ship enters confined waters, and everyday at noon while at sea, the
Engine Room and Bridge clock's are to be synchronized. A notation that this has been done is to be made
in the Engine Room Log Book.

9. Charge in a separate Compartment.

The Officer or Senior Member of the crew on watch in any separate compartment (if and when if may
happen in certain ships) is directly responsible for the efficient working and proper management
of the whole of the machinery or equipment etc, in that compartment. Should an accident of any kind
occur, or should he observe anything which he thinks is likely to cause injury to the machinery or
equipment etc, he is to acquaint the E.O.W. immediately and his complete responsibility only ceases with
the presence of an Officer senior to him. He is on no account to leave the comment in which he is in-
charge unless properly relieved. All communications with the E.O.W. should be a by telephone, or voice-
pipe.

10. Aux: “Watch-keeping” in harbor.

A Junior Engineer Officer along with a suitable member of the crew is always to be on watch in the
Engine Room when auxiliary engines and Boilers are in operations.

11. Inspection of Compartments

While in harbor or at anchorage the Engineering Department is to be inspected everyday by the Engineer
Officer of the Day, The Inspection Officer is personally to visit every compartment, to make sure that all
machinery and boilers where in use are working correctly, that all standing orders are implied with, and
there is no risk of fire or other irregularities. On completion of the rounds a report is to be made to, the
Chief Engineer Officer and also entered in the Engine Room Log. These round should normally be carried out
at 0700 hrs when coming on duty and at 2000 hrs at night.

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INSTRUCTIONS FOR WRITING UP THE ENGINE ROOM LOG

1. This Engine Room Log Book is to be used for all large Motor Ships. All information‟s
concerning the operation and maintenance of machinery is to be recorded as appropriate, once every four
hours, as necessary. The Day is to be calculated from noon to noon

2. The Engineer Officer In-charge of the watch is to fill up, the columns in this Log carefully and
correctly and at the end of the watch he is to sign it. Blank columns may be used for any additions that may be
required. Only ball-point pen to be used.

3. In the remarks column a record should be kept of the time of starting and stopping of
machinery and of any abnormal occurrence or of large increase or decrease of speed.

4. All orders received for starting stopping or altering revolutions of the Main Engine when
entering and leaving harbor or at other times when particular care is necessary, are to be recorded in the Engine
Movement Book (Stand-by-Book). The times of stand-by, first movement, last movement, and Full Away
or F.W.E. are to be recorded in this Log Book.

5. The attention of the Chief Engineer should be called immediately to any abnormal temperature, pressure
or other irregularity.

6. When alteration of any entry is found to be necessary, it is to be made in such a manner as not to
render the original entry illegible. All alterations are to be signed by the Officer making them.

7. This Log Book on completion is to be kept with the Chief Engineer in the ship. In the event of a
collision, grounding or other accident which may possibly require the production of evidence of the
operation of machinery, this Log Book' is to be retained on board until after the completion of any
proceedings.

8. The Second Engineer will be responsible for the proper maintenance of this Engine Room Log.
He will also enter his remarks and instructions about operation and maintenance work in the space provided.

9. The Chief Engineer will check and sign the Log Book every day to ensure that the operation of all
machinery has been satisfactory, and will add the relevant information under the headings "Daily Record" and
"Consumption" etc. He will also enter his remarks and any special instructions on the operation and
maintenance of the machinery in the space provided.

10. Each Log Book' contains 32 Sheets and is intended for one month. A new Log Book is to be
started on the 1st page of each month.

11. The Daily Record (Noon to Noon) is to be calculated and the Noon Position Chit sent to the
Bridge by 1300 hrs, while the ship is under way. The Navigation Officer will in turn send his Noon
Position Chit to the Chief Engineer who is to enter the data in the Engine Room Log, and in the "
Chief Engineer's Log Abstract ".

12. At the end of each month a summary of all principal repairs, renewals and overhauling work
carried out to be entered in the last page.

13. All possible care is to be taken to insure that all entries are made correctly, and that the Log Book
is kept in a neat and tidy condition.

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(Chapter 10)
Reference Table
for
Mass. Weight and Pressure
Unit Indication
Unit Metric Unit Metric Unit S. I. Unit
(Gravity System) (MKS System)
Section
Kg
Mass Kg Kg
(Kg/g. m/s2)

Weight Kgf N N
(Force) (Kilogram Force) (Newton) (Newton)

Kgf/cm2 N/m2
Pressure Pa
(Kilogram Force Per (Newton Per
(Stress) (Pascal) or Bar
sq.Centimeter) Square Meter)

Pressure Conversion Table

1 Mega Newton Per Sq.
1 MN/m2 1 MPa
Mtr equal to 1 Mega Pascal

1 Kgf Per Sq. Centimeter

1 Kgf/cm2 0.0980665 Mpa ≠ 0.01 Pa
approx 1/10 of Mega Pascal

1 Mega Pascal approx

1 MPa 10.197162 Kgf/cm2 ≠ 10 Kgf/cm2
10 times of 1 Kgf Per Sq. Centimeter

1 Bar approx equal to

1 Bar 1.0197 Kgf/cm2 ≠ 1 Kgf/cm2
1 Kgf Per Sq. Centimeter

Remark: The standard weight of the object is multiplication of “Mass of the Object (m)” by “Standard
Acceleration of Gravity (9.80665 m/s 2 = gn)”, that is symbolized mgn.
In case m is 1 kgs.
Standard weight is
1 Kgf = 1 Kg x g.m/s 2 = 1 Kg x 9.80665 (m/s 2) = 9.80665 N

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Conversion Table of Force

N Dyn Kgf Lbf pdl
1 1 x 105 0.101 972 0.101 972 7.233
1 x 10-5 1 1.019 72 x 10 1.019 72 x 10-6 7.233 x 10-5
9.806 65 9.806 65 x 105 1 2.205 70.93
4.448 22 4.448 22 x 105 0.453 6 1 32.17
0.138 255 4.382 55 x 105 0.014 10 0.031 08 1

Note: 1 dyn = 10-5N, 1 pdl(Poundal) = 1 ft.lb/s 2

Conversion Table of Length

kilo-
centimeter meter inch foot yard Mile knot
meter
1 0.01000 0.39371 0.03281 0.01094 1 1.60931 0.86842
100.000 1 39.3707 3.28081 1.09363 0.62138 1 0.53962
2.53995 0.02540 1 0.08333 0.02778 1.15151 1.85315 1
30.4794 0.30479 12.0000 1 0.33333 - - -
91.4383 0.91438 36.0000 3.00000 1 - - -

LENGTH
Symbol When you Multiply By To Find Symbol
Know

in. inches 2.54 centimeters cm

ft. feet 30 centimeters cm

yd. yards 0.9 meters m

mi. miles 1.66 kilometers km

mm millimeters 0.04 inches in

cm centimeters 0.4 inches in

m meters 3.3 feet ft

m meters 1.1 yards yd

km kilometers 0.6 miles mi

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DISTANCE
Nautical Miles Kilometers Kilometers Nautical Miles

1 1.8532 1 .5396
2 3.7064 2 1.0792
3 5.5596 3 1.6188
4 7.4128 4 2.1584
5 9.2660 5 2.6980
6 11.1190 6 3.2375
7 12.9720 7 3.7771
8 14.8250 8 4.3167
9 16.7880 9 4.8563
10 18.5320 10 5.3959
20 37.064 20 10.792
30 55.596 30 16.188
40 74.128 40 21.584
50 92.660 50 26.980
60 111.190 60 32.375
70 129.720 70 37.771
80 148.250 80 43.167
90 167.880 90 48.563
100 85.320 100 53.959
110 203.8502 110 59.355

Conversion Table of Square Measure

m2 in2 ft2 yd2 acre mile2 hectare km2

1 1550.05 10.7637 1.19603 1 0.00156 0.40467 0.00405

0.03645 1 0.00694 0.03772 640.000 1 258.989 2.58989
0.09290 144.000 1 0.11111 2.47114 0.00386 1 0.01000
0.83609 1296.00 9.00000 1 247.114 0.38612 100.000 1

* 0.03645 means 0.000645

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Conversion Table of Mass

kg t lb ton sh tn

1 0.001 2.204 62 0.000 984 2 0.001 102 3

1.000 1 2 204.62 0.984 2 1.102 3

0.453 59 0.000 453 59 1 0 000 446 4 0.000 5

1 016.05 1.016 05 2 240 1 1.12

907.185 0.907 185 2 000 0.892 86 1

T : kilo ton (1,000kgs). ton:long ton (2,240lbs). sh tn:short ton (2,000lbs)

MASS (WGT.)
Symbol When You Know Multiply By To Find Symbol

oz. ounces 28 grams g

lb. pounds 0.45 kilograms kg
short tons 0.9 tonnes t
(2000 lbs)
long tons 1.01 tonnes t
(2240 lds.)
g. Grams 0.035 ounce oz.
kg. Kilograms 2.2 pounds lb.
t Tonnes 1.1 short tons
(1000kg)
t Tonnes 0.98 long tons
(1000kg)

Conversion Table of Pressure

S.B.P. Mercurial Column Water Column
bar kg/cm2 lb/in2
m in m ft

1 1.0197 14.5 0.9869 0.7501 29.53 10.197 33.48

0.9807 1 14.22 0.9678 0.7356 28.96 10.000 32.81
0.06895 0.07031 1 0.06805 0.05171 2.036 0.7031 2.307
1.0133 1.0332 14.7 1 0.76 29.92 10.33 33.90
1.3332 1.3595 19.34 1.3158 1 39.37 13.60 44.60
0.03386 0.03453 0.4912 0.03342 0.0254 1 0.3454 1.133
0.09806 0.1 1.422 0.09678 0.07355 2.896 1 3.281
0.02989 0.03048 0.4335 0.02950 0.02242 0.8827 0.3048 1

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Conversion Table of Speed

m/s km/h kn ft/s mile/h

1 3.6 1.944 3.281 2.237

0.277 8 1 0.540 0 0.911 3 0.624 4
0.514 4 1.852 1 1.688 1.151
0.304 8 1.097 0.592 5 1 0.681 8
0.447 0 1.609 0.869 0 1.467 1

Note: Kn = Knot, Metric Knot = 1.852 m/h

AREA
Symbol When You Know Multiply By To Find Symbol

in2 square inches 6.5 sq.centimeters cm2

ft2 square feet 0.09 square meters m2
yd2 square yards 0.8 square meters m2
mi2 square miles acres 2.6 sq.kilometers km2
cm2 sq.centimeters 0.4 hectares ha
m2 square meters 0.16 square inches in2
km2 sq.kilometers 1.2 square yards yd2
ha hectares (10.000m2) 0.4 square miles mi2
2.5 acres

Conversion Table of
English American
m3 in3 ft3 yd3 in3 liter
gallon gallon

1 61023.4 35.3137 1.30801 1 1.20100 277.393 4.54596

0.04164 1 0.03579 0.04214 0.83270 1 231.000 3.78543
0.02831 1728.00 1 0.03704 0.00361 0.00433 1 0.01639
0.76450 46656.0 27.0000 1 0.22022 0.26419 61.0128 1

* 0.04164 means 0.0000164

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VOLUME
When You
Symbol Multiply By To Find Symbol
Know

tsp. teaspoons 5 milliters ml

tbsp. tablespoons 15 milliters ml
fl.oz. fluid ounces 30 milliters ml
c cups 0.24 liters 1
pt. pints 0.47 liters 1
qt. quarts 0.95 liters 1
gal. gallon (U.S.) 3.8 liters 1
gal. gallons (lmp) 4.5 liters 1
ft3 cubic feet .028 cubic meters m3
yd3 cubic yards 0.76 cubic meters m3
ml milliliters 0.03 fluid ounces ft.oz
l liters 2.1 pints pt.
l liters 1.06 quarts qt.
l liters 0.26 gallons (U.S.) gal (U.S.)
l liters 0.22 gallons (Imp) gal (lmp)
m3 Cubic meters 35 cubic feet ft3
m3 cubic meters 1.3 cubic yards yd3

Convension Table of Density

English English American
g/cm3 lb/in3 lb/ft3
t/yd3 lb/gall lb/gall

1 0.03613 62.43 0.7525 10.02 8.345

27.68 1 1728 20.83 277.4 231
0.01602 0.035787 1 0.01205 0.1605 0.1337
1.329 0.04801 82.96 1 13.32 11.09
0.0998 0.003605 6.229 0.07508 1 1.201
0.1198 0.004329 7.481 0.09017 0.8327 1

* 0.035787 means 0.0005787

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Comparison Table
for
Prevailing Unit and S.I. Unit
Prevailing
Quantity S.I. Unit Remark
Unit

Force kgf N 1kgf = 9.80665N

(Newton) (1 N = 1 kg/m/s2)

Moment. Torque kgf.m N.m 1 kgf.m = 9.80665 N.m

kgf/cm2 MPa 1 kgf/cm2 = 0.0980665 MPa

Pressure mHg kPa 1 mHg = 0.133322 kPa
mmH2O Kpa 1 mmH2O = 0.00980665 kPa

Stress kgf/mm2 N/mm2 1 kgf/mm2 = 9.80665 N.mm2

The modulus of kgf/cm2 N/cm2 1 kgf/cm2 = 9.80665 N/cm2

elasticity

Viscosity P Pa.s 1 P = 0.1 N.s/m2 = 0.1 Pa.s

Kinematic St m2/s 1 St = 0.0001 m2/s

Viscosity

Power PS kW 1 PS = 0.7355 kW

Temperature deg C Also S.I. use K (Kelvin)

Revolution r.p.m s-1 Also S.I. . use min-1

Frequency c/s Hz ----------------------

Conversion Table of Viscosity

Pa.s cP P kgf.s/m2 lbf.s/in2

1 1 000 10 0.101 973 1.449 x 10

0.001 1 0.01 0.000 101 97 1.449 x 10
0.1 100 1 0.010 197 3 1.449 x 10
9.806 65 9 806.65 98.066 5 1 0.001 422
6.9 x 103 6.9 x 10 6.9 x 10 7.03 x 10 1

Note: 1 P = 1 dyn.s/cm2 = 1 g/cm.s, 1 Pa.s = 1 N.s/m2, 1 cP = 1 mPa.s,

1 lb.s/in2 = 1 Reyn = 6.9 x 106 cP

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From Newton to kgf

(Rate 1 kgf = 9.806 65N)

N 00 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

kgf

- - 1.0197 2.0394 3.0591 4.0789 5.0986 6.1183 7.1380 8.1577 9.1774

100 10.197 11.217 12.237 13.256 14.276 15.296 16.315 17.335 18.355 19.375
200 20.394 21.414 22.434 23.453 24.473 25.493 26.513 27.532 28.552 29.572
300 30.591 31.611 32.631 33.651 34.670 35.690 36.710 37.729 38.749 39.769
400 40.789 41.808 42.828 43.848 44.868 45.887 46.907 47.927 48.946 49.966
500 50.986 52.006 53.025 54.045 55.065 56.084 57.104 58.124 59.144 60.163
600 61.183 62.230 63.222 64.242 65.262 66.282 67.301 68.321 69.341 70.360
700 71.380 72.400 73.420 74.439 75.459 76.479 77.498 78.518 79.538 80.558
800 81.577 82.597 83.617 84.636 85.656 86.676 87.696 88.715 89.735 90.755
900 91.774 92.794 93.814 94.834 95.853 96.873 97.893 98.912 99.932 100.95
1000 101.97 102.99 104.01 105.03 106.05 107.07 108.09 109.11 110.13 111.15

Conversion Table of Pressure

From kgf/cm2 to Mega Pascal
2
(Rate 1 kgf cm = 0.098 066 5 MPa)

kgf/cm2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

MPa

- - 0.0981 0.1961 0.2942 0.3923 00.4903 0.5884 0.6865 0.7845 0.8826

10 0.9807 1.0787 1.1768 1.2749 1.3729 1.1710 1.5691 1.6671 1.7652 1.8633
20 1.9613 2.0594 2.1575 2.2555 2.3536 2.4517 2.5497 2.6478 2.7459 2.8439
30 2.9420 3.0401 3.1381 3.2362 3.3343 3.4323 3.5307 3.6285 3.7265 3.8246
40 3.9227 4.0207 4.1188 4.2169 4.3149 4.4130 4.5111 4.6091 4.7072 4.8053
50 4.9033 5.0014 5.0995 5.1975 5.2956 5.3937 5.4917 5.5898 5.6879 5.7859
60 5.8840 5.9821 6.0801 6.1782 6.2763 6.3743 6.4724 6.5705 6.6685 6.7666
70 6.8647 6.9627 7.0608 7.1589 7.2569 7.3550 7.4531 7.5511 7.6492 7.7473
80 7.8453 7.9434 8.0415 8.1395 8.2376 8.3357 8.4337 8.5318 8.6299 8.7279
90 8.8260 8.9241 9.0221 9.1202 9.2183 9.3163 9.4144 9.5125 9.6105 9.7086
100 9.8066 9.9047 10.003 10.101 10.199 10.297 10.395 10.493 10.591 10.689

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2
From Mega Pascal to kgf/cm
2
(Rate 1kgf/cm = 0.098 066 5 MPa)

MPa 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

kgf/cm2

- - 1.0197 2.0394 3.0591 4.0789 5.0986 6.1183 7.1380 8.1577 9.1774

1 10.197 11.217 12.237 13.356 14.276 15.296 16.315 17.335 18.355 19.375
2 20.394 21.414 22.134 23.453 24.473 25.493 26.513 27.532 28.552 29.572
3 30.591 31.611 32.631 33.651 34.670 35.690 36.710 37.729 38.749 39.769
4 40.789 41.808 42.828 43.848 44.868 45.887 46.907 47.927 48.946 49.966
5 50.986 52.006 53.025 54.045 55.065 56.084 57.104 58.124 59.144 60.163
6 61.183 62.203 63.222 64.242 65.262 66.2828 67.301 68.321 69.341 70.360
7 71.380 72.400 73.420 74.439 75.459 76.479 77.498 78.518 79.538 80.558
8 81.577 82.597 83.617 84.636 85.656 86.676 87.696 88.715 89.735 90.755
9 91.774 92.794 93.814 94.834 95.853 96.873 97.893 98.912 99.932 100.95
10 101.97 102.99 104.01 105.03 106.05 107.07 108.09 109.11 110.13 111.15

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(APPENDIX )

New Words and Expression

absolute zero n.
absolute adj.
absolutely adv.
access n.
accessory n.
accompany v.
accomplish v.
accumulate v.
accumulation n.
achieve v.
actual adj.
actually adv.
actuate v.
adequate adj.
adjacent adj.
Administration n.
Adoption n.
advantage n.
aeration n.
affect v.
agitation n.
air lock n.
alert adj.
alert n.
alert v.
align v.
alignment n.
analyse v.
ancillary n.
annal adj.
applicable adj.
application n.
appropriate adj.
approximately adv.
arrester n.
asphalt n.
asphalt v.
assembly n.
assign v.
assignment n.
associate adj.
associate n.
associate v.
attach v.
attachment n.
attempt n.
attempt v.
audible adj.
auxiliary adj.
auxiliary n.
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axis n.
baffle n.
baffle v.
barrel n.
bearing n.
bedplate n.
bellows n.
blemish n.
blemish v.
block n.
block v.
boost v.
booster n.
boss n.
bowl n.
bulb n.
bulbous adj.
bundle n.
bundle v.
burst n.
burst v.
by means of
calibrate v.
cap n.
capillary n.
carbonaceous adj.
careful adj.
careless adj.
carrier n.
carry on v.
cartridge n.
cater (for) v.
catering n.
cavitation n.
cavity n.
celsius adj.
centralize v.
centrifuge n.
chamber n.
characteristic adj.
characteristics n.
chock n.
chronic adj.
chronicle v.
circumstance n.
clarifier n.
classification n.
cleanse v.
cleanser n.
coalesce v. í wpfpkvkH; jzpfaponf/
coalescence n.
coalescent adj.
collar n.
collect v.
combination n.
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combustion n.
commensurate with adj.
commercially adv.
comminutor n.
competent adj.
component adj.
component n.
compose v.
composition n.
compress v.
concentrate v.
concentrated adj.
cone n.
confine v.
confined adj.
confines n.
confirm v.
confirmation n.
conform v.
conformity n.
conical adj.
consecutive adj.
considerable adj.
considerably adj.
consideration n.
construction n.
consultation n.
consume v.
consumption n.
contaminate v.
contaminate v.
contrive v.
contrived to encourage
contrived adj.
convention n.
conventional adj.
convert v.
convey v.
conveyor n.
coolant n.
corrosion n.
counter adj.
counter v.
counteract v.
countra n.
couple v.
coupling n.
crash adj.
crash n.
crockery n.
cross n.
cross v.
crossbar n.
crosspiece n.
crystal n.
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current adj.
current n.
currently adv.
cylinder liner n.
cylindrical adj.
damring n.
decision n.
defective adj.
deficiency n.
deformation n.
delay n.
delay v.
density n. ¬Kwpfc\
k odyfonf;jcif;/ wpf,lepfxkxnfwGif&Sdonfh tav;csdeo
f yd fonf;rI/
deposit n.
deposit v.
deposition n.
descend v.
desire n.
desire v.
detect v.
detector n.
detention n.
deteriorate v.
deterioration n.
detract vi.
detritus n.
diagonal n.
diagonally adj.
diaphragm n.
dictate v.
differential gear n.
differential adj.
diffuse v.
diffuser n.
direct adj.
direction n.
disadvantage n.
disassemble v.
disc n.
discipline n.
display v.
dissimilar adj.
distress n.
distress v.
drainage n.
drainpipe n.
drop n.
drop v.
drum n.
drum v.
ductile adj.
duly adv.
durability n.
effect n.
effect v.
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effective adj.
effective adj.
effectively adv.
effectual adj.
efficiency n.
efficient adj.
elastic adj.
elastic n.
elliptical adj.
emanate v.
emphasize v.
enforce v.
engage v.
enhance v.
equalize v.
equipment n.
equipped v.
erosion n.
essential adj.
essentially adv.
esturary n.
excellent adj.
exception n.
exceptional adj.
exchange n.
exclusive of adj.
exclusive adj.
exhaust port n.
exhaust n.
expansion n.
expend v.
expendable adj.
expenditure n.
explosion n.
expose v.
extend v.
extensive adj.
external adj.
extinction n.
extinguish v.
extinguish v.
extreme adj.
facilitate v.
facility n.
faulty adj.
feature n.
feature v.
featureless adj.
feedback n.
feedback v.
filtration n.
flat adj.
flat n.
flexibility n.
flexible adj.
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fluctuate n.
fluctuate v.
fluit n.
flush n.
flush v.
forge n.
forge v.
formation n.
fouling adj.
frame work n.
frame n.
framework n.
fray v.
further adj.
further adv.
fusible adj.
garbage n.
gland n.
gradual adj.
graduation n.
ground v.
guard rail n.
guard v.
hazard n.
hazard v.
hazardous adj.
height n.
hinder adj.
hone v.
honing n.
hopper n.
hull n.
hunt v.
ignites v.
immediate adj.
immediately adv.
imminent adj.
impair v.
impairment n.
impinge v.
implies v.
impose v.
impracticable adj.
improve v.
improvement n.
impure adj.
impurity n.
inboard adj.
incidental adj.
incidental n.
incinerator n. Ø
incorporate v.
inhale v.
initiate v.
initiation n.
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inject v.
injector n.
inlet port n.
inoperable adj.
insert n.
insert v.
insoluble adj.
instruction n.
instrument n.
instrumental adj.
instrumentation n.
integral n.
intend v.
intended adj.
interface n.
interface v.
interfere v.
interference n.
interlock v.
invalid adj.
invariable adj.
invariably adv.
invisibility n.
invisible adj.
involve v.
isolate v. oD;jcm;xm;onf/ cGJxm;onf/
lacquer n.
lacquer v.
legistration n.
lever n.
limitation n.
linear adj.
liner n.
linkage n.
locate v.
longitudinal adj.
loop n.
lubricant n.
lubricate v.
lubrication n.
lubricator n.
magnify v.
magnifying glass n.
malfunction n.
malfunction v.
maneuverability n.
maneuvering n.
manoeuvrability n.
manoeuvrable adj.
manoeuvre v.
manoeuvring n.
material n.
measure v.
mechanism n.
medium n.
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melt (melt) v.
membrane n. §
minor adj.
minority n.
miscellaneous n.
miscible adj.
mode n.
modification n.
modify v.
moisture n.
monitor n.
monitor v.
moral support n.
moral adj.
morals n.
naturally aspirated v.
navigate v.
navigation n.
navigator n.
notification n.
notify v.
observe v.
obstruction n.
occur v.
occurrence n.
operational adj.
operator n.
optimum adj.
outboard engine n.
outboard adj.
overhaul n.
overhaul v.
overlap v.
overnight adj./adv.
override v.
overriding adj.
parameter n.
passage n.
perforate v.
perforation n.
performance n.
periphery n.
permanent adj.
permanently adv.
permissible adj.
persist v.
personnel n.
pilot adj.
pilot v.
pitch n.
pivot n.
pivot v.
plug n.
plugg v.
poppet valve n.
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port n.
possess v.
precision n.
preservative adj.
preservative n.
prevent v.
preventive adj.
prick v.
probe n.
probe v.
proceed v.
proceeding n.
proceeds n.
produced v.
programmer n.
promulgate n.
propeller n.
properly adv.
propulsion n.
protect v.
provide v.
provision n.
provisions n.
prudent adj.
purging n.
purifier n.
purify v.
quarter n.
quilt n.
ram n.
rating n.
reasonable adj.
reasonably adv.
receiver n.
regulate v.
regulator n.
reliability n.
reliability n.
reliable adj.
relief n.
relieve adj.
relieve v.
reluctance n.
reluctant adj.
remedied v.
removal v.
resassemble v.
reservoir n.
residual adj.
residue n.
resolution n.
rest v.
restore v.
restricted adj.
restriction n.
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resultant adj.
retention n.
reversal n.
rigid adj.
rigidity n.
rigidly adv.
rotate v.
rotation n.
routine adj.
routine n.
rudder n.
safeguard n.
safeguard v.
scavenge v.
scour n.
scour v.
scrach n.
seating n.
secure adj.
secure v.
sense v.
sensitive adj.
sensitivity n.
separator n.
sewage n. ’
shaft n.
shielding n.
shock n.
shock v.
shockproof adj.
signal n.
significant adj.
significantly adv.
situate v.
sleeve n.
slight adj.
slot n.
sludge n.
soak v.
soaked adj.
soaking n.
soapy adj.
solid adj.
solid n.
solidify v.
sparing adj.
spin v.
spindle n.
stagger v.
starboard n.
steer v.
steering n.
stem n.
sterilize v.
sterilizer n.
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stock n.
storage n.
straight forward adj.
straighten v.
streak n.
strike v.
stringent adj.
structure n.
stud n.
subject n.
subject v.
subsequent adj.
subsequently adv.
substantial adj.
substantially adv.
success n.
successful adj.
suction n.
supervise v.
supervise v.
supervisor n.
supervisory adj.
surge n.
surge v.
suspension n.
swing v.
swirl v.
swivel n.
swivel v.
symptom n.
technology n.
telegraph n.
telegraph v.
tepid adj.
thrust n.
thrust v.
tiller n.
time n.
timed v.
tip n.
tolerance n.
tolerate v.
tonnage n.
tour n.
transducer n.
transmission n.
transmit v.
transmitter n.
transverse adj.
trap n.
trip n.
trip v.
trunk n.
tubing n.
tubular adj.
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tunnel n.
unattended adj.
unburn fuel adj.
undertake v.
undertaking n.
uniformly adv.
variable adj.
variable n.
verification n.
verify v.
version n.
viscosity n.
visual adj.
visual n.
watch keeping n.
watch n.
watch v.
withstand n.
wrap n.
wrap v.

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VOCABULARY FOR USE WITH ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

A - Abnormal abrasive absolute acceleration accurate acetylene acid act activator add additive adhesive
adjust adjustable advice alarm alignment alkaline allow allowance alloy alternating alternator aluminium
analogue anchor angularity anneal anode anodized anti antimony anulus application approximate aqueous
arbor area arrestor arrow ash assemble atmosphere atomize automatic auxiliary axial
B - Backlash balance ball ballast barrel base battery bearing bed bed-in bedplate bevel bifurcated biological
blade blank bleed blind block blow boiler bolt bonding bore bottom bow bowel box brake brass braze breadth
break breaker brine brittle bronze brush bulge bunker burn burst bush butt button
C - Cable cage calculate calorific cam cancel cap capacity capstan carbon carburation cargo case cast cast-iron
catalyst cathode cell cement centre centrifugal centrifuge centroid chain chamber chamfer characteristic
charge chemical chemistry chest chisel chock chromium circle circlip circuit circulation cladding clamp
clarify classified clean clearance clip closed coating cock code coefficient coil collar collect column
combustion comminutor communicate commutator comparator compartment component composite
composition compound compression compress concave concentrate concentric condenser condition
conduction cone connection construction consumption contain contamination contraction control convection
convention convex cool copper core corner correct corrosion corrugated countersunk coupling cover cradle
cramp crane crank crimp critical crop crosshead crystal cubicle cup current curve cut cylinder
D - Damage damp dangerous datum davits decrease deep defect deflection deformation degree delay delivery
density deposit detail detect deterioration device diagram dial diameter diaphragm die diesel differential
diffuser digital dimension direct disc discharge dished dismantle displacement distance distill distortion divide
domestic door double dowel down drain drawing drier drift drill dry dual dust dwell
E - Earth ease economiser edge effect efficiency effluent electronic emergency enclose energy engine
enlarge entablature epoxy erosion error evaporator excess exchange expansion explosion external extinguish
eye
F - Failure fair false fan fasten fatigue fault feed felt female fibre field file fill fillet film fitter final finish fire
fit flame flank flash flat flow fluid fluted flux follower force fouling foundation frame frequency fresh fretting
friction fuel fume function funnel fuse fusible
G - Galvanic gas gate gauge gauze gear generator girder gland glass globe governor graph graphite gravity
grease grid grind groove growth guard gudgeon guide gun
H - Half hammer hand hard hatch hazard head heat heavy heel height hexagon hidden high hold hole hollow
horizontal hot housing hydraulic hydrocarbon hydrogen hydroxyl
I - Ignition imbalance impurities incinerate incline increase index indicator induce induction inert inertia
initial injector inner insert inside inspect instruction instrument insulate integrator interference interlock
intermediate internal ion iron isolate
J - Jack jacket jaw jet joint journal
K - kerosene key keyway knife
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L - Lagging laminate lamp large lathe lead leak left length level life lifeboat lift light limit line linear lined
liner lip liquid list litmus load locate lock locknut log-book logarithm long longitudinal loss lubricate
M - Machine magnet main maintenance male malfunction manhole manifold manoeuvre manometer
manufacture marine mass material maximum mean measure mechanical medium mercury mesh metal
micrometer microscopic middle mild mill mineral minimum misalignment mist mixture moisture
molybdenum monitor mooring motor mounting movement multiply
N - Nameplate negative neutral nickel nonreturn normal nozzle number nut
O - `O'-ring oblique oil open orifice out outer outside overflow overhaul overlap overload oxide oxygen
P - pack paint pan parallel part passage paste peal peen penetrate pentoxide percentage performance period
peripheral permanent perpendicular petrol petroleum phase pillar pin pintle pipe piston pitch pitting plain plan
plane plastic plate platform plug pneumatic point pole pollution polymer port portable position positive pot
potable power precipitate predict preferential prepare pressure primary prime procedure process profile
projection proof propeller propulsion protect protractor pull pump purge purify push
Q - quantity quart quarter quick
R - race radial radian radiation radius raised rake ram ratchet rate ratio reaction ream reassemble receiver
reciprocating reduction reference refrigerant refrigeration refuse regulator relay relief replace reservoir residue
resin resistance restrict retention reverse revolution revolve right rigid ring rivet rocker rod roll room root
rotate rotor rough round routine rub rule rupture
S - safe salt sample saw scale scavenge schematic scrape screw screwdriver scum sea seal seat secondary
section sector secure separator series serrated service set settle sewage shackle shaft shallow shank shape
sharp shear shell shield shock shoe short should shoulder shroud shut sight silt silver simple single size slide
sling slip slipper sludge small smoke smooth snap socket sodium soft solder solid soluble solution solvent
soot sound source space spanner spare specific speed sphere spill spin spindle spline split spot spring square
stage stand star starboard start starter static stator stay steam steel steer stern stiffen still stop storage straight
strain strap strength stress stroke strong structure stud subtract suction sulphur sump supercharge supply
surface surge suspend swash sweat swirl switchboard symbol symptom synchronize syphon system
T - tab table tank taper technique telemeter temper temperature temporary tensile terminal test thermal
thermistor thick thimble thin thread throat throttle thrust tie tight time tin tip tolerance tool top toxic train
transfer transformer transition transmitter transverse trap treatment triangle trigger trip trolley trough true
trunk tube turbine turbo-chargeturn twin twist
U - ultrasonic unburnt undercut under unit universal uptake
V - vacuum valve vanadium vane vapour vegetable velocity vent vernier vertical vessel vibration viscosity
voltage volume volute
W - wall washer watch water watertight wear wedge weight weld wet wheel whitemetal wide width winch
windlass wing wire work worn wrap
X-
Y-
Z - zero zinc
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