Antenna Basic Concepts ANTENNA ‘An antenna is @ device to transmit and/or receive electromagnetic waves, Electromagnetic waver are offen raferea to as radio waves, Most antennas are resonant devices, which operate efficiently over a relatively narrow frequency ‘band. “An antenna must be tuned (matched) to the same frequency band as the radio system to which tis connected, ‘otherwise reception andor transmission will be impaired, WAVELENGTH We often refer to antenna size relative to wavelength. For example: @ 72 wave dipole is approumately Fall @ ‘wavelength long, Wavelength is the distance a radio wave travels during ane cycle, The formula for wavelength is: Where: isis the wavelength expressed in units of lenath, typically meters, feet or inches Cis the speed of light (1,802,877,050 inches/second) fis the frequency For example: wavelength in air at 825 MHz is 1803 X108 in/sec_ = 14 307 inches * IS B25 x06 cycles/ses, Note: The physical length of a half-wave dipole is slightly less than half a wavelength due to end effect. The speed of propagation in coaxial cable is slower than in air, so the wavelength in the cable is shorter. The velocity of propagation of electromagnetic waves in coax is usually Given as a percentage of free space velocity, and is different for different types of coax. IMPEDANCE MATCHING For efficient transfer of energy, the Impedance of the radio, the antenna and the transmission line connecting the radio to the antenna must be the same, Radios typically ate designed for 50 Ohms impedance, and the coaxial cables (transmission lines) used with them also have SO Ohms impedance. Efficient antenna configurations often have an impedance other than 50 Ohms. Some sort of impedance matching circut is then required to transform the antenna impedance to 50 Ohms. Larsen antennas come with the necessary impedance matching circuitry as part of the ‘antenna. We use low-loss components in our matching circuits to provide the maximum transfer of energy between the transmission line and the antenna, VSWR AND REFLECTED POWER Vortage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) i an Indication of the quailty OF the impedance match, VSWR ls often abbreviated as SWR. A high VSWR is an indication the signal is reflected prior to being radiated by the antenna. VSWR and reflected power are different ways of measuring and expressing the same thing, |A VSWR of 20: oF less is often considered acceptable. Most commercial antennas are specified to be 15:1 or less over some bandwidth. Based on a 100 watt radio, a 15:1 VSWR equates to a forward power of 96 watts and a reflected ower of 4 watts, or the reflected power is 42% of the forward power,BANDWIDTH. Bandwidth can be defined in terms of radiation patterns or VSWR/refiected power. The definition used is based on VSWR. Bandwidth is often expressed in terms of percent bandwidth, because the percent bandwidth is constant relative to frequency. If bandwidth is expressed in absolute units of frequency, for example MHz, the bandwidth is then different depending upon whether the frequencies in question are near 150 MHz, 450 MHz or 825 MHz. Percentage bandwidth is defined as: Fy Fy Fe BW =100 Fis the highest frequency in the band Fis the lowest frequency in the band nt Fe Fe is the center frequency of the band. 2 Example: If you need an antenna to operate in the ISO to 186 MHz band, you need an antenna covering at east @ BESO 5.9% banawiath, 15s 100 = 39% ‘The problem might need to be worked in a different way. if the antenna is tuned to 460 MHz and provides a VSWR: bandwith of 5%, what are F, and F,? The equations above can be solved for Fy and Fy + BWY an Bw Fat Fe (1 300) ad Fe (1-24 Plugging the numbers into the equations, the answers are: Fu 460 (1+ 585 w=460 (1 NB: ‘Antenna gain is measured in either dBi or dBd: It is important to note that antenna gain is different than amplifier gain. Antennas do not have a power source that allows the antenna to create additional energy to boost the signal. An antenna is similar toa reflective lens in principle -it takes the energy available from the source and focuses it over a wider or narrower area. dBi is the amount of focus applied by an antenna with respect to an "Isotropic Radiator” (a dispersion pattern that radiates the energy equally in all directions onto an imaginary sphere surrounding a point source). A reference dipole antenna is defined to have 2.15 dBi of gain. So converting between dBi and dBd is as simple as adding or subtracting 2.15, according to these formulas: Bi = dBd + 2.15 Bd = dBi - 2.15 <4Bd: Gain relative to dipole antenna Bi: Gain relative to Isotropic antennaare beauty of aa i formula, o's 's calculated using the =10 log Power A — Power B might be th transmission li or the peak power Positive number or he powe ine. "B" might be the oon PU terminal of a in the main eke omer 2rtving at the opposite er ron tne ee one end of 9 of the tray sales nsmissi Gain, TFA er alated eneray from an antenes seed t9 the connector on an antenna the in online, the amps et Jen If "A" is larger “8, t wil be or than "tay oan antenna, As age han Seer tive umber Example: ° number or oss Loss = (-) 6.02 da, In the above case, faking the log of 1/4 (0.25) automatically results in a minus sign, which signifies Negative gain or loss, {tis convenient to remember these simple dB values which are handy when approximating gain and loss: Power Gain Power Loss 3. dB = 2x power + 308 = 1/2 power 6 dB = 4X power > 6 dB = 1/4 power 10 dB = 10X power “10 dB = 1/10 power 20 dB =100X power —-20 dB = 1/100 power In the case of antennas, passive structures cannot generate power. dB is used to describe the ability of these structures to focus eneray in a part of space, DIRECTIVITY AND GAIN Directvity isthe abiliy ofan antenna Yo Tocus eneray ine paricular rection when Wansmiing or Toreceve eve ere is a relationship between gain and directivity. We see the better from a particular direction when receiving. Th lationship phenomena of increased directivity when comparing a light bulb to a spotlight. A 100-watt spotlight will provide more light in a particular direction than a 10O-watt light bulb and les light in other directions. We could say the spotight has more “directivity” than the light bulb. The spotight is comparable to an antenna with increased directivity ain is the practical value of the directivity. The relation between gain and directivity includes a new parameter (n} describes the efficiency of the antenna. G=n-D i wil ain of 0 48. For example an antenna with 3 dB of directivity and 50% of efficiency will have a gain ofenna, This is Known GAIN MEASUREMENT — aN ethod of measuring gain To compare aw SaLSTTS GET Ten agaTrak a RrOwN SORE i | measwrique. At lower frequencies it is convenient aoe 2 I/2-mave dipole as the standard. At higher ‘ally expressed in Bl fsa gain trans jain standard with gain tyPicé 352 itis common 0 use 2 calibrated gain Norn 25 ag sat the antenna terminal va formula is used tO fed in dBi of all three ted and received power iis transmissio" in expressé “another method for measuring gains the Santen method. Transmitt AnolMsasured between three arbitrary antennas known fixed distance. The Fi are Top three equations and three unknowns, The “equations are solved to find the gail antennas. pulse-Larsen uses both methods for measurement of 92% ‘The method is selacted based on antenn® {YPS frequency hd customer requirement. 15 dBi Use the following conversion factor fo convert between dBd and dBi: 0 dBd Eiemple: 3.6 dd + 215 dB = 5.75 oBi RADIATION PATTERNS RNS arper he wiatve sveroth ofthe raced Ted 0 Na rections from the antenna ace, since it also describes the receiving Radiation or antenna pi aciayerant distance. The radiation pattern is @ recep pattern’ *S display the three-dimensional at Sperties of the antenna, The radiation patter three-dimensional, but itis difficult ere ption pattern in a meaningful manner. Its aso tree suming to measure a three-dimensional ee" o pattern eseteadiation patterns measured are a slice of {he three-dimensional patter, resulting In 2 ‘two-dimensional radiation Ofttern which can be displayed easily on 2 sereen or ec ‘of paper, These pattern measurements are presented in Either a rectangular of a polar format. ANTENNA PATTERN TYPES. Omnidirectional Antennas loded has an omnidirectional radiation ‘al directions. The gain of an jane. The net effect applications the type of antenna ne wireceive equally welt in all horizon lath in the vertical or elevation Pl Jome base station 1s radiate an’ vesed by narrowing the beamwi yd the horizon. or mobile portable ans For mee iectional ante a patter coal antenna can Be ine ices gre ontenn’s oeray 2 wectng te in anter a ote apecaion shea fA lg investigation. Gains achieved sleigh rh ater 2 a nano ete one ans hc aio te srt cpere beam ee gah rune AOE eee loco ean types of train rare sn tn Seay ner n te wera es tes located Fo Re eee sein hone ies geiangs, A 3 Be gon antenna 2 INET crash al bulcinas, 398 gpa gm antenna radiates mee Soe ee AHN the horizon compared to the O and 3 d8d antenn3® This allows the signal to reach 4 the horizon compared 0 8 part ng less obstructed, Therefore they a0 Fa art pas islands and open 97 E25 x Directional Antennas Directional antennas focus energy in a particular direct/on. Directional antennas are Directing ar pase station applications where coverage Over @ SE, by separate oie soe pared, Point-to-point links also Benefit from directional antennas. Yagi and panel antennas are directional antennas,NEAR-FIELD AND FAR-FIELD PATTERNS. The radiation pattern in the region close to the antenna is not exactly the same as the pattern at large distances. The term “near-field” refers to the field pattern existing close to the antenna. The term “far-field” refers to the field pattern at large distances. The far-field is also called the radiation field, and is what is most commonly of interest. The near- field is called the induction field (although it also has a radiation component), Ordinarily, itis the radiated power that is of interest so antenna patterns are usually measured in the far-field region For pattern measurement, It is important to choose a distance sufficiently large to be in the far-field, well out of the Heartfield, The minimum permissible distance depends on the dimensions of the antenna in relation to the wavelength. The accepted formula for this distance is: Tn = 20% a Where: Tray is the minimum distance from the antenna Dis the largest dimension of the antenna 2 is the wavelengtheT SRE ATI TTT a wT WE, HSS rv : initial polarization of 2 radio wave is wave pases on ANTENNA POLARIZATION Polarization i defined as the orien belles Fa tical polerization are linear polarization and cine poe ion. ca ined by th antenna launching the waves into space. The Bavironment through which the radi crevvay trom the transmit antenna {0 the receiving antenna may cause 2 ‘change in polarization. i r uth linear polarization the electric fold vector stays inthe same plane, {nt circular polarization the electric A] a wears to be rotating with circular motion about the direction of propagation, ‘making one full turn for ea‘ the rotation may be right-hand or left-hand. mn of the design choices available to the RF system designer. For example, low recs Crist vertically polarized radio waves propagate much more successfully neay the arth than horizontally polarized eae ee vecaune horizontally polarized waves wil be cancelled out by reflections from te earth. Mobile radio ‘istem waves generally ae vertically polarized. TV broadcasting has adopted horizontal polarization as a standard. Ser ey as made Yo maximize signal-to-noise ratios. At frequencies above 1 GHz, there is he basis for a choice a crestor vertical polarization, although in specific applications there may be some possible ‘advantage in one or ich as GPS. Circular orether Circular polarization has also been found to be of advantage in satellite applications su polarization can also be used to reduce multipath. Choice of polarization is o DETERMINING WHIP LENGTH in general, whip length is defined as @ to achieve. Theoretically, a whip provides an om’ the elevation plane. When you increase the whip length by a fraction of a wavelengt increase the gain of the structure by reducing the aperture in the elevation plane. Fadlion of the wavelength and depends on the electrical characteristics you want ridirectional pattern in the horizontal plane and a dipolar pattern in h (commonly /14 wavelength), you DETERMINING GROUND PLANE SIZE Caer ca eyhes cfantennas the theoretical anal s based on the use ofan infinite ground plane, In practice, this Condition is never achieved. Common effects of reduction of the size of the ground plane are: e Electrical tlt; The maximum energy is not radiated in the expected direction. 1 Beomwidth Increased: The aperture of the radiating element is modified, and the gain of the antenna is decreased, tn conclusion, we could say the bigger the ground plane, the better the control ofthe electrical performance of the antenna. BASIC ANTENNA TYPES “The following discussion of antenna types assumes an “adequate” ground plane is present. 1/4 Wave {A single radiating element approximately 1/4 wavelength long. Directivity 2.2 dBi, 0 d8d Loaded 1/4 Wave ‘The loaded 1/4 wave antenna looks electrically like a 1/4 wave antenna but the loading allows the antenna to be physically smaller than a 1/4 wave antenna. Guite often this is implemented by placing a loading coil at the base of the antenna. Gain depends upon the amount of loading used. Directivity 22 dBi, 0 dBd. 119 Wave A single radiating element 1/2 wavelength long. Directivity 3.8 dBi, 16 dBd. A special design is the end fed 1/2 wave. 5/8 Wave A single radiating element 5/8 wavelength long. Directivity 5.2 dBi, 3.0 dBd.Collinear 2) $/8 over V4: The top element is 5 Wave and the bottom elem ‘A wave. Directivity 5.4 0B, 32 abd, P element is 5/8 Meese fave and the bottom el ; is ent is 1/4 irectivity > 5/8 ove /2: The Va eeent s 8/8 wave and the bottom s/o an Directivity 5.6 di, 3.4 Bd, x SB ov {8 over V/A: The top 2 elements are 4 swe ‘© wave and the bottom element is 1/4 wore, Directivity nts are 5/8 wave and the bottom element i 1/2 wave Directivity Whip ‘The vertical portion of the antenna assembly acting as the radiator of the radio frequency Gps Active GPS antennas include an amplifier circuit in order to provide better reception ofthe satelite signal. This active stage generally includes a low noise amplifier and a power amplifier Combi GPS/Cellular structures include several antennas in one radome to allow reception and transmission in cifferent. frequency bands. Dipole ‘An antenna - usually 1/2 wavelength long - split at the exact center for connection to a feed line. Dipoles are the most common wire antenna. Length is equal to 1/2 of the wavelength for the frequency of operation. Fed by coaxial cable Sleeve Dipoles are realized by the addition of a metallic tube on a coaxial structure, Printed Dipoles have a radiation structure supported by a printed circuit. Embedded Omni a base for applications such as access pints This structure beled em antennas are general iterated ona bas for app < ould be externally mounted (ox: Seve col) or dct itegraved onthe BC bora the sytem (oe pre dipole). Yagi A directional, gain antenna utilizing one or more parasitic elements. A yagi consists of a boom supporting a series of elements which are typically aluminum rods.Panel Single Patch describes an elementary soure obtined b sto obtained by means of a metalic stip printed ona microwaves These antennas are included nthe radting set cota cane : Patch Arrays are a combination of several element: ¥ vera elementary patches. By adjusting the phase and magnitude ofthe comer Provided to each element, numerous forms of beamwidth (electric tilt, sectoral, directional . . .) can be obtained. Sectoral antennas canbe depicted ke generally defined fortis king of @ directive antenna with 2 beamwidth greater than 45". A148 beamwidth is ‘adiating structure, Omni Ceiling Mount Omni ceiling mount antennas are used for the propagation of data in an in-building environment In order to provide 000 coverage, these antennas are vertically polarized and present an omnidirectional pattern in the rorizontal plane and a dipolar pattern in the vertical plane. Parabolic ‘An antenna consisting of a parabolic reflector and a radiating or receiving element at or near its focus. Solid Parabolics utlize a dish-lke reflector to focus radio energy of a specific range of frequencies on a tuned element. Grid Paraboics employ an open-frame grid as a reflector, rather than a solid one, The gfid spacing is sufficiently small to ensure waves of the desired frequency cannot pass through, and are hence reflected back toward the driven element. PULSE-LARSEN ANTENNA TYPES Mobiee: Collinear, Whip, Low Profle, Active GPS, Combi GPS/Celllar Portable: Whip, Helical, End Fed Half Wave, Sleeve, Half Wave Dipole, Embedded Omni, Printed Dipole Base Station: Whip, Collinear, Yagi, Panel, In-building Sectoral, Omni-celing Mount MOBILE ANTENNA PLACEMENT. Torrect antenna placement is critical to the performance ofan antenna An antenna mounted on the roof of 8 car will function better than the same antenna installed on the hood or trunk. Knowledge of the vehicle may also be an important factor in determining what type of antenna to use. Do not install a glass mount antenna on the rear window of a vehicle in which metal has been used to reduce ultraviolet light. The metal tinting will work as a shield and not allow signals to pass through the glass.